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Lack of evidence for microplastic contamination in honey
Abstract
Honey samples from Switzerland were investigated with regard to their microplastic particle burden. Five representative honey samples of different origin were processed following a standardized protocol to separate plastic-based microparticles from particles of natural origin, such as pollen, propolis, wax, and bee-related debris. The procedure was optimized to minimize post-sampling microplastic cross-contamination in the laboratory. The isolated microplastic particles were characterized and grouped by means of light microscopy as well as chemically characterized by microscopically coupled Raman and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Five particle classes with an abundance significantly above blank levels were identified: black particles (particle count between 1760/kg and 8680/kg), white transparent fibres (particle count between 132/kg and 728/kg), white transparent particles (particle count between 60/kg and 172/kg), coloured fibres (particle count between 32/kg and 108/kg), and coloured particles (particle count between 8/kg and 64/kg). The black particles, which represented the majority of particles, were identified as char or soot and most probably originated from the use of smokers, a widespread practice in beekeeping. The majority of fibres were identified as cellulose or polyethylene terephthalate and were most likely of textile origin. In addition to these particle and fibre groups lower numbers of fragments were detected that were related to glass, polysaccharides or chitin, and few bluish particles contained copper phthalocyanine pigment. We found no indications that the honey samples were significantly contaminated with microplastic particles.
... Exposure of honey bees to MPs can lead to contamination of honey bee products, which has negative implications for food safety (Edo et al., 2021;Mühlschlegel et al., 2017). Therefore, many institutions and researchers have called for investigations of MP pollution in foods, monitoring dietary MP intake and evaluating the potential health risks of MPs on human health (Kadac-Czapska et al., 2023;Prata & Dias-Pereira, 2023;WHO, 2022). ...
... Pollinators, such as honey bees, travel long distances when foraging and interacting with contaminated plants, air, soil and water bodies, thus directly exposing themselves to MPs (Diaz-Basantes et al., 2020;Mühlschlegel et al., 2017). Honey bees are susceptible to MP contamination through both inhalation and ingestion, leading to accumulation in their respiratory and digestive systems (Rodrigues et al., 2024). ...
... Given its high adhesive power, honey is easily able to absorb fibres, dust and other environmental pollutants. Therefore, honey can be considered a good indicator of the level of environmental pollution in a region (Mühlschlegel et al., 2017). In fact, agricultural chemicals such as synthetic pesticides, along with MPs, pose significant threats to the health of pollinating honey bees. ...
Microplastics (MPs), as an environmental contaminant, pose a significant risk to both animal and human health through the food and water supply chains. Honey, widely recognised as a safe and health‐oriented food product, may become compromised if its production process involves non‐biodegradable MPs.
This study was conducted as a systematic review, using comprehensive searches of PubMed, Scopus and ScienceDirect to investigate the effects of MP on honey bee and human health, and the potential route and main species and composition of MP contamination in honey.
This review highlights the impacts of MPs on honey bee health, including mortality, sucrose response, sucrose habituation, olfactory learning, memory recall, colony performance, body size and growth, gut microbiota and viral infection. From a mechanistic perspective, MPs can disrupt the equilibrium of the gut microbiota, adversely impact the function of the immune system, and undermine neural signalling pathways that are critical for learning and memory processes in honey bees.
It is crucial to consider the applied aspects of these findings in beekeeping practices, including adopting sustainable practices to mitigate exposure to MPs and minimize contamination in honey production. The study also provided detailed information on honey bee contact routes with MPs, the environment (air, water, soil, pollen), and routes of exposure to MPs in beekeeping practices (plastic composition of the hive and beekeeping activities).
MPs can adversely affect human health by altering energy homeostasis, causing oxidative stress, immune system deficiencies, malnutrition, reduced growth and decreased reproductive rates.
Synthesis and applications. The findings of this study are highly relevant to both the beekeeping industry and public health policymakers. By identifying key contamination routes and the detrimental effects of microplastics (MPs) on honey bee health and honey quality, this research provides actionable insights for beekeepers to adopt sustainable hive management practices that minimise MP exposure. Additionally, the study underscores the need for regulatory policies to control MP pollution, ensuring the safety of honey as a food product and protecting both pollinators and human health.
... In some cases, the product itself contains MPs due to exposure to degraded plastics from the environment (such as water sources polluted with plastic waste). MPs have been found in various foods such as table salt, canned fish, honey, and beer (Akhbarizadeh et al., 2020;Diaz-Basantes et al., 2020Iniguez et al., 2017;Karami et al., 2017Karami et al., , 2018Kosuth et al., 2018;Lachenmeier & Kuballa, 2015;Liebezeit & Liebezeit, 2013Muhlschlegel et al., 2017;Yang et al., 2015). In addition, MPs might be released from the packaging material and subsequently contaminate foods and beverages. ...
... A light microscope was used to identify MPs, but no spectrometric analysis was used for confirmation in these studies. Using the same sample preparation technique as Liebezeit and Liebezeit (2013), Muhlschlegel et al. (2017) reported that only one fiber was recognized as PET using μ-FTIR. As a result of the study, there were no significant indications that the analyzed honey samples were contaminated with MPs. ...
... As a result of the study, there were no significant indications that the analyzed honey samples were contaminated with MPs. Muhlschlegel et al. (2017) discussed there is a lack of evidence of MP contamination in honey because a spectroscopic analysis was not performed and the preference for an indirect method in the previous studies. More recently, Diaz-Basantes et al. ...
The widespread occurrence of microplastics (MPs) in the food chain has gained substantial recognition as a pressing concern, highlighting the inevitability of human exposure through ingestion of foodborne MPs, coupled with the release of MPs from plastic packaging. However, there are notable disparities in the reported numbers of MPs in foods and beverages, warranting a thorough investigation into the factors contributing to these discrepancies. Table salt is one of the major sources of MPs, and there was an approximately hundred‐fold difference between the reviewed studies that reported the highest and lowest number of MPs. In addition, more noticeable discrepancies were discovered between studies on MPs released from teabags. One study reported that approximately 15 billion MPs were released into a cup of tea from a single teabag, whereas another research paper found only approximately 106.3 ± 14.6 MP/teabag after brewing. This comprehensive review focuses on the inconsistencies observed across studies examining MPs, shedding light on the plausible factors underlying these variations. Furthermore, the review outlines areas in analytical procedures that require enhancement and offers recommendations to promote accuracy and standardization in future research efforts, such as employing analytical methods capable of confirming the presence of MPs, using appropriate filter sizes, considering representative sample sizes when extrapolation is involved, and so on. By pinpointing the detection processes leading to the inconsistent results observed in MP studies, this comparative analysis will contribute to the development of reliable analytic methods for understanding the extent of microplastic contamination in the human food chain.
... During the production process, food is contaminated by microplastics which are flacked from the overalls and textiles of workers, spare parts of the machinery, or atmospheric microplastics (Liebezeit and Liebezeit, 2013). Airborne microplastics and microplastics from the textile materials of beekeepers were identified as the main pathways of microplastic contamination in bee honey (Liebezeit and Liebezeit, 2015;Mühlschlegel et al., 2017). Besides, insects can pollute food and beverages when airborne microplastics are attached to their body. ...
... There are limited number of studies reported the existence of microplastics in food and beverages though 1740 of studies were reported the co-occurrence of terms microplastics and food or beverage as reported earlier. As well the presence of microplastics in food items such as honey, salt, and sugar has been found during the last decades (Mühlschlegel et al., 2017;Yaranal et al., 2021). Though the contamination of microplastics in beverages has been extensively studied, the presence of microplastics in common food items except for fish or fish-related food, sugar, salt, and honey has not been explored yet. ...
... Fewer microplastic contamination in honey and sugar was also discovered in several studies recently (Al Naggar et al., 2021). A large count of micro PET fiber (32-108) and other types of shapes (8-728) were obtained in honey in Switzerland (Mühlschlegel et al., 2017). Contamination of different kinds of honey products may differ from each other due to the level of microplastics in each environment. ...
Microplastics has become a global concern due to their ubiquitous presence which poses unavoidable human exposure risks. Geographical distribution and yearly trends of research on microplastics, food, and beverages do not exist. Thus, no overall account is available regarding the presence of microplastics and plastics-associated contaminants in food and beverages. Hence, this attempt is to review the geographical distribution of studies through a brief bibliometric analysis and the plastics-associated contaminants including plasticizers and microplastics in food and beverages. Estimated microplastic consumption has been listed for the pool of publications reviewed here. Further, this review discusses the ingestion potency of micropollutants associated with microplastics, possible health impacts, and existing challenges. Global trend in research exponentially increased after 2018 and China is leading. Studies on microplastics were limited to a few beverages and food; milk, beer, tea, refreshing drinks, salt, sugar, honey, etc., whereas seafood and drinking water have been extensively studied. Publications on plastic-additives were reported in two ways; migration of plastic-additives from packaging by leaching and the presence of plastic-additives in food and beverages. Bisphenol A and Bis(2-Ethylhexyl) phthalate were the most frequently reported both in food and beverages. Exposure of packaging material to high temperatures predominantly involves plastic-additive contamination in food and beverages. Microplastic-bound micropollutants can also be ingested through food and beverages; however, a lack of knowledge exists. The complex matrix of food or beverages and the absence of standard procedures for analysis of microplastics and micropollutants exist as challenges. More investigations on the presence of microplastics and plastic-additives in food and beverage are urgent needs to a better assessment of potential human exposure and human health risk.
... If that is the case, MP may represent an added risk to honeybees that can ultimately affect honey quality and production, which enables further research on the subject. Mühlschlegel et al. (2017) found a low level of contamination in commercial honey samples with MP which they attributed to textile fibers from beekeepers' clothes, downplaying the role of environmental MP pollution as a contaminant in honey. However, more recent literature demonstrating that air (Beaurepaire et al., 2021) and water (WHO, 2019) are contaminated with MP and MF, suggests that it is possible that honeybees incorporate the MP from the environment into the hive although no studies have evaluated this yet. ...
... These results support previous findings demonstrating that bees incorporate MP present in the environment through the cuticle (Edo et al., 2021) as well as by ingestion (Buteler et al., 2022). Other authors stated that the source of MP contamination in commercial honey is from clothes and gear from beekeepers (Mühlschlegel et al., 2017). However, our results support the Fig. 1. ...
Microplastics (MP) are ubiquitous in the environment, and there is little information available on their impact on terrestrial organisms. Their effect on insects and particularly on honeybees is relevant, given the prevalence of these organisms in the environment and the fact that they provide key ecosystem services. We conducted a field study to assess (1) the fate of these ingested MP within the hive, and (2) MP effect on Apis mellifera population growth during chronic exposure. We aimed to determine if MP ingested by honeybees are incorporated into hive matrices, including honey, and their effect on colony development and honey reserves. We fed beehives with sucrose solutions treated or untreated with 50 mg of Polyester microfibers/L for one month. Microplastic fibers (MF) from treated syrup were incorporated by adult worker bees, remaining in their cuticle, digestive tract, larvae, honey, and wax. Most of the MF were accumulated in wax showing that honey remains as a safe food. At the end of the experiment, no differences in honey reserves or bee population were observed. This is the first study to evaluate in the field the effects and dynamics of MP inside honeybee hives. Our results showed that bees can incorporate MP from the environment and deliver them into the different matrices of the hive. Concentration of MF found in honey of treated hives was like that found in commercial honey suggesting that honeybees might be exposed to similar MP contamination levels in the environment compared to our experiment. Finally, our results highlight a way in which MP might enter the food chain, with direct implication for human health.
... Similarities were identified regarding the origin of the samples and differences regarding the compounds, phthalates, or bisphenol. Mühlschlegel et al. (2017) analyzed five honey samples, from different locations in Switzerland, for the presence of microplastics, following a standardized protocol similar to that described by Liebezeit and Liebezeit (2015), in order to separate the plastic microparticles from the particles of natural origin, such as pollen, propolis, and wax. After the analyses, it was identified that most of the fibers found were cellulose or polyethylene terephthalate, possibly of textile origin. ...
Microplastic contamination is no longer confined exclusively to aquatic environments and their organisms. Over the past 20 years, microplastics have increasingly been recognized as a source of contamination in terrestrial ecosystems and the organisms that inhabit them. Some studies have reported that these contaminants can alter the intestinal microbiota of bees, which may also harm their immune system and, consequently, directly impact the health of these animals. These consequences can impair bees' ability to effectively carry out their foraging activities, potentially leading to the decline of the hive and negatively impacting the ecosystem services they provide through pollination. However, research linking microplastics to bees is still in its early stages. Therefore, this work conducted a systematic review, applying selection and exclusion criteria to studies published between 2000 and 2024 that mentioned bees or bee products in relation to microplastics. These publications were extracted from electronic databases (Google Scholar, Scielo, Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science). With the keywords used, 920 works were found, of which 33 met the pre-established review criteria, produced between 2013 and 2024, most of them from Italy (six studies) and China (five studies). Among the 33 studies selected, twelve are bibliographic reviews, indicating the need for further primary studies related to the subject, since bees provide vital ecosystem services through pollination.
... 38-58). A study on honey harvested in Switzerland revealed that the presence of microplastics is mainly linked to beekeeping practices and environmental contamination [5]. Similarly, another study found microplastics in edible root vegetables, released through the degradation of plastic waste, including traces of polystyrene and PVC [6]. ...
... It is widely recognized that food items are the main source of microplastics that humans consume. Presently, a significant proportion of essential foods including table salt (Peixoto et al., 2019), bottled drinking water (Koelmans et al., 2019), fruits/vegetables (Mühlschlegel et al., 2017) and canned fish (Karami et al., 2018), are contaminated with microplastics. Here is a summary of the main effects of microplastics in various experimental models, including cells, organoids, and animals (Fig. 6a). ...
... MNPs achieve this by adeptly taking these toxic substances through various physical and chemical processes (Yu, Mo, and Luukkonen 2021;Fu et al. 2021). MNPs have been detected in various food items such as milk (Kutralam-Muniasamy et al. 2020), seaweed (Li et al. 2020), beer (Kosuth, Mason, and Wattenberg 2018;Liebezeit and Liebezeit 2014), sugar (Liebezeit and Liebezeit 2013), and honey (Liebezeit and Liebezeit 2015;Mühlschlegel et al. 2017). MNPs have also been detected in seafood (Rochman et al. 2015;Park et al. 2020;Li et al. 2019), table salt (Kosuth, Mason, and Wattenberg 2018;Kim et al. 2018;Karami et al. 2017), and plastic-packaged drinking water (Thamaraiselvan et al. 2018;Kosuth, Mason, and Wattenberg 2018;Mason, Welch, and Neratko 2018). ...
Microplastics and nanoplastics (MNPs) are byproducts of plastics created to benefit humanity, but improper disposal and inadequate recycling have turned them into a global menace that we can no longer conceal. As they interact with all living organisms, including humans, their mechanism of interaction and their perilous impact must be meticulously investigated. To uncover the secrets of MNPs, there must be model systems that exist to interlink the two major scenarios: they must represent the environmental impact and be relevant to humans. Therefore, zebrafish and Drosophila are perfect to describe these two cases, as they are well studied and relatable to humans. In this review, 39% zebrafish studies reported higher mortality and hatching rates at greater MNP concentrations, severe oxidative stress as seen by raised malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, and reduced superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity. About 50% of studies showed severe neurotoxic behavior with drop of locomotor activity, suggesting neurotoxicity. MNPs have a significant impact on fertility rate of Drosophila . More than half of the studies revealed genotoxicity in Drosophila as observed by wing spot assays and modified genomic expressions associated with stress and detoxification processes. These findings emphasize the potential of MNPs to bioaccumulate, impair physiological systems, and cause oxidative and neurobehavioral damage. This study underscores the importance for thorough risk evaluations of MNPs and their environmental and health consequences.
... Son zamanlarda yapılan çalışmalar mikroplastik ve nanoplastik varlığının çevrede önemli bir düzeye ulaşmasının gıdalara da kontaminasyonuna sebep olduguna dikkat çekmektedir. Çalışmalarda poşet çay (46), bira (47), kabuklu deniz ürünleri (48), kanatlı eti (49), şişelenmiş su (50), sofra tuzu (51), şeker, bal (52,53) gibi çeşitli gıdalarda da mikroplastik varlığı rapor edilmiştir. Gıdalarda mikroplastik kontaminasyonu ile ilgili yapılan bazı çalışmalar Tablo 1' de gösterilmektedir. ...
Son yıllarda gıda ambalajlamada petrol bazlı plastik kullanımının ham madde kaynağının bulunabilirliği, düşük maliyet, iyi yalıtım, zayıf elektrik/ısı iletkenlik ve korozyon direnci, hafiflik, yüksek mukavemet ve çok yönlü üretilebilirlik gibi çeşitli faktörler nedeniyle arttığı görülmektedir. 2022 yılında toplam plastik üretimi 400.3 milyon metrik ton olarak gerçekleşirken, plastik atık üretimi 300 milyon metrik ton seviyesine ulaşmıştır ve plastik atıkların sadece %14'ünün geri dönüştürüldüğü rapor edilmiştir. Bu üretim verilerinin arasında gıda ambalajları fosil yakıtlardan elde edilen plastiklerin %50'sini oluşturmaktadır. Plastik ambalajlar gıda endüstrisinde uzun süredir kullanılmasına rağmen kararlılıkları, dayanıklılıkları ve biyobozunur olmamaları sebebiyle çevreye zarar vermektedir. Plastik üretiminde genellikle ham madde olarak ham petrol, gaz ve kömür gibi fosil yakıtlar kullanılmaktadır. Fosil yakıtlar, çevre kirliliği ve toksik sera gazlarının (metan ve etilen) başlıca kaynaklarıdır. Günümüzde plastik üretiminden kaynaklanan bu yakıtların dünya genelinde yüksek bir oranda tüketilmesi, ciddi olumsuz sonuçlar doğurmaktadır. İklim ve mevsim düzenindeki değişiklikler, buzulların geri çekilmesi ve yükselen deniz seviyeleri dahil olmak üzere olumsuz sonuçlar meydana getirmektedir. Ayrıca parçalara ayrıldıklarında mikroplastiklere ve nanoplastiklere dönüşmekte, bunlar da nihayetinde besin zincirine girerek, insanlar ve çevredeki diğer canlılar için sağlık sorunları oluşturmaktadır. Mikroplastikler ve nanoplastikler, plastik kaynaklı kirleticiler arasında son yıllarda en fazla dikkati çeken konu olmuştur. Mikro ve nanoplastik formlarındaki plastikler, boyutlarının çok küçük olması (mikroplastik (
... The flowers of various terrestrial plants have been found to be contaminated with MPs, potentially affecting their fertilization [121]. Nano-sized MPs may reach the ovary through flower styles, interfering with pollination, as their size can mimic pollen grains [122,123]. Overall, interactions between MPs and plants have significant implications for plant growth, development, and ecosystem functioning [99,100] (Table 3). ...
In the last century, human activities were the primary cause of air, water, and soil contamination. However, in the twenty-first century, while pollutants like sulfur oxides (SOx) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) remain significant, microplastics (MPs) have emerged as a new global environmental concern. Microplastics are plastic fragments that are less than 5 mm in diameter. Their widespread distribution in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems has adverse impacts on various ecological systems. The presence of MPs has been well documented in diverse matrices, such as table salt, drinking water, indoor and outdoor air, beer, cold drinks, aquatic organisms, plants, and earthworms. The potential adverse effects of MPs consumption have been reported in various organisms, including earthworms and aquatic fishes; however, their potential effects on human health through respiratory, dietary, and other exposures are still being elucidated. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the current knowledge on potential sources, quantities present in water, table salt, air, and possible routes in the human body through different trophic levels. Furthermore, this paper reviews insights into the movement and accumulation of MPs at different trophic levels (i.e., aquatic, and terrestrial organisms) and their impacts on the cycling of soil carbon and nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus). Additionally, this review paper addresses the current trends in MPs research and proposes strategic management techniques to mitigate MPs pollution.
... The lack of comprehensive studies has resulted in inconsistent ndings. For instance, Mühlschlegel et al. 77 detected microplastics in honey; nevertheless, they asserted that the outcomes did not offer substantial evidence of contamination. In contrast, Liebezeit and Liebezeit 36,37 highlighted a contrasting perspective, considering the number of particles found to be signicant. ...
The presence of microplastics in honey samples from a native Brazilian bee varied from 0.1 to 2.6 particles per mL across urban and vegetated areas.
... Different chemical compounds have been detected in honey samples [9], such as styrene, phthalates, and bisphenol A [10]. Also, the detection of MPs in honey samples has been achieved with filtration methods, and identified with Raman and FTIR spectroscopy [11,12]. The extraction of MPs from honey has not been studied thoroughly because the detection, isolation, and origin determination of MPs in honey samples is challenging for researchers, due to honey composition [13]. ...
Honey, renowned for its nutritional and therapeutic properties, has recently come under scrutiny due to its contamination by microplastics, in multiple ways. Bees’ exposure to plastic pollution impacts the whole hive’s ecosystem, and plastic tends to accumulate in hive products. Plastic packaging as polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is used to store honey in small flexible packages, which also increases the risk of microplastic migration. This study aims to establish three practical detection methods for PET microplastics and nanoplastics in honey, using readily available laboratory equipment without the need for chemical digestion or costly pretreatment protocols, in a laboratory-based simulation. The first method utilizes Raman micro-spectroscopy, offering high-resolution identification of PET microplastics on cellulose acetate filters with Raman mapping, eliminating the need for organic solvents or dyes. The second method employs optical microscopic observation under fluorescence with the aid of 4-dimethylamino-4′-nitrostilbene dye and ultraviolet radiation to enhance microplastic visibility, making it suitable for laboratories with standard optical microscopes. To isolate MPs from the solid honey particles, a density separator has been introduced using pentane. Lastly, the third method employs the use of electrospray ionization mass spectrometry for the detection of nanoplastics (<200 nm) in honey samples, through the examination of the different extraction phases of density separation. All the aforementioned methods contribute to efficient microplastic detection in honey, ensuring its quality and safe consumption.
... One liter of warm milk samples can be filtered in a dried precleaned glass vacuum system [25]. Liquid honey has been diluted in warm water and passed through a steel sieve [7,26,27]. For the sampling of solid matrices in food, defining the sample size is essential to obtain representative samples since they may not be homogeneous. ...
Microplastic contamination is a relevant topic in Food and Environmental Sciences. Microplastic analyses in matrices such as food, soil, sediment, water, and air require a specific method approach according to their respective aims and scope. This chapter presents a comprehensive discussion about standard practices currently applied to ensure representative sampling, adequate sample preparation, and unequivocal identification and characterization of microplastic particles.
... The presence of MPs has been detected in a diverse range of humanmade and consumable products, including salt (Karami et al., 2017;Kosuth et al., 2018;Sathish et al., 2020), drinking water, beverages (Kosuth et al., 2018;Shruti et al., 2020;Kutralam-Muniasamy et al., 2020), honey (Mühlschlegel et al., 2017), sugar (Liebezeit and Liebezeit, 2013;Afrin et al., 2022), fruits, vegetables (Conti et al., 2020), and food packaging materials such as plastic tea bags (Hernandez et al., 2019), drinking bottles (Kosuth et al., 2018), plastic containers (Du et al., 2020), canned goods (Karami et al., 2018), and chicken flesh (Huang et al., 2020). Serious health consequences are associated with MPs in consumer items, including fat accumulation, inflammation, metabolic homeostasis disruption, oxidative stress (Yee et al., 2021;Cheng et al., 2023;, and much more. ...
... However, since MP have capacity to be transported through various mechanisms such as wind advection, stormwater runoff, drainage systems and wastewater, they also pose a potential risk of ingestion by terrestrial fauna (Rillig and Lehmann, 2020). A number of studies demonstrated the presence of MP in food, such as sugar cane, honey, packaged food and beverages (Mühlschlegel et al., 2017;Liebezeit and Liebezeit, 2013;Oliveri Conti et al., 2020;Karami et al., 2018). ...
... According to estimations of caloric intake, the range of annual microplastic consumption per individual ranges between 39,000 and 52,000 particles [17]. Few studies have estimated the amount of human microplastic consumption quantitatively in various foodstuffs like sea salt [18] seafood (fish, mussels, shrimp, crab, and oysters) [19,20] beer [21] honey [22] milk [23], sugar [24] teabags [25] seaweed [26], canned and packaged food [27] etc., in various countries and these reported data were compared with the annual consumption of microplastic contained food in India (Table 1). ...
... In this regard, literature indicated that bees are most extinction-prone due to rapid functional loss (Larsen et al., 2005). Recently, studies in literature observed microplastics both in flowers and honey (Liebezeit and Liebezeit, 2013;Liebezeit and Liebezeit, 2015;Mühlschlegel et al., 2017;Al Naggar et al., 2021). In this regard, bees might carry microplastics when pollinating flowers, and so transfer MP from flowers to honey (Liebezeit and Liebezeit, 2015). ...
Since plastics are a global growing concern that persists in nature, they threaten ecosystem conservation and human health. Particularly, pollination is one of the most important ecological services being pivotal to the ecosystem's long-term functioning and human welfare. However, pollination is threatened by pesticides, urbanisation, habitat loss, and contaminants. As interactions between plastics and biota or ecosystem service remain neglected, the major challenge would be to research it. Our achievement was a first attempt to assess the effects of macroplastics on riparian vegetation and the ecosystem service of pollination. Here, (i) while investigating macroplastics entrapped by riparian vegetation, (ii) we propose the new field observation of the flower's coverage by macroplastics. Then, (iii) we indirectly assessed the possible interaction between macroplastic litter and the ecosystem service of pollination. Finally, (iv) we performed a meta-analysis search to understand better how many studies were carried out on this topic. To achieve our aim, surveys of riverine macroplastic litter entrapped in riparian vegetation were carried out in the urban tract of the Aniene River. To assess if pollination was possibly reduced by macroplastics covering flowers, we observed the visitation of pollinators on flowers. Overall, we observed that flowers of riparian vegetation were covered by macroplastics, preventing them from being pollinated by insects, and pollination success (i.e., successful pollination) was potentially reduced to 81.4% by a factor of 18.6%. Our research highlights that macroplastics on vegetation indicate a new stress to plant reproduction, reducing blooming (i.e., flowering or flower production) and pollination. These recent observations urge new studies to evaluate how macroplastic litter accumulates and might affect ecosystem services in long-term research. Our findings could be of particular concern as pollination in agricultural crops and riverine habitats is central to human welfare as an ecosystem service. Considering that most global food crops depend on pollination by insects, crops and fruits (e.g., coffee, cocoa, apples) would not be present without the essential ecosystem service of pollination. Our findings highlight for the first time a new threat (i.e., macroplastic litter) to the blooming with possible implications for the pollination process.
... However, pesticides, antibiotics, or heavy metals can also be found in honey (Liebezeit & Liebezeit, 2013). However, studies investigating the presence of microplastics in honey (Liebezeit & Liebezeit, 2013;Mühlschlegel et al., 2017) and sugar (Liebezeit & Liebezeit, 2013) are still very limited. ...
Plastic, which has become an indispensable part of our daily life due to its wide range of uses, is produced worldwide by millions of tons, and most of it accumulates in the ecosystem. Microplastics (MPs), which emerge as a result of their decomposition over time, are found almost everywhere we live. Some foods can also have high MP concentrations. Fish and shellfish living in the sea and oceans appear to be one of the most important ways of MPs uptake through the food chain. At the same time, table salt and drinking water pose a threat to food safety in terms of the presence of MPs. Unfortunately, increased exposure to MPs can also bring health problems. For example, respiratory diseases, reproductive problems, change of microbiota, neurotoxicity, and even cancer are just a few of them. Therefore, this danger should be recognized and necessary precautions should be taken. Even small steps are needed in this area. It is extremely important for people to increase their awareness of this issue and for countries to prevent this threat with various policies. This review was written to explain how MPs threaten food safety and human health.
Graphical Abstract
Transmission routes of microplastics and possible health risks (Created with BioRender.com)
... However, there are also anthropogenic sources of MP which can inadvertently contaminate hives. For example, apiculturists may be adding microplastics to the hive via artificial diets, contamination with synthetic textile fibers from clothes (Mühlschlegel et al., 2017), or by using plastic beehives and beekeeping supplies, among others. ...
Microplastics (MP) have emerged as a widespread environmental contaminant affecting bee health. In this study we report on the impact of one of the cultural practices used to control the small hive beetle (SBH, Aethina tumida). Management of the beetle often includes the use of in-hive traps of different kinds, such as non-woven microfiber wipes. When placed inside the hive, bees chew on these wipes, which then become fuzzy and fray to the point where beetles become entangled in their fibers. The current study aimed to examine the composition of these microfiber sheets and to evaluate whether their use resulted in unintended MP contamination of bees and honey. We treated hives with one blue microfiber sheet placed on top of the frames for at least three months. After that time, we collected adult bees and honey samples from treated hives, control hives in the same apiary (control near), and control hives in an apiary 7.5 km away (control far). Honey from treated hives had a significantly greater number of blue MF than honey from the control hives (mean ± SD, treatment 11.83 ± 3.76, control near 2.25 ± 0.92 and control far 0.25 ± 0.5 MF/20 gr honey). Also, hives treated with the microfiber sheets had a significantly greater number of blue microfibers in the gut and cuticle of bees, than the control hives located in a different apiary. However, the control and treated bees located in the same apiary had a similar number of blue microfibers (mean ± SD, treatment 4.7 ± 2.28, control near 3 ± 1.63 and control far 0.5 ± 0.58 MF in 20 bees). Thus, the current study raises concerns of the use of microfibers sheets to trap the SBH as it results in the incorporation of microfibers into the ecosystem and the food chain.
... However, there are also anthropogenic sources of MP which can inadvertently contaminate hives. For example, apiculturists may be adding microplastics to the hive via artificial diets, contamination with synthetic textile fibers from clothes (Mühlschlegel et al., 2017), or by using plastic beehives and beekeeping supplies, among others. ...
... MPs/NPs may reach the gastrointestinal tract through contaminated foodstuff and drink intake. Given MPs/ NPs are ubiquitous in our surrounding environment, MPs/NPs have been widely detected in various food items, such as fish, shellfish, table salts, honey, sugar, poultry meat, fruits, and vegetables (Danopoulos et al., 2020;Heo et al., 2022a;Kadac-Czapska et al., 2022;Kim et al., 2018;Muhlschlegel et al., 2017). A study has reported that PET, PE, PP, PS, PVC, PA (polyamide), and PC are frequently observed in food (Kadac-Czapska et al., 2022). ...
Microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) have caused global environmental concerns due to their ubiquitous existence in our surrounding environment and the potential threats posed to the ecosystem and human health. This review aims to extend current knowledge on the formation and degradation of MPs and NPs. The paper presents the potential sources of MPs and NPs including plastic containers, textiles, cosmetics, personal care products, COVID-19 wastes, and other plastic products. Once in the natural environment, the fragmentation and degradation of plastic wastes are thought to be initiated by physical, chemical, and biological factors. The corresponding degradation mechanism will be presented in the present review. Given the plastic life and environment, humans are inevitably exposed to MPs and NPs through ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact. The potential risks MPs/NPs pose to humans will be also discussed in our study. Currently, the relevance of MP/NP exposure to human health outcomes is still controversial and not yet fully understood. Deciphering the translocation and degradation of plastics in the human body will be helpful to reveal their potential organotoxicity. In this case, available approaches to alleviate MP/NP pollution and advanced strategies to reduce MP/NP toxicity in humans are recommended to build a plastic-free life.
... These microfibers have raised concerns since they have the potential to impact animal populations, which are essential for maintaining ecosystems [148,149], and the animal populations that provide vital ecosystem services might be harmed by reactions with these microfibers [150]. It is recognized that foodstuffs are the main sources of microfibers for humans ( Figure 2) since most food, such as table salt [151,152], drinking water [153][154][155][156], beer [157,158], fruits/vegetables [159,160], and canned fish [161], is contaminated with microfibers. A recent study [162] demonstrated the presence of micro and nanoplastics in a variety of foods, including apples and carrots, which were shown to have the highest levels of contamination. ...
The growing worldwide population is directly responsible for the increased production and consumption of textile products. One of the key reasons for the generation of microfibers is the use of textiles and garment materials, which is expected to increase. The textile industry is responsible for the invisible pollution that is created by textile microfibers, which have been detected in marine sediments and organisms. The present review paper demonstrates that the microfibers discharged from functionalized textiles exhibit non-biodegradable characteristics and that a considerable proportion of them possess toxic properties. This is primarily attributed to the impact of textiles’ material functionalization on their biodegradability. The potential for these microfibers, which are released from textiles that contain a variety of dyes, toxic chemicals, and nanomaterials, to pose a variety of health risks to both humans and other living organisms is discussed in this paper. In addition, this paper covers a wide variety of preventative and minimizing measures for reduction, which are discussed in terms of several phases ranging from sustainable production through the consumer, end of life, domestic washing, and wastewater treatment phases.
... 2018; Liebezeit and Liebezeit, 2014), honey (Liebezeit and Liebezeit, 2015;Mühlschlegel et al., 2017a), soft drinks , and milk . MPs could be from original food or from atmospheric fallout, manufacturing, and packaging (Karami et al., 2018;Li et al., 2020a;Udovicki et al., 2022). ...
Evidence of microplastics in humans has recently been demonstrated. The primary route of human exposure to microplastics is consumption of contaminated food and water. However, quantitative estimations of exposure to microplastics are limited, which hinders human health risk assessments. In this study, abundances of microplastics were measured in eight food types, comprising 90 products of table salts, soy sauces, fish sauces, salted seafood, seaweed, honey, beer, and beverage. Aggregate human exposure to microplastics via food consumption was assessed based on the number and mass of microplastics, using deterministic calculations and Monte Carlo simulations. The determinations revealed that average adult Koreans likely ingest 1.4 × 10-4 and 3.1 × 10-4 g of microplastics per week, respectively. These results are orders of magnitude smaller than earlier estimates of 0.1-5 g of microplastics per week that likely chose experimental outliers. Therefore, careful selection of literature data and estimation methods is needed to provide more realistic exposure estimations from microplastic counts. This study extends our understanding of MP occurrence in food and provides a more thorough estimate of aggregate microplastic exposure via food consumption.
... With respect to the presence of MPs in honey, there is some controversy as some authors reported contamination of commercial honey samples from Germany (Liebezeit and Liebezeit, 2013) and Ecuador (Diaz-Basantes et al., 2020). However, other authors report negligible amounts of synthetic microfibers in honey from Switzerland, hypothesizing that the presence of these fibers is associated with contamination from beekeepers clothing (Mühlschlegel et al., 2017). Future studies should assess the fate of MPs within the beehive to determine whether the MPs ingested by bees or picked up from the air on flight can be transferred to hive products such as honey. ...
The influence of sampling method on microplastic (MP) quantification and the impact of population density on the levels of MP contamination in surface waters from Patagonian lakes were investigated. Six lakes located in Northern Patagonia (Argentina) were studied using two different sampling protocols widely reported in the literature: water collected in glass bottles vs. water collected using a 50 μm mesh size net. To assess the influence of population density on MP contamination, lakes with urbanization at shores (Nahuel Huapi, Gutierrez and Moreno) and lakes without urbanization on their shores (Espejo, Espejo Chico and Mascardi) were considered. We identified contamination with secondary MP at all the freshwater lakes studied, with predominance (>90 %) of textile-based microfibers (MF). Remarkably the levels of contamination were similar in all the lakes, independently of whether they were impacted by urbanization along their coasts or not, which supports the notion that there is atmospheric transport of MP. The greatest variability found was among sampling methods, with differences above of three orders magnitude. Samples collected directly in 1-l bottles had an average of 5257 MP/m3 in comparison to 1.57 MP/m3 in the samples that were collected with a 50 μm net. Interestingly, Nahuel Huapi lake samples collected with bottles where the WWTP discharges effluents were significantly more contaminated (SD 9400 ± 4351 MP/MF per m3) than samples collected 5 km west of the plant (2100 ± 1197 MP/MF per m3). Results highlight the significance of textile microfibers as microplastic contaminants of freshwater, and the need to address mesh size when looking for textile microfibers and to develop standardized sampling protocols to make studies on freshwater MF contamination comparable.
Plastic production soared to 400 million tons globally in 2022, resulting in an extensive and inadequately managed influx of plastic waste into the environment. A substantial portion of plastic waste transforms into microplastics (MPs), measuring less than 5 mm, through processes like photodegradation and mechanical wear. These MPs, originating from textiles, tires, cosmetics, and manufacturing, contribute significantly to terrestrial and aquatic pollution. While marine environments have been extensively studied, recent attention has shifted to terrestrial systems, revealing MP contamination 4–23 times higher in soils than in oceans. The soil ecosystem, crucial for sustaining human life, faces contamination risks impacting agriculture and food security. The chapter uniquely explores the comprehensive impact of MPson agriculture, crops, and the food production process, emphasizing the distinct challenges posed by MPsin agricultural soils. In agricultural environments, MPs influence crop production efficiency, plant and animal health, and subsequently, human consumers. The dimensions of MP particles facilitate their transfer across eco-environments, causing disturbances in soil characteristics, plant roots, nutrient absorption, seedling size, gene expression, and accumulation in tissues. Furthermore, MPs pose a serious risk in aquatic environments, affecting organisms through ingestion and entanglement, with implications for seafood safety and human health. The chapter stands out for its emphasis on MPs' journey from terrestrial and aquatic environments to the final consumer product, connecting the dots in the food production chain. In conclusion, addressing the global microplastic problem necessitates a multifaceted approach, including enhanced waste management, sustainable agricultural practices, and regulatory measures to safeguard both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and ensure food safety.
Microplastics are tiny plastic particles with a usual diameter ranging from ~ 1 μ to 5 µm. Recently, microplastic pollution has raised the attention of the worldwide environmental and human concerns. In human beings, digestive system illness, respiratory system disorders, sleep disturbances, obesity, diabetes, and even cancer have been reported after microplastic exposure either through food, air, or skin. Similarly, microplastics are also having negative impacts on the plant health, soil microorganisms, aquatic lives, and other animals. Policies and initiatives have already been in the pipeline to address this problem to deal with microplastic pollution. However, many obstacles are also being observed such as lack of knowledge, lack of research, and also absence of regulatory frameworks. This article has covered the distribution of microplastics in water, soil, food and air. Application of multimodel strategies including fewer plastic item consumption, developing low-cost novel technologies using microorganisms, biofilm, and genetic modified microorganisms has been used to reduce microplastics from the environment. Researchers, academician, policy-makers, and environmentalists should work jointly to cope up with microplastic contamination and their effect on the ecosystem as a whole which can be reduced in the coming years and also to make earth clean.
Graphical abstract
Background: Humans cannot avoid plastic exposure due to its ubiquitous presence in the natural environment. The waste generated is poorly biodegradable and exists in the form of MPs, which can enter the human body primarily through the digestive tract, respiratory tract, or damaged skin and accumulate in various tissues by crossing biological membrane barriers. There is an increasing amount of research on the health effects of MPs. Most literature reports focus on the impact of plastics on the respiratory, digestive, reproductive, hormonal, nervous, and immune systems, as well as the metabolic effects of MPs accumulation leading to epidemics of obesity, diabetes, hypertension, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. MPs, as xenobiotics, undergo ADMET processes in the body, i.e., absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion, which are not fully understood. Of particular concern are the carcinogenic chemicals added to plastics during manufacturing or adsorbed from the environment, such as chlorinated paraffins, phthalates, phenols, and bisphenols, which can be released when absorbed by the body. The continuous increase in NMP exposure has accelerated during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic when there was a need to use single-use plastic products in daily life. Therefore, there is an urgent need to diagnose problems related to the health effects of MP exposure and detection. Methods: We collected eligible publications mainly from PubMed published between 2017 and 2024. Results: In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on potential sources and routes of exposure, translocation pathways, identification methods, and carcinogenic potential confirmed by in vitro and in vivo studies. Additionally, we discuss the limitations of studies such as contamination during sample preparation and instrumental limitations constraints affecting imaging quality and MPs detection sensitivity. Conclusions: The assessment of MP content in samples should be performed according to the appropriate procedure and analytical technique to ensure Quality and Control (QA/QC). It was confirmed that MPs can be absorbed and accumulated in distant tissues, leading to an inflammatory response and initiation of signaling pathways responsible for malignant transformation.
Microplastics (MPs) are emergent environmental contaminants that are designated as either primary or secondary dependent on their origins. Formulation, morphology, dimensions, and colour scheme, along with other features, are connected with their propensity to reach the food webs and their dangers. Whilst ecological adversities of MPs have drawn considerable interest, the hazards to individuals from dietary exposure have yet to be determined. The aim of this review is to gauge existing understanding concerning MPs in foodstuffs and to explore the problems and inadequacies for threat assessment. The prevalence of MPs in foodstuffs and sugary drinks has been detected all over the world, but most researchers judged the existing information to be not only inadequate but also of dubious value, owing to the notable lack of agreement on a regulated quantification methods and a consistent appellation. Most published papers have highlighted potable water and condiments such as sugars, salts, and nectar as significant food components of MPs for humans. The threat assessment reveals significant discrepancies in our understanding of MP toxicity for human consumption, which hinders the estimate of risk-based regulations regarding food safety. The lack of comparators for evaluating MPs food consumption prohibits dietary MPs risk description and risk mitigation. Researchers and Food Safety Administrators confer various obstacles along with possibilities linked to the appearance of MPs in foodstuffs. Further investigation on the MPs categorization and exposures is essential considering that any subsequent threat evaluation record can contain a comprehensive dietary viewpoint.
These days, a growing consumer demand and scientific interest can be observed for nutraceuticals of natural origin, including apiculture products. Due to the growing emphasis on environmental protection, extensive research has been conducted on the pesticide and heavy metal contamination of bee products; however, less attention is devoted on other food safety aspects. In our review, scientific information on the less‐researched food safety hazards of honey, bee bread, royal jelly, propolis, and beeswax are summarized. Bee products originating from certain plants may inherently contain phytotoxins, like pyrrolizidine alkaloids, tropane alkaloids, matrine alkaloids, grayanotoxins, gelsemium alkaloids, or tutin. Several case studies evidence that bee products can induce allergic responses to sensitive individuals, varying from mild to severe symptoms, including the potentially lethal anaphylaxis. Exposure to high temperature or long storage may lead to the formation of the potentially toxic 5‐hydroxymethylfurfural. Persistent organic pollutants, radionuclides, and microplastics can potentially be transferred to bee products from contaminated environmental sources. And lastly, inappropriate beekeeping practices can lead to the contamination of beekeeping products with harmful microorganisms and mycotoxins. Our review demonstrates the necessity of applying good beekeeping practices in order to protect honeybees and consumers of their products. An important aim of our work is to identify key knowledge gaps regarding the food safety of apiculture products.
Microplastics (MPs) are miniscule plastic fragments formed as a result of the breakdown of larger plastic materials and a variety of consumer products. These minuscule particles, measuring less than 5 mm, may inadvertently enter the respiratory system, potentially causing breathing issues contingent on an individual’s susceptibility and the nature of the plastic involved. We, the consumers, unwisely discard old (and unused) plastics after mere single use, which has now construed to have pose a significant environmental challenge as the materials build up in waterways and landforms. Adding to the above, improper disposal of tons of plastic wastes poses a huge threat to humans, animals, and the environment as well. Plastics break into microns and accumulate, raising concerns about environmental and human harm. As a consequence, plastics impact daily life, from technology to healthcare, yet their single-use disposal harms ecosystems. While there is ample research on environmental effects, only limited study exists on their impact within human bodies. Consequently, this chapter discusses sources, entry, effects, and associated hazards of these micro-/nanoplastics on human and environmental health, along with an effort to offer strategies to prevent or reduce usage of plastics.
The ubiquitous presence of micro and nanoplastics (MNPs) in the environment has become a pressing global concern, particularly regarding the potential impacts on human health. This review underscores the urgent need for an integrative research framework that bridges the gap between epidemiological observations and toxicological insights. Human exposure to MNPs occurs predominantly through ingestion, inhalation and dermal contact pathways. Epidemiological findings have consistently demonstrated the presence of MNPs in diverse human tissues, signaling a broad exposure and emphasizing the imperative to explore potential health risks. Population surveys have shown that the concentration of MNPs in the feces of people using disposable plastic tableware reaches 24.65 items/g. These results are associated with changes in microbiota composition and metabolite levels relevant to central nervous system disorders, energy metabolism and inflammatory responses. The detectable abundance of MNPs in the nasal mucus of individuals wearing N95 masks was measured to be 10.6 ± 2.3 items/mg. Moreover, population-based studies have linked MNP exposure to adverse health outcomes, suggesting correlation relationships between exposure levels and specific diseases such as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and human pulmonary ground-glass nodules (GGN). These associations underscore the necessity for in-depth toxicological investigations to elucidate the toxicity mechanisms of MNPs. Meanwhile, laboratory-based toxicological studies have the potential to reveal causative relationships and various in vitro and in vivo models have been used to explore the mechanisms of the toxicity of MNPs in the gastrointestinal tract, lungs and cardiovascular system. However, early studies failed to reflect on the complexity of the real environment. To foster interdisciplinary collaborations, this paper aims to reconcile the disparities between exposure risks and human health impacts. By critically reviewing recent advancements in understanding the exposure risks of MNPs, epidemiological observations and organ-specific toxicity, this work furnishes a comprehensive perspective on the health implications of MNPs.
Currently, research on microplastics (MPs) has increased due to their rapid distribution throughout the world and their harmful effects on the ecosystem. However, a detailed description of their dispersion and the methods for both detection and removal has not been given. The objective of this research is to carry out a bibliographic review that allows for a multidisciplinary analysis of microplastic contamination and current detection and removal methods. The method used is PRISMA in which articles from reliable databases such as Scopus, Web of science, and Google Scholar were collected and analyzed to finally provide details on the physical and chemical methods for detecting MPs, in addition to presenting the technologies for their removal. As a result of the analysis, critical information was obtained from the different studies on the impact of MPs on the ecosystem and the variation in detection and removal efficiency according to the type of pretreatment and methods applied to the sample. It is concluded that this research is essential to understand the consequences that MPs have on the ecosystem and provide tools to evaluate and improve current technologies, mainly detection and removal.
The presence of microplastics (MPs) in terrestrial ecosystems has been confirmed worldwide. Due to their widespread distribution and diversity in habitats, insects will readily interact with MPs via various pathways. Although the topic of MP-insect interactions is still in the early stages of research, it is becoming increasingly important. We used a META approach with phylogenetic control and subgroup examination to summarize the evidence from both field and laboratory experiments in quantitative form. The field evidence suggests that insects can take and transfer MPs along food chains via ingestion and adherence. Also, they are active in the bio-fragmentation of MPs and the generation of secondary pollutants. The exposure to MPs impaired key biological traits of insects, mainly their behavior and health, such as reducing climbing ability and increasing oxidative stress. In terms of exposure conditions, the small-sized MPs can induce more severe effects on the insects, while the insect response to MPs was not significantly reliant on exposure times or MP concentrations based on the current evidence available. We propose that insects not only play roles in the redistribution of MPs spatially and in food chains via bio-fragmentation but are also threatened by MPs. Our research deepens our understanding of the environmental risks posed by MPs in insect ecosystems.
Microplastics (MPs) are typically produced via environmental degradation of larger plastics, where they enter the human food chain. MPs are complex materials containing chemical and physical characteristics that can potentially affect their hazard and exposure. These physical properties can be altered by environmental exposure potentially altering any risk assessment conducted on the primary material. We conducted a literature review using an Adverse Outcome Pathway (AOP)-based approach from Molecular Initiating Event (MIE) to cell effect event to identify multiple knowledge gaps that affect MPs hazard assessment. There is some convergence of key biological events but could relate to most lying along well-established biological effector pathways such as apoptosis which can respond to many MIEs. In contrast, chemicals MIEs will be via protein interaction MIEs. As MPs may occur in the lumen of the alimentary canal for example to the mucus, therefore, not requiring translocation of MPs across the epithelial membrane. At the other end of the AOP, currently it is not possible to identify a single adverse outcome at the organ level. This work did establish a clear need to understand both external and internal exposure (resulting from translocation) and develop hazard data at both levels to inform on risk assessments.
Microplastic is widely discussed and has become growing attention because of its negative impact on the environment and the well-being of living organisms. Some international studies have found microplastics in some foods and beverages, such as honey, beer, table salt, and drinking water. However, there are few accurate analytical techniques for identifying and analysing microplastics, especially in beverages and foods. This preliminary study investigates microplastics that might contaminate bottled drinking water, their physical properties, and their types of material. Five local brands of 120 ml bottled drinking water were used for this research, collected from a traditional market in South Tangerang. The samples were observed visually for microplastic’s presence, sizes, and shapes using a digital microscope. Furthermore, material identification using a Microscope - Fourier transform infra-red (μ-FTIR) was conducted to analyse the types of material present in the samples. The results show that all examined samples were contaminated, and the major pollutants were fibres with lengths between 0.042 and 3.668 mm. According to the material identification result using μ-FTIR, materials found in most samples are cellulose-based polymers, which are used widely for natural textiles (e.g., cotton) and synthetic fibres. In the five brands of the analysed bottled drinking water, neither the packaging material polypropylene nor the bottle caps made of polyethylene were detected. These findings indicate that the analysed bottled drinking water was not contaminated by microplastic, but by micro debris of natural cellulose-based polymers.
Use of plastics for different purposes which are non-biodegradable in nature has made a serious problem to nature. The hotspot areas of plastic pollution are confined to the ocean, landfills and open waste disposals. Plastics which fragments into small pieces in the size range of 0.001 - 5 mm are termed as microplastics. Microplastics can enter the environment through agricultural run-off, tyre and road-wear particles, wear and tear of clothes, plastic packages, industrial effluents, microbeads, etc. it can also transfer into the food chain through soil, seaweed, seasalt, drinking water, bottled water, processed food products, packaging, etc. The problems created by microplastics are of great concern for living beings.
Microplastics are small plastic particles that come from the degradation of plastics, ubiquitous in nature and therefore affect both wildlife and humans. They have been detected in many marine species, but also in drinking water and in numerous foods, such as salt, honey and marine organisms. Exposure to microplastics can also occur through inhaled air. Data from animal studies have shown that once absorbed, plastic micro-and nanoparticles can distribute to the liver, spleen, heart, lungs, thymus, reproductive organs, kidneys and even the brain (crosses the blood-brain barrier). In addition, microplastics are transport operators of persistent organic pollutants or heavy metals from invertebrate organisms to other higher trophic levels. After ingestion, the additives and monomers in their composition can interfere with important biological processes in the human body and can cause disruption of the endocrine, immune system; can have a negative impact on mobility, reproduction and development; and can cause carcinogenesis. The pandemic caused by COVID-19 has affected not only human health and national economies but also the environment, due to the large volume of waste in the form of discarded personal protective equipment. The remarkable increase in global use of face masks, which mainly contain polypropylene, and poor waste management have led to worsening microplastic pollution, and the long-term consequences can be extremely devastating if urgent action is not taken.
Microplastics (MPs) are emerging pollutants that are ubiquitous in the environment, which may be a potential threat to human health. This review described the MP exposure sources and pathways through drinking water, food intake, and air inhalation. The unregulated discharge of MPs in water sources and the absence of required MP filter technology in water treatment plants is an important route of MP exposure through drinking water. The presence of MPs in foodstuffs may lead to the accumulation of MPs in the body. MP exposure can occur through airborne fallout and dust inhalation in both indoor and outdoor environments. This review will summarize the MP exposure sources and possible pathways in the human body, and it illustrates that the intake of drinking water, food consumption, and air inhalation should be assessed in the during routine activities. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2023;00:0-0. © 2023 SETAC.
Microplastics (MPs, size <5 mm) are persistent plastic particles, resistant to natural physicochemical degradation and conventional treatment practices, and exhibit adverse ecological and human health impacts. This chapter summarizes the documented studies on the occurrence, distribution, and compositional profiles (size, shape, and polymer type) of MPs in rivers and lakes worldwide. Further, various physicochemical factors involved in the aging/weathering of MPs have been demonstrated. The uptake of MPs by aquatic organisms such as invertebrates, waterbirds, and megafauna has been also highlighted. Moreover, potential interactions of MPs with microorganisms, especially with bacteria in terms of the role of MPs in biofilm formation, genetic material transfer, and as a pathogen carrier have been demonstrated. Importantly, human exposure to MPs through dietary intake, inhalation, and dermal uptake has been discussed. Last but not the least, research challenges, implications, and future perspectives of MPs contamination in freshwater and associated effects have been highlighted.
Microplastics result from fragmentation of plastic debris or are released to the environment as preproduction pellets or components of consumer and industrial products. In the oceans, they contribute to the 'great garbage patches'. They are ingested by many organisms, from protozoa to baleen whales, and pose a threat to the aquatic fauna. Although as much as 80% of marine debris originates from land, little attention was given to the role of rivers as debris pathways to the sea. Worldwide, not a single great river has yet been studied for the surface microplastics load over its length. We report the abundance and composition of microplastics at the surface of the Rhine, one of the largest European rivers. Measurements were made at 11 locations over a stretch of 820 km. Microplastics were found in all samples, with 892,777 particles km(-2) on average. In the Rhine-Ruhr metropolitan area, a peak concentration of 3.9 million particles km(-2) was measured. Microplastics concentrations were diverse along and across the river, reflecting various sources and sinks such as waste water treatment plants, tributaries and weirs. Measures should be implemented to avoid and reduce the pollution with anthropogenic litter in aquatic ecosystems.
Microplastics in aquatic ecosystems and especially in the marine environment represent a pollution of increasing scientific and societal concern, thus, recently a substantial number of studies on microplastics were published. Although first steps towards a standardization of methodologies used for the detection and identification of microplastics in environmental samples are made, the comparability of data on microplastics is currently hampered by a huge variety of different methodologies, which result in the generation of data of extremely different quality and resolution. This chapter reviews the methodology presently used for assessing the concentration of microplastics in the marine environment with a focus on the most convenient techniques and approaches. After an overview of non-selective sampling approaches, sample processing and treatment in the laboratory, the reader is introduced to the currently applied techniques for the identification and quantification of microplastics. The subsequent case study on microplastics in sediment samples from the North Sea measured with focal plane array (FPA)-based micro-Fourier transform infrared (micro-FTIR) spectroscopy shows that only 1.4 % of the particles visually resembling microplastics were of synthetic polymer origin. This finding emphasizes the importance of verifying the synthetic polymer origin of potential microplastics. Thus, a burning issue concerning current microplastic research is the generation of standards that allow for the assessment of reliable data on concentrations of microscopic plastic particles and the involved polymers with analytical laboratory techniques such as micro-FTIR or micro-Raman spectroscopy. © 2015, Springer International Publishing. All Rights Reserved.
In this review we report new findings concerning interaction between marine debris and wildlife. Deleterious effects and consequences of entangle-ment, consumption and smothering are highlighted and discussed. The number of species known to have been affected by either entanglement or ingestion of plastic debris has doubled since 1997, from 267 to 557 species among all groups of wildlife. For marine turtles the number of affected species increased from 86 to 100 % (now 7 of 7 species), for marine mammals from 43 to 66 % (now 81 of 123 species) and for seabirds from 44 to 50 % of species (now 203 of 406 species). Strong increases in records were also listed for fish and invertebrates, groups that were previously not considered in detail. In future records of interactions between marine debris and wildlife we recommend to focus on standardized data on frequency of occurrence and quantities of debris ingested. In combination with dedicated impact studies in the wild or experiments, this will allow more detailed assessments of the deleterious effects of marine debris on individuals and populations.
Marine debris is commonly observed everywhere in the oceans. Litter enters the seas from both land-based sources, from ships and other installations at sea, from point and diffuse sources, and can travel long distances before being stranded. Plastics typically constitute the most important part of marine litter sometimes accounting for up to 100 % of floating litter. On beaches, most studies have demonstrated densities in the 1 item m−2 range except for very high concentrations because of local conditions, after typhoons or flooding events. Floating marine debris ranges from 0 to beyond 600 items km−2. On the sea bed, the abundance of plastic debris is very dependent on location, with densities ranging from 0 to >7700 items km−2, mainly in coastal areas. Recent studies have demonstrated that pollution of microplastics, particles <5 mm, has spread at the surface of oceans, in the water column and in sediments, even in the deep sea. Concentrations at the water surface ranged from thousands to hundred thousands of particles km−2. Fluxes vary widely with factors such as proximity of urban activities, shore and coastal uses, wind and ocean currents. These enable the presence of accumulation areas in oceanic convergence zones and on the seafloor, notably in coastal canyons. Temporal trends are not clear with evidences for increases, decreases or without changes, depending on locations and environmental conditions. In terms of distribution and quantities, proper global estimations based on standardized approaches are still needed before considering efficient management and reduction measures.
A total of 47 honeys and 22 flowering plants was analysed for their load of synthetic fibres and fragments. In all samples investigated foreign particles were found. These include also black carbon particles which were not enumerated. Fibres and fragments ranged from 10 to 336 kg(-1) and 2 to 82 kg(-1) honey, respectively. The data of the flowering plants analysed indicate that a major proportion of the particle load may originate from external sources, i.e. these particles are brought into the beehive by the worker bees during nectar collection.
There is growing evidence of extensive pollution of the environment by microplastic, with microfibres representing a large proportion of the microplastics seen in marine sediments. Since microfibres are ubiquitous in the environment, present in the laboratory air and water, evaluating microplastic pollution is difficult. Incidental contamination is highly likely unless strict control measures are employed. Here we describe methods developed to minimize the amount of incidental post-sampling contamination when quantifying marine microfibre pollution. We show that our protocol, adapted from the field of forensic fibre examination, reduces fibre abundance by 90% and enables the quick screening of fibre populations. These methods therefore allow an accurate estimate of microplastics polluting marine sediments. In a case study from a series of samples collected on a research vessel, we use these methods to highlight the prevalence of microfibres as marine microplastics.
Copyright © 2015. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Abstract Honey is an ancient food that has always been considered a natural and healthy product, free of contaminants. However, it can contain toxic substances, such as antibiotics, pesticides and heavy metals, as well as foreign matter (e.g. arthropod body parts and microbial contaminants), working as allergens and vectors of human pathogens. In this study, we used the filth test to evaluate the abundance of foreign matter in 70 Italian honeys, including Castanea sativa, Robinia pseudoacacia and multifloral honeys, the latter both from small beekeeping farms and industrial producers. The abundance of different foreign matter varied in honeys, with a higher number of carbon particles and other inorganic fragments, followed by fragments of animal origin. This latter included insects (Diptera Brachycera larvae and Strepsiptera), their cuticular fragments (mainly Coleoptera, Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera), mites (mainly Glycyphagidae, Acaridae and Tarsonemidae) and mammal hairs. No differences were recorded in the abundance of foreign matter among different kinds of honey, as well as between honeys from small and large-sized producers. Foreign matter found in honey provided functional information to evaluate honey quality standards in apiary, honey extraction and packaging phases. Overall, the filth test method applied to honey quality control can be considered an excellent tool, also for local beekeepers, since it allows rapid and frequent quality checking of the production process. This method is cheap, requires minimal instrumental equipment and results can be interpreted quickly.
This review of 68 studies compares the methodologies used for the identification and quantification of microplastics from the marine environment. Three main sampling strategies were identified: selective, volume-reduced, and bulk sampling. Most sediment samples came from sandy beaches at the high tide line, and most seawater samples were taken at the sea surface using neuston nets. Four steps were distinguished during sample processing: density separation, filtration, sieving, and visual sorting of microplastics. Visual sorting was one of the most commonly used methods for the identification of microplastics (using type, shape, degradation stage, and color as criteria). Chemical and physical characteristics (e.g., specific density) were also used. The most reliable method to identify the chemical composition of microplastics is by infrared spectroscopy. Most studies reported that plastic fragments were polyethylene and polypropylene polymers. Units commonly used for abundance estimates are "items per m(2)" for sediment and sea surface studies and "items per m(3)" for water column studies. Mesh size of sieves and filters used during sampling or sample processing influence abundance estimates. Most studies reported two main size ranges of microplastics: (i) 500 μm-5 mm, which are retained by a 500 μm sieve/net, and (ii) 1-500 μm, or fractions thereof that are retained on filters. We recommend that future programs of monitoring continue to distinguish these size fractions, but we suggest standardized sampling procedures which allow the spatiotemporal comparison of microplastic abundance across marine environments.
Sources, pathways and reservoirs of microplastics, plastic particles smaller than 5 mm, remain poorly documented in an urban context. While some studies pointed out wastewater treatment plants as a potential pathway of microplastics, none have focused on the atmospheric compartment. In this work, the atmospheric fallout of microplastics was investigated in two different urban and sub-urban sites. Microplastics were collected continuously with a stainless steel funnel. Samples were then filtered and observed with a stereomicroscope. Fibers accounted for almost all the microplastics collected. An atmospheric fallout between 2 and 355 particles/m2/day was highlighted. Registered fluxes were systematically higher at the urban than at the sub-urban site. Chemical characterization allowed to estimate at 29% the proportion of these fibers being all synthetic (made with petrochemicals), or a mixture of natural and synthetic material. Extrapolation using weight and volume estimates of the collected fibers, allowed a rough estimation showing that between 3 and 10 tons of fibers are deposited by atmospheric fallout at the scale of the Parisian agglomeration every year (2500 km²). These results could serve the scientific community working on the different sources of microplastic in both continental and marine environments.
Plastic debris is one of the most significant organic pollutants in the aquatic environment. Due to properties such as buoyancy and extreme durability, synthetic polymers are present in rivers, lakes and oceans and accumulate in sediments all over the world. However, freshwater sediments have attracted less attention than the investigation of sediments in marine ecosystems. For this reason, river shore sediments of the rivers Rhine and Main in the Rhine-Main area in Germany were analyzed. The sample locations comprised shore sediment of a large European river (Rhine) and a river characterized by industrial influence (Main) in areas with varying population sizes as well as sites in proximity to nature reserves. All sediments analyzed contained microplastic particles (<5mm) with mass fractions of up to 1 g kg-1 or 4000 particles kg-1 respectively. Analysis of the plastics by infrared spectroscopy showed a high abundance of polyethylene, polypropylene and polystyrene, which covered over 75% of all polymer types identified in the sediment. Short distance transport of plastic particles from the tributary to the main stream could be confirmed by the identification of pellets, which were separated from shore sediment samples of both rivers. This systematic study shows the emerging pollution of inland river sediments with microplastics and, as a consequence thereof, underlines the importance of rivers as transport vectors of microplastics into the ocean.
Plastic contamination is an increasing environmental problem in marine systems where it has spread globally to even the most remote habitats. Plastic pieces in smaller size scales, microplastics (particles <5mm), have reached high densities (e.g., 100 000 items per m3) in waters and sediments, and are interacting with organisms and the environment in a variety of ways. Early investigations of freshwater systems suggest microplastic presence and interactions are equally as far reaching as are being observed in marine systems. Microplastics are being detected in freshwaters of Europe, North America, and Asia, and the first organismal studies are finding that freshwater fauna across a range of feeding guilds ingest microplastics.
A total of 24 German beer brands was analysed for the contents of microplastic fibres, fragments and granular material. In all cases contamination was found. Counts ranged from 2 to 79 fibres/L, 12 to 109.1 fragments/L and 2 to 66 granules/L. The results show a high variability between individual samples and samples from different production dates. Possible sources of this contamination with foreign materials are discussed.
A total of 19 honey samples, mostly from Germany but also from France, Italy, Spain and Mexico, were analysed for non-pollen particulates. Only coloured fibres and fragments were quantified. Transparent fibres, considered to be cellulosic because they could be stained with fuchsin, were not quantified. Coloured material was found in all the samples investigated. Fibre counts ranged from 40/kg to 660/kg of honey, with a mean value of 166 ± 147/kg of honey, whereas fragments were considerably less abundant (0-38/kg of honey; mean 9 ± 9/kg of honey). Sources are tentatively identified as environmental, that is particles having been transported by the bees into the hive, or having been introduced during honey processing or both. In addition, five commercial sugars were analysed. In all the refined samples, transparent and coloured fibres (mean 217 ± 123/kg of sugar) and fragments (32 ± 7/kg of sugar) were found. Unrefined cane sugar had 560 fibres and 540 fragments per kilogram of honey. In addition, in both honey and sugar samples, granular non-pollen material was observed.
Microplastic identification in German Beer-an artefact of laboratory contamination?
- D W Lachenmeier
- J Kocareva
- D Noack
- T Kubella
Plastik in Honig ein neuer Skandal? Dt
- K Münstedt
- K P Münstedt