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The Nutritional Value and Health Benefits of Goat Milk Components
Abstract
Goat milk has various effects on human health considering the total solid, fat, protein, lactose, mineral, and vitamin contents. In addition to positive effects on physical and sensory characteristics of dairy products, lipids of goat milk provide better digestibility with small fat globule size and high short- and medium-chain fatty acids content. Goat milk has higher amounts of conjugated linoleic acids playing important roles in immune stimulation, growth promotion, and disease prevention. The most important effect of goat milk proteins is their healing effect on cow milk allergy, the most common food allergy, which causes many deaths in infants. In addition, the β-casein/αs1-casein ratio (70%/30%) of goat milk proteins is similar to human milk, which results in more digestibility compared to the cow milk in relation to higher sensitivity of β-casein to the protease enzymes. Lactose is the main carbohydrate of all species of milk, and its content in goat milk is lower than the others. In contrast, goat milk rich in oligosaccharides is important in its protective function of intestinal flora against pathogens and in brain and nervous system development. In addition to higher amounts of some minerals, more importantly the bioavailability of minerals in goat milk is higher than of minerals in cow milk. The higher Vitamin A content may be the most important difference among the other vitamins in goat milk compared to cow milk. Considering the millions of child deaths every year caused by Vitamin A deficiency, goat milk is a very important source. Besides many beneficial effects of goat milk, the advantages of breeding goats, such as the lower cost of animals, the need for less feed and water, and often not requiring the specialized housing that larger livestock need, are reasons to promote the improvement of goat milk production worldwide. Goat milk is a valuable food source of animal protein, phosphorus, and calcium, especially in countries with low consumption of meat.
... The nutritional value of CAM is derived from its striking resemblance to human milk, which is comparable to mare and donkey milk [18]. CAM differs significantly from the milk of other ruminants, particularly in terms of its constituents [19][20][21] (Table 1). Unlike COM, CAM exhibits considerable component variation. ...
... A comparison of CAM with GOM, bovine, and COM, in terms of composition, is presented in Figure 1. CAM has a higher ash content than other kinds of milk, whereas the lactose content in CAM is significantly lower than that in GOM, bovine, and COM ( Figure 1) [19,21,22]. ...
... Similarly, the creaming ability of GOM has also been attributed to the deficient amount of agglutinin and the smaller size of the fat globules [21]. CAM contains a lower proportion of short-chain fatty acids compared to COM fat. ...
The nutritional composition, antimicrobial properties, and health benefits of camel milk (CAM), cow milk (COM), and goat milk (GOM) have been extensively studied for their roles in managing diabetes and cardiovascular diseases (CVD). This review compares these milk types’ nutritional and therapeutic properties, emphasizing their applications in chronic disease management. CAM is rich in insulin-like proteins, vitamins, minerals, and bioactive compounds that benefit glycemic control and cardiovascular health. It also exhibits potent antioxidants, anti-inflammatory, and lipid-lowering effects, which are crucial for managing diabetes and reducing CVD risk factors. While COM and GOM provide essential nutrients, their impact on metabolic health differs. GOM is known for its digestibility and antihypertensive properties, whereas COM’s higher lactose content may be less suitable for diabetic patients. CAM’s unique nutritional profile offers distinct therapeutic benefits, particularly for diabetes and CVD management. Further research is needed to clarify its mechanisms of action and optimize its clinical application for chronic disease prevention and management.
... The benefits of goat milk are observable at different levels: nutritional (Silanikove, Merin, & Leitner, 2014), therapeutic (Yangilar, 2013), and technological (Pazzola, 2019). Given that, Turkmen (2017) offers an elaborate discussion of the dietary value and health benefits of goat milk ingredients. Due to its non-allergenic qualities, digestive capacity, and contribution to lowering family-level poverty and dietary deficiency among small-scale producers as well as among consumers, goat milk is very common worldwide (Isidro-Requejo et al., 2019). ...
... According to Larson (1978), considerable intraspecies variation exists according to breed, nutrition, stage of lactation, environmental conditions, and other factors. Numerous research papers have focused on the impact of the lactation stage on goat milk composition (Chen et al., 2018;Idamokoro, Muchenje, & Masika, 2017;Isidro-Requejo et al., 2019;Marounek et al., 2012;Michlova et al., 2016;M.S. El-Tarabany, A.A. El-Tarabany, & Roushdy, 2018;Slyzius, Slyziene, & Lindziute, 2017;Tatar et al., 2015;Turkmen, 2017). ...
... Concerning total nitrogen, Vierling (2008) indicates a value of 3.2 g 100 ml -1 of the same type of milk. The value indicated in the present study is slightly lower than that found by Turkmen (2017) with 4 g 100 ml -1 . However, it is greater than the value found by Guo et al. (2001) with 3.64 g 100 ml -1 . ...
Goat milk constitutes a well-priced source of minerals and proteins for a large rural population, particularly those living in the mountains and whose access to state-subsidized milk is very limited. This study aims at assessing the mineral composition and nitrogen distribution of goat milk produced by the Algerian Arabia breed and estimating how lactation stage affects these elements. Thirteen individual Arabia goat milks were collected and analyzed three times during the lactation period (early, mid, and late). Minerals were analyzed by atomic absorption spectrometry and nitrogen fractions using the Kjeldahl method. The findings of the research showed that casein, whey, and milk protein content had respective mean values of 2.95, 0.74, and 3.54 g 100 ml ⁻¹ , respectively. The highest levels of minerals were found for calcium (537 μg ml ⁻¹ ), and sodium (336 μg ml ⁻¹ ). The average trace mineral concentration was between 1.78 μg ml ⁻¹ (Fe) and 0.007 μg ml ⁻¹ (Cs). Heavy metal concentrations were assessed to be 0.057 μg ml ⁻¹ for Pb and 0.009 μg ml ⁻¹ for Cd. An important effect of stage of lactation (p < 0.05) was observed on only K, Fe, and Na mineral components, whereas nitrogen distribution was not affected. As the lactation period progressed, the variation of these components was not constant and fluctuated across lactation stages.
... The individual casein fractions namely β-casein and κ-casein account for 65 and 3.5%, respectively of the total casein fraction in camel milk while the respective proportions of these casein fractions in bovine milk is 39 and 13% of the total casein fraction (Seifu 2022;Vincenzetti et al. 2022). Goat and cow milk have similar percentages of к-casein and αs 2 -casein; however, goat milk contains lower αs 1 -casein content than cow milk (Park 2017;Turkmen 2017). αs 1 -casein is the major casein fraction in cow milk (Turkmen 2017). ...
... Goat and cow milk have similar percentages of к-casein and αs 2 -casein; however, goat milk contains lower αs 1 -casein content than cow milk (Park 2017;Turkmen 2017). αs 1 -casein is the major casein fraction in cow milk (Turkmen 2017). Whereas β-casein is the major casein fraction found in goat and human milk (Park 2017). ...
... Whereas β-casein is the major casein fraction found in goat and human milk (Park 2017). Goat milk proteins are easily digested than cow milk proteins and this is attributed to the similarity of casein composition between goat and human milk (Moatsou & Park 2017;Turkmen 2017) since β-casein, the major casein fraction both in goat and human milk, is more sensitive to the action of pepsin than αs-casein (El-Agamy 2007). ...
Camel milk is the mainstay for millions of people in arid and semi-arid environments. In these areas, it is mainly consumed raw or after it spontaneously turns sour. Although some attempts have been made to produce dairy products from camel milk, processing of camel milk is generally considered to be difficult and the quality of the final products made from camel milk do not correspond to their bovine milk counterparts. This paper reports a comprehensive analysis of the literature on camel milk products and presents synthesis of the latest developments, limitations pertaining processing and opportunities for development of new and improved camel milk products. The protein composition and colloidal structure of camel milk differs from cow milk. It is characterized by absence of β-lactoglobulin, low κ-casein content, high proportion of β-casein, larger casein micelles and smaller fat globules. These differences lead to the difficulty of making dairy products from camel milk using the same technologies as for bovine milk. Some of the challenges of camel milk processing include poor stability of the milk during UHT treatment, impaired rennetability, formation of weak and fragile curd during coagulation, longer fermentation time, and low thermal stability of the milk during drying. Despite these difficulties, it has now become possible to produce a range of commercial and traditional dairy products from camel milk. Some of the strategies that could be applied to improve the quality and characteristics of camel milk products are discussed.
Graphical Abstract
... Given its similarity to other lactoferrins, Capra hircus lactoferrin may be able to provide protection against other cancers. [28,32] Antioxidant peptides Prevent or delay oxidative stress milk proteins just as milk-inferred proteins have been considered as likely transporters for the conveyance of antioxidant prevention agent peptides in the gastrointestinal plot, where they may apply direct defensive impacts by searching receptive oxygen species and decreasing the oxidative pressure [23,31] Immunomodulatory/ anti-inflammatory peptides Anti-inflammatory Colostrinin (CLN) is a proline-rich polypeptide complex isolated from ovine colostrum. Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties of colostrinin Colostrinin also prevents inflammatory conditions in neurons caused by -amyloid accumulation. ...
... It's an IgE-mediated allergy, which means the body develops antibodies to certain proteins (allergens) in cow milk. [23,31] Prebiotic and antipathogenic activity ...
... Since the molecules are taken up directly into the portal vein, no micelle formation is needed for absorption. 21,31 Minor lipids present in Capra hircus milk include glycolipids, gangliosides, glycosphingolipids, and cerebrosides. These minor lipids, which are also bioactive components of Capra hircus milk, have effects that are close to those in cow and human milk. ...
... The total number of runs of homozygosity (ROH) segments in Africa, Europe, and Bezoar goats were 677, 966, and 1431, respectively, with average counts per individual of 42 (16)(17)(18)(19)(20)(21)(22)(23)(24)(25)(26)(27)(28)(29)(30)(31)(32) were present in all studied goats (Fig. 2B). The frequency of long ROH segments in Africa and Europe goats was higher than in Bezoar goats. ...
... In addition, goat milk proteins possess unique biologically active components that affect the milk properties and impact numerous aspects of human nutrition. Goat milk contains less lactose and higher alkalinity than cow milk [42]. In this study, we have pinpointed several genes (LARP4B, SPIDR, NCKAP1L, PITRM1, and GHR) that may play a role in the synthesis of milk proteins (Table S3-S7). ...
Dairy goats, a livestock species with a long history of milk production, are essential for the economic advancement of nations, particularly in regions experiencing growth. In this study, we gathered whole-genome resequencing data of 58 goats, including 34 dairy goats and 24 wild goats (Bezoar), to explore the selection signatures linked to milk production traits using ROH (Runs of homozygosity), CLR (composite likelihood ratio), Fst (Fixation index), XP-EHH (Ex-tended haplotype homozygosity across populations) and XP-CLR(Cross-population composite likelihood ratio test) methods. Analysis of five tests of selection signatures for dairy goats revealed a total of 210 genes, with 24 genes consistently identified in at least two approaches. These genes are associated with milk fat, milk protein, and fat yield. Gene enrichment analysis highlighted important GO and KEGG pathways related to milk production, such as the “acyl-CoA metabolic process”, “glycerolipid biosynthetic process”, “cellular response to fatty ac-id”, “hormone metabolic process”, “Galactose metabolism”. Additionally, genes linked to repro-duction, immune response, and environmental adaptation were identified in dairy goats. The findings from our study offer profound understanding into the critical economic features of dairy goats and offer practical guidance for the improvement and development of crossbreeding initiatives across different dairy goat breeds.
... Table 1. Composition of human milk [13] relative to animal milk substitutes: cow [13], camel [19,20], goat [21,22], and sheep milk [22]. Kilocalories/100 mL 71 61 78 69 108 w/w = grams of specific fat or protein. ...
... Table 1. Composition of human milk [13] relative to animal milk substitutes: cow [13], camel [19,20], goat [21,22], and sheep milk [22]. Kilocalories/100 mL 71 61 78 69 108 w/w = grams of specific fat or protein. ...
Milk is the principal nutrient of newborn humans and a diagnostic feature of the order Mammalia. Its release is elicited as a reflex by infant sucking under the control of the hormone oxytocin. While it is recognized that breast milk optimally promotes infant longitudinal growth and development, this review explores facts and controversies regarding the extent to which the milks of several dairy animals and infant formula milk (IF) approximate special properties and bioactivities of breast milk. It also provides evidence that early exposure to undernutrition during the very rapid fetal and early infancy growth predominantly and permanently stunts longitudinal growth trajectory in both animals and humans and is often followed in later life by obesity and metabolic dysfunction, and sometimes also by precocious timing of sexual maturation. There is a knowledge gap as to whether there may be additional critical periods of nutritional vulnerability in human development, which is characterized by a relatively prolonged period of slow childhood growth bracketed by the rapid fetal–neonatal and pubertal growth spurts. It is also unclear whether any quantitative differences in caloric intake and supply during neonatal period may influence developmental fatness programming. A further knowledge gap exists regarding the role of infant microbiome composition and development in the possible epigenetic programming of longitudinal growth or fatness in later life. Extending the research of early developmental programming to the entire period of human growth from conception to the end of puberty, examining infant caloric intake and supply as possible factors modulating the epigenetic programming in favor of obesity, and examining the role of infant gut microbiome in developing infant’s capacity to process nutrients may provide a better understanding of the interaction between critical nutritional influences in the control of human longitudinal growth and later-life obesity.
... Cow milk has a higher TSS content as compared to goat milk owing to differences in protein and lactose concentrations (Collard and McCormick, 2021). Consequently, a blend with a greater proportion of cow milk, such as CG1, will naturally show high level of TSS (Turkmen, 2017). These results are aligned with existing literature on the composition of milk and TSS content, which indicate that rise in moisture content leads to lowered TSS in the milk (Collard and McCormick, 2021;Clark and García, 2017). ...
... Interestingly, cheeses made from cow milk and higher cow milk blends exhibit lower levels of Enterobacteriaceae and yeasts and molds than goat milk-based cheeses. This may be attributed to inherent differences in the chemical and microbial composition of cow and goat milk (Collard and McCormick, 2021;Quigley et al., 2013;Turkmen, 2017). Low microbial counts in cow milkbased cheeses may also be associated with the presence of natural antiseptic like microbiota, favorable pH and water activity, higher lactose, amino acids and peptides (Łepecka et al., 2022;Barukčić et al., 2020). ...
This research delves into studying how mixing cow and goat milk affects the physical, chemical, microbiological and taste aspects of cottage cheese. Different concentrations (%) of cow and goat milk were mixed such as (CG1 (100:0) served as control, CG2 (90:10), CG3 (80:20), CG4 (70:30), CG5 (60:40), CG6(50:50) and CG7 (0:100)) to prepare milk blends. The analysis of physical and chemical properties showed notable differences in composition among the milk blends, with goat milk has higher fat content (4±0.003%)while cow milk has more lactose (4.6±0.1%). The pasteurized milk was gently heated followed by addition of addition of acid coagulant. After setting whey was separated and the cottage cheese was stored at 5±1oC.The time for coagulation and cheese yield varied based on the blend composition, with goat milk speeding up coagulation (19.69±1.2 sec) but reducing cheese yield (20.75±1.6%). During storage, the protein and fat content of cottage cheese varied significantly across blends; higher goat milk content resulted in lower protein(15.13±0.3%) and higher fat levels (23.6±0.3%). Microbial analysis indicated that goat milk and blends with higher concentrations of it exhibited more microbial growth compared to cow milk (7.46±0.01 log CFU g-1and 7.14±0.06 log CFU g -1 respectively). However, blends with up to 30% goat milk had minimal impact on microbial growth. Sensory evaluation highlighted that blends containing 20-30% goat milk were most favored by judges as they were similar to cow milk cheeses in terms of color, aroma, flavor and texture (8.97,8.89, 8.44, and 7.48 respectively). Mixing 20-30% goat milk with 70-80% cow milk results in a cottage cheese blend that is balanced in terms of nutrition and aligns with consumer preferences. However, it is important to note that the applicability of these findings may vary based on regional sensory preferences, highlighting the need for additional research involving diverse populations. This research offers valuable information for dairy companies looking to expand their range of cheeses prepared from different species like cow and goat while ensuring both quality and consumer satisfaction.
... Se obtuvieron un total de 4.685 resultados del muestreo de 61 estudios incluidos, que investigaron la calidad bacteriana de la leche cruda en 35/48 provincias de Argelia, desde 2009 hasta 2022. En este metaanálisis, el nivel promedio de contaminación por Bacterias Mesófilas Aerobias Totales (TAMB) fue de 5,84 log10 UFC·mL -1 , IC del 95 % [5,13]. El valor de P fue 0,001. ...
... There has been an increased interest in Caprine (Capra hircus) milk and goat milk products Worldwide because of their high nutritional content and health benefits. Goat milk has various effects on human health considering the total solid, fat, protein, lactose, mineral, and vitamin contents [5]. The beneficial role of Ovine (Ovis aries) milk results from its fatty acid, immunoglobulin and non-immune protein contents [6]. ...
The main goal of this article was to conduct a meta–analysis, to estimate the hygienic quality of the raw milk intended for human consumption and subsequently relative risk factors that may impact milk quality in Algeria. Weighted random–effects meta–analysis models were employed to analyze the data in this study. A total of 4,685 sampling results from 61 included studies, investigating the bacterial quality of raw milk across 35/48 Provinces in Algeria, from 2009 to 2022. In this meta–analysis, the average level of contamination by Total Aerobic Mesophilic Bacteria (TAMB) was 5.84 log10 CFU·mL-1. 95% CI [5.55–6.13]. The P–value was 0.001. The I2 test indicates the presence of substantial statistical heterogeneity across studies; (I2=86.26%, P<0,001). No significant publication bias was observed using the funnel plots and Egger’s test (P=0.885). In this article TAMB values did not differ significantly among species (P>0.05).The average contamination level TAMB was lower in milk samples collected from individual milking and farm tank milk (4.57 log10 CFU·mL-1 and 5.89 log10 CFU·mL-1), compared to those recorded in milk samples collected from the collector, dairy, and sales (6.59 log10 CFU·mL-1, 6.60 log10 CFU·mL-1, and 6.74 log10 CFU·mL-1, respectively). The contamination level of milk by TAMB was higher during summer and spring (6.80 log10 CFU·mL-1 and 6.70 log10 CFU·mL-1), compared to winter and autumn (4.27 log10 CFU·mL-1 and 5.64 log10 CFU·mL-1).
... Sun et al. [57] confirmed that studying the composition of nutrient solutions for L. rhamnosus shows that the bacteria have specific requirements for both the type and ratio of amino acids in the nutrient solutions. Moreover, vitamin B2 (riboflavin) is required for the growth of L. rhamnosus, and caprine milk contains only 0.13 mg of it in 100 g, while in ovine milk, riboflavin is 0.36 mg in 100 g, which could be the reason for poorer growth [57][58][59][60]. ...
... According to Ranadheera et al. [31], higher fat and protein levels in ovine milk may protect probiotics passing through the digestive tract. However, this thesis was not confirmed by our study, 58 According to Ziarno and Zaręba [67], bacterial survival depends on the initial number of bacterial cells. The higher the number of inserted microorganisms, the more bacterial cells can survive in the intestinal juice [67]. ...
Microbial tolerance of digestive stresses depends not only on the bacterial strain but also on the structure and physicochemical properties of the supply chain and the foods that contain it. In the present study, we aimed to evaluate the effects of the type of milk (ovine, caprine) and the type and dose of collagen on the viability of four probiotic strains, Lacticaseibacillus paracasei L-26, Lacticaseibacillus casei 431, Lactobacillus acidophilus LA-5, and Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus Lr-32, during in vitro gastrointestinal digestion. The highest survival rate under simulated in vitro digestion conditions compared to the number of cells before digestion was found in two strains, L. casei and L. paracasei, where survival rates were greater than 50% in each batch. The survival rate of the L. rhamnosus strain ranged from 41.05% to 64.23%. In caprine milk fermented by L. acidophilus, a higher survival rate was found in milk with 1.5% hydrolysate than the control, by about 6%. Survival of the L. rhamnosus strain was favorably affected by the 3% addition of bovine collagen in caprine milk, which increased survival by about 14% compared to the control sample. Adding 3% of hydrolysate to sheep’s and goat’s milk enhanced the survival of the L. rhamnosus strain by 3% and 19%, respectively. This study reports that fermented caprine and ovine milk may be suitable matrices for the probiotic supply of commercial dairy starter cultures and promote gut homeostasis.
... High-quality goat milk is produced from clean, healthy, and properly managed goat herds, and is essential for the production and marketing of high-quality dairy goat products (Park, 2011). Goat milk has long been associated to certain health benefits, particularly due to its high content of shortand medium-chain fatty acids, but this remains little known and little utilized (Turkmen, 2017). However, consumers' awareness of production values has increased, and goat milk, cheese and whey are growing in popularity. ...
... The total salt content was determined by the Volhard method (AOAC 935. 43). The pH value of cheese and whey was measured using a pH meter (Consort, Turnhout, Belgium) (AOAC 920.124). ...
This study aimed to investigate whether diet and different goat production systems affect the quality of milk, white-brined cheese and whey. It also aimed to determine the suitability of goat's milk for the production of white-brined cheese. The physicochemical composition and hygienic quality of raw goat's milk were studied, as well as the fatty acid profile and nutritional indices of milk and white-brined cheese. Traditional white-brined cheeses were produced from bulk goat milk from two farms in three samples. The results confirmed that different husbandry systems and diets influence the physicochemical composition of goat milk and cheese and their fatty acid profile. Milk and cheese from grazing goats contained significantly more (p<0.05) fat, protein, total solids and a higher percentage of cheese yield. Nutritional indices were also more favourable, with a lower atherogenic (AI) and thrombogenic (TI) index and a higher health-promoting index (HHP) and hypocholesterolemic/hypercholesterolemic ratio (HH). Goat grazing contributed to a higher content of n-3 fatty acids in milk and cheese and thus to a lower n-6/n-3 ratio. Cheese-making efficiency and protein recovery in the curd (%REC) was better with pasture milk, whereas fat recovery was better with milk from housed goats. Consumers rated the unripened white cheeses from both production systems the highest. In addition, the production of white cheese with brine results in good quality whey with significant health benefits. Natural pasture provides significantly more benefits to goats than confinement, especially in the early stages of use. This contributes to the high nutritional value of goat's milk, cheese and whey.
... Goat milk demand has been rising throughout the world, both in developed and undeveloped countries. Some of the motivations for goat milk consumption include high nutritional content compared to cow's milk, filling the need for gourmet products (e.g., goat cheese), and easy access to a valuable animal product for poor people [4,5]. Furthermore, goat milk is used as a therapy for gastrointestinal disturbances and has greater digestibility and lower allergenicity than cow milk [4,6]. ...
... Lactose is the main carbohydrate of ruminant milk, and in goats, its range is 4.1-4.3% [5,33]. Some differences are observed between breeds and seasons. ...
Goat milk composition is affected by feeding, and in semiarid rangeland, information on Creole goat milk physicochemical composition is lacking. For the fulfillment of this objective, three agroecological regions (AR) considering altitude (lowland 87, highland 779, and mountain 1309 m above sea level) with different botanical compositions were chosen. Every AR analyzed accounted for 30 goat herds, with a total of 90 herds. The results demonstrated that altitude had an influence mainly on density and protein. Milk density increases as altitude increases; conversely, milk protein increases as altitude decreases. On the other hand, in the mountain and lowland ARs, the salts and solids not fat (SNF) percentages were higher compared to that of the highland AR (p < 0.05). The freezing point (FP) was higher at highland altitudes compared to that of mountain and lowland ARs (p < 0.01). In the milk fatty acids (FA) profile, only the C14:1 value was affected by altitude, whereas goat milk at lowland and mountain altitudes had higher values compared to that at highland altitudes (p < 0.05). Additionally, late lactation stage fat, FP, and pH values were higher compared to early lactation values. The opposite effect was observed for salts and SNF. In the FA profile, late lactation values were higher for C10:0 and C8:0 compared to early lactation values. The opposite trend was observed for C18:2n6t. The thrombogenic index was significantly higher at lowland altitudes compared to highland altitudes, and similar to the mountain AR. These goat milk characteristics could be explained as a consequence of animal nutrition, as well as the goat’s meat-type phenotype.
... Compared to cow milk, goat milk exhibits unique characteristics, such as smaller fat globules and different protein compositions, which contribute to its distinctive properties [15]. Several studies have demonstrated that goat milk is rich in essential nutrients, including calcium, phosphorus, potassium, vitamin A, vitamin B2 (riboflavin), and vitamin D, with potential implications for bone health, immune function, and overall well-being [16][17][18]. Additionally, the bioactive components present in goat milk, such as oligosaccharides and fatty acids, have been studied for their potential anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects [18]. ...
Goat milk has gained recognition for its medicinal, cosmetic, and health benefits, particularly its potential to improve human skin conditions. Its therapeutic properties are attributed to bioactive compounds influenced by genes such as lactoferrin (LTF), lysozyme (LYZ), and β-casein (CSN2), known for their antimicrobial, immunomodulatory, and anti-inflammatory effects. Genetic factors are hypothesized to shape goat milk’s composition and its effectiveness in managing dermatological conditions like eczema and psoriasis. Understanding these genetic determinants is critical to optimizing the use of goat milk in skin health applications. This review aims to explore the application of genomic tools to elucidate the medicinal properties of goat milk and its implications for skin care. By identifying the specific genes and molecular mechanisms underpinning its therapeutic effects, genomic studies have provided insights into the bioactive constituents of goat milk, such as peptides, proteins, and lipids, which contribute to its dermatological efficacy. Candidate genes, including growth hormone receptor (GHR), butyrophilin (BTN1A1), and lactoglobulin (LGB), have been identified as critical for enhancing milk quality and functionality. Future research should integrate genomic data with functional studies to further investigate goat milk’s immunomodulatory, antimicrobial, and antioxidant activities. Such insights could advance targeted breeding strategies and innovative formulations for managing inflammatory skin conditions and promoting skin health.
... Previous research has shown that goat and camel milk is better digested than buffalo and cow milk because of the small size of the fat globules [3]. The fat content of goat's milk has higher short-and mediumchain triglycerides than cow's milk fat [4]. Creating biotechnologies of nutritious food products is a priority and the most important area of development of the dairy industry. ...
Goat milk is a valuable resource for food production thanks to its physical, chemical, and biological properties, easy digestibility, and lower allergenicity. The dairy product market in Kazakhstan is growing, leading to advancements in the industrial processing of goat milk. Consequently, this study aimed to analyse the proximate composition of raw goat milk, produce cheeses from goat milk alone and in combination with cow milk and examine the fatty acid profiles of the resulting cheeses. The findings indicated that goat milk contained a higher percentage of protein, while a 1:1 mixture of goat and cow milk exhibited increased levels of lactose and fat (p <0.001). A soft cheese prepared from goat milk exhibited faster coagulation, higher cheese yield and fat in dry matter. Furthermore, the saturated fatty acid (SFA) content was greater in cheeses made from the goat-cow milk blend compared to those made solely from goat milk (p <0.05). Notably, an increased presence of oleic acid and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), such as linoleic, linolenic, and palmitoleic acids, was only detected in 100% goat milk cheeses. Overall, the soft cheese produced from goat milk showed improved nutritional qualities, particularly regarding fatty acid content. However, additional research is needed to assess sensory attributes and consumer acceptance.
... Compared to cow's milk, goat milk exhibits unique characteristics such as smaller fat globules and different protein compositions, which contribute to its distinctive properties [17]. Several studies have demonstrated that goat milk is rich in essential nutrients including calcium, phosphorus, potassium, vitamin A, vitamin B2 (riboflavin), and vitamin D, with potential implications for bone health, immune function, and overall well-being [18][19][20]. Additionally, bioactive components present in goat milk, such as oligosaccharides and fatty acids, have been studied for their potential anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects [20]. ...
Goat milk's medicinal properties and potential cosmetic and health benefits have prompted extensive scientific investigation into its therapeutic applications, particularly for human skin conditions like eczema and psoriasis. Genetic factors, including genes such as lactoferrin (LTF), lysozyme (LYZ), and β-casein (CSN2), play a crucial role in shaping milk composition and its effects on skin health. This review explores the utilization of genomic tools to elucidate the genomic profiles of dairy goat breeds and the medicinal properties of goat milk, particularly in addressing key skin diseases. Genetic determinants of milk composition, quality, nutritional quality, and functional properties such as the growth hormone receptor (GHR), butyrophilin (BTN1A1) and lactoglobulin (LGB) genes, facilitating targeted breeding strategies to enhance the production of bioactive compounds with dermatological relevance have been identified. Future genomic approaches should aim at exploring goat milk's immunomodulatory, antimicrobial, and antioxidant activities, offering potential applications in skin care formulations for managing inflammatory skin conditions. Furthermore, the integration of genomic data with functional studies can provide valuable insights into the therapeutic effects of goat’s milk and its derivatives in addressing skin diseases.
... Goat milk, on the other hand, is increasing in popularity as a functional food due to its nutritional properties and lower allergenicity in comparison to cow milk [34]. Compared to cow milk, goat milk has a smaller fat globule size and contains a higher concentration of medium-chain triglycerides (MCT), resulting in better digestibility, more efficient lipid metabolism and softer texture [35]. Numerous prior studies have shown that goat milk provides a better use of iron, which minimizes possible interaction between iron and other minerals and hence, improve the bioavailability of copper, zinc, magnesium, phosphorus and selenium in animal models [36]- [38]. ...
Date palm, Goat milk, Iron deficiency anemia, Transferrin receptor
... Most of the goat milk protein component is similar to human milk. Thus, goat milk has more digestible nutrients than cow milk (Turkmen 2017). Moreover, goat milk has a lot of small-size fat globules and low lactose content (Silanikove et al. 2010), which results in more digestible and can be consumed by an infant (Prosser 2021). ...
Indonesian people utilize goat milk to be traditionally processed into food products. Goat milk processing into dairy products is expected to be an alternative way to increase the value of goat milk consumption without reducing the benefit. The traditional dairy products from goat milk are Dali from North Sumatra and Dangke from South Sulawesi. This study aimed to examine the physiochemical, microbiological, and organoleptic characteristics of dali with Agave angustifolia leaf extract coagulant (alo-alo leaf), dangke with papaya latex coagulant, and fresh cheese with rennet coagulant. The experimental design used a randomized block design with three different levels of coagulant treatment, namely Rennet, papaya latex, and Agave angustifolia leaves as casein coagulating enzymes for dali, dangke, and fresh cheese. The variance and non-parametric data test used the Kruskal-Wallis test, followed by Tukey's multiple comparison test. The results showed that the values of aw, pH, and fat between dali, dangke, and fresh cheese were not different. Meanwhile, there is a significant difference (P0.05) for yield value, dry matter, ash, protein, and carbohydrate. The results showed that the total plate count, yeast, and mold count of fresh cheese, dali, and dangke were not significantly different. The results of the hedonic test showed that fresh cheese differs significantly from others (P0.05). Fresh cheese had a better organoleptic value than dangke and dali.
... In recent years, goat milk and milk products have become an increasingly in-demand commodity on the consumer market. Milk obtained from goats is characterised by a chemical composition that is favourable for the human body; its better digestibility is due to the presence of smaller fat globules than those of cow milk and its content of many beneficial fatty acids (Turkmen, 2017;Nayik et al., 2021). Chemical composition of milk depends not only on the animal species but also on other factors such as age, nutrition, health status, stage of lactation, month of milking, and climatic conditions (Pietrzak-Fiećko and Kamelska-Sadowska, 2020). ...
The aim of this study was to analyse the milk parameters and the chemical, nutritional, and sensory characteristics of cheeses made from the milk of three groups of goats: native Carpathian goat, Anglonubian and crossbred goats (Saanen x Alpine). For this study, milk was collected three times during the grazing season and was processed into rennet semi-hard cheeses according to a traditional recipe in a pre-farm cheese dairy. Samples of the milk were subjected to physicochemical analyses. The chemical composition, vitamin, macronutrient content, and fatty acid profile of the cheeses were determined. The cheeses were also subjected to organoleptic evaluation. The results showed that the factors studied, such as breed and month of milking, had a significant effect on the physicochemical properties and chemical composition of goat milk. The month of milking affected all the milk characteristics studied, with September having the highest values of acidity, dry matter, fat and protein content. The month did not affect the level of basic components in the cheeses, but it influenced the content of vitamins and macronutrients; the cheeses produced in September had significantly higher levels of Mg, K, and vitamin E. The month of milking had, as did the breed of goat, a significant effect on the profile of most fatty acids in the cheeses. As for the breed factor, it affected both the chemical composition and sensory value of the cheeses. Cheeses made from the milk of the native Carpathian goat had the best health-promoting properties: a more favourable fatty acid profile, the lowest PUFA-6/3 ratio, and the lowest atherogenic index. According to the panellists, cheese from the milk of Carpathian goats also had the most distinctive aroma, typical for goat cheese. The research shows that the cheeses made from the milk of the native Carpathian goat had the best health-promoting properties, which confirms the need for further popularisation of the breed and can be the basis for marketing more products.
... As these goats are found in Tarai, they are well adapted to the climatic conditions of this region and resistant to many of the diseases of this region compared to other goats (Singh et al., 2010;Vandana, 2014) [15,17] . The composition of goat milk is almost similar compared to other mammary origins except for lipids or fatty acids profile (Turkmen, 2017) [16] . Goat milk and colostrum have recently received attention from researchers all around the world as potential replacements for cow or other milk replacers or sources of useful food ingredients (Mehra et al., 2021;Prosser, 2021) [8,13] . ...
The present investigation was carried out to study the chemical parameters of Pantja goat's milk under farm conditions in the Tarai region of Uttarakhand. The average fat percent of milk increased with advancing lactation. Minimum total solids in milk were found in 1 st week of morning milk (i.e. 12.42±0.314) and maximum in morning milk of the 25 th week (i.e. 15.35±0.958). The highest and lowest SNF values were noted in morning milk of the 26 th week and 1 st week i.e. 9.77±0.124 and 8.78±0.099, respectively. The lactose content of milk in the present study also showed an increasing trend till 13 weeks after that it had decreasing trend till the 26 th week. The protein content of milk was in the range of 3.97±0.219 percent to 4.3±0.158 percent whereas ash content was in the range of 0.748±0.05 to 0.86±0.017 percent.
... Goat milk contains more calcium, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, and chlorine, while having lower levels of sodium and sulfur compared to cow's milk. Also, it contains higher levels of vitamin A [21,22]. Its complexity arises from diverse factors like breed characteristics, age, diet, as well as the lactation stage, farming method, physical environment, and seasons affecting the milk's color, flavor, and composition and enabling the creation of a variety of milk products [4]. ...
... Smallsized fatty acid globules, high quantities of mediumchain fatty acids, and short-chain fatty acids such as caproic, caprylic, and capric acid define the fatty acid content of goat milk (Yilmaz-Ersan et al., 2016). In addition, due to the molecular components of the fat granules in goat milk are smaller than those in cow', it has a more uniform combination and is easier to digest (Turkmen, 2017;Nayik et al., 2022). However, goat milk has a disadvantage in that it has a distinct goaty flavor. ...
This study aimed to improve the functional quality of goat-milk kefir by adding secang wood extract. The initial stage of the research was the extraction of secang wood using distilled water. Kefir is made by mixing secang wood extract and pasteurized goat milk with 5% kefir grains, then incubated at 25̊C for 20 hours. Goat-milk kefir was then tested for physicochemical quality (i.e., total solids, water content, pH value, acidity value, viscosity, and alcohol content), microbiological quality (i.e., total lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and total yeast), organoleptic properties, antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus, and antioxidant activity. The results showed that the physicochemical quality of kefir with the addition of secang wood extract had an effect (p<0.05) on total solids, water content, pH value, acidity value, and viscosity. The results showed that the addition of secang wood extract 8% to goat-milk kefir has an antioxidant activity of 12.18% and an antibacterial activity by inhibiting Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus 24.81mm and 18.95mm, respectively. These findings confirmed that goat-milk kefir, with the addition of secang wood extract, has the potential as a functional food.
... Casein in yak milk accounts for about 60 % of the total protein, 1.5 times that of regular cow milk (Turkmen, 2017). The proportion of β-casein makes up about 45 % of the total casein. ...
Yak milk is a characteristic animal product of yaks in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Although yak milk production is low, it is richer in nutrients such as protein, fat, and lactose, a more comprehensive range of bioactive components, and unique microbial resources than Holstein cow milk. The plateau environment makes yak milk resistant to hypoxia, anti-fatigue, antioxidant, antibacterial, and relieves chronic diseases. In this paper, based on the systematic analysis of yak milk research results in the past 20 years using CiteSpace 6.1.R2, we reviewed yak lactation performance and nutritional efficacy of yak milk. This paper summarizes the improvement of traditional yak dairy processing technology, and also focuses on the microbial diversity of yak milk sources and their beneficial effects. The purpose of this review is to provide scientific support for the development of a quality yak milk industry on the Tibetan plateau.
... [2] Access this article online There has been an increased interest in goat milk and its products worldwide because of its high nutritional value and health benefits. [3] Over 170 goat dairy products including 150 cheeses, milk, yogurt, ice cream etc. from 23 countries in 4 continents has been reported. [4] While defining the properties of goat milk, it is told to be light, astringent, appetizer (Dipana), and effective in diseases like dyspnoea, cough and haemoptysis. ...
In many countries, goat (Aja) rearing is well organized and is an essential part of living in terms of contributing to the economic structure as well as nutrition. Goat milk (Aja Dugdha) is rich source of protein, vitamins, enzymes and mineral content and most of them are present in higher percentage than that of other commonly consumed milk. For instance, it contains 13% more calcium, 47% more vitamin A and 25% more vitamin B6 than cow’s milk. It has better digestibility, alkalinity and buffer capacity than milk of other animals and also possesses numerous therapeutic properties viz. Anticancer, hepato-protective, cardio-protective and antihypertensive etc. Classical texts of Ayurveda also embrace its nutritive and therapeutic potential and indicated it in management of different diseases like Atisara (diarrhoea), Jwara (fever), Rajyakshma (tuberculosis), Kshaya, Shosha (atrophy/emaciation) etc. Methodology: Different scientific databases like Web of Science, Scopus etc. along with Ayurveda texts viz., Charak Samhita, Kashyap Samhita etc were searched in order to extract data pertaining to goat milk. Results: The present study revealed that in Ayurveda, goat milk has been indicated in the management of more than 20 disease conditions and conventional studies also reported more than 15 pharmacological properties of goat milk. Discussion & Conclusion: It has been found that the therapeutic and nutritive value of goat milk has been extensively studied in Ayurveda and conventional science as well. It’s easy to digest and have a better composition of vitamins, fatty acids, protein and minerals than other available milks. Therefore, it can be a used a most appropriate alternative to human and cow milk but should with caution as it lacks sufficient quantity of iron, folate and vitamins C etc.
... Goat's milk is as nutritious, and more digestible than cow's milk (Zhao et al., 2022;Chauhan et al., 2021). It plays an important role in immune stimulation, growth promotion and disease prevention (Turkmen, 2017). In many parts of the tropics, goats are important milk producers (Csapóné Riskó and Csapó, 2019). ...
Feeding is one of the limiting factors of productivity in goat production in developing countries. That’s why this study was carried out to characterize the feeding systems used in goat farming in Benin. Accordingly, a semi-structured survey was conducted among 533 goat farmers in 6 agro-ecological zones in Benin. Data were collected on socio-demographic characteristics, breeding practices and feeding methods. A typology of goat feeding systems was developed using a factorial analysis of mixed data followed by an ascending hierarchical classification. The results of the study revealed three main types of feeding systems. These are feeding systems based on the use of: (i) natural pasture in a free-grazing system, (ii) natural pasture, crop residues and concentrates in a semi-controlled breeding system, and (iii) natural pasture, crop residues and concentrates in a controlled breeding system. The implementation of a programme to improve goat feeding and management systems will contribute significantly to increasing goat productivity. It will also contribute to food security in the rural community.
Keywords: Benin, Capra hircus, feeding practices, management practices
... Recently, goat milk has become popular due to its high nutritional value and health benefits [1,2]. The average chemical composition of goat and cow milk is not significantly different and there are similarities in total dry matter, protein, fat, and lactose concentrations. ...
In this study, we produced goat milk yogurts with mTGase (microbial transglutaminase), two different yogurt starter cultures (the non-EPS producer YC350 and the EPS producer YoFlex), and casein powder for fortification. The research design was based on response surface methodology and testing independent variables such as pH, lactic acid percent, and relative viscosity. Four yogurts were produced and tested. In organoleptic evaluation, yogurts produced with YC350 scored higher in odor and taste. The SDS-PAGE patterns showed that monomer band intensity decreased with higher mTGase concentrations. The best microstructure was in yogurt made with the highest mTGase and EPS producer bacteria. The acetaldehyde level was higher in yogurts produced with the EPS starter culture YoFlex. The use of mTGase together with an EPS-forming bacteria improved textural, microstructural and organoleptic properties of yogurt produced from goat milk enriched with micellar casein powder.
... Recently, goat milk has become popular due to its high nutritional value and health benefits [1,2]. The average chemical composition of goat and cow milk is not significantly different and there are similarities in total dry matter, protein, fat, and lactose concentrations. ...
In this study, we produced goat milk yogurts with mTGase (microbial transglutaminase), two diferent yogurt starter cultures (the non-EPS producer YC350 and the EPS producer YoFlex), and casein powder for fortifcation. The research design
was based on response surface methodology and testing independent variables such as pH, lactic acid percent, and relative
viscosity. Four yogurts were produced and tested. In organoleptic evaluation, yogurts produced with YC350 scored higher
in odor and taste. The SDS-PAGE patterns showed that monomer band intensity decreased with higher mTGase concentrations. The best microstructure was in yogurt made with the highest mTGase and EPS producer bacteria. The acetaldehyde
level was higher in yogurts produced with the EPS starter culture YoFlex. The use of mTGase together with an EPS-forming
bacteria improved textural, microstructural and organoleptic properties of yogurt produced from goat milk enriched with
micellar casein powder.
... In addition, it is known that conjugated linoleic acid reduces the generation of cancer cells and inhibits atherosclerosis and diabetes [4]. In addition, a higher amount of some short-chain fatty acids enhances the goat scent and the aftertaste of dairy products [14,38]. ...
To study the effect of seasonality and genotype on the productivity of goats and the quality of their milk, 30 goats of three different breeds were taken: 10 Saanen goats, 10 Russian white goats and 10 local Ukrainian goats. The milk yield of the experimental goats was evaluated during the year for the volume, protein content, fat content, lactose content, acidity and density. The effect of both genotype and season on protein content, and the effect of only season on fat content and lactose content were determined. The most dependent on seasonal factors (change of season, temperature fluctuations, amount of precipitation) were goats of Saanen and Russian white breed, the least dependent were goats of local Ukrainian selection. Acidity and density of milk did not change during the entire experiment. The highest protein content (3.32%) and fat content (3.37%) were found in Saanen goats. The highest lactose content (4.53%) was found in goats of local Ukrainian breeding. During the spring and summer months, goats of local Ukrainian selection and Russian white showed the best productivity.Goats of the Saanen breed had the best productivity during the autumn and winter months.
... (Park, 2017). As goat milk has different effects on human health due to its content of total solids in addition to its positive effects on the sensory and structural properties of dairy products, where the goat milk fat is easily digested with containing small fat pellets and the content of short and medium chain fatty acids in addition to containing a high percentage of conjugated linoleic acid, which plays an important role in promoting growth, preventing diseases and increasing immunity (Turkmen, 2017). Buffalo milk comes second in the world in terms of the amount of production (Pantoja et al., 2022). ...
Yogurt is one of the world's most widely consumed dairy products and can be produced from different types of milk. The present research aimed to compare the effects of utilizing whole raw milk from cattle viz. cows, buffaloes, sheep, and goats in four dif-ferent milk-type yogurts, T1- cow’s milk (CM), T2- buffalo’s milk (BM), T3- sheep’s milk (SM), and T4- goat’s milk (GM) on their physicochemical, texture, rheological, and sensory qualities. The physiochemical testing included estimating pH, the percent-ages of moisture, fat, protein, ash, and total acidity, and the sensory assessment of the yogurt. The rheological tests also in-cluded the viscosity test, spontaneous whey separation, water-holding capacity, firmness, cohesiveness, and springiness. The results showed that T2- BM yogurt and T3- SM yogurt excelled in the percentage of fat, protein, lactose, and ash, where the ratio (4.35, 8.4, 4.70, 0.8) (5.55, 7.45, 4.80, 1.1) was for each of T2- BM yogurt and T3- SM yogurt respectively. The rheolog-ical properties were the spontaneous whey separation for each of T1-CM, T2-BM, T3-SM, T4-GM yogurt were 4.1, 2.2, 2.1 and 5.3, respectively, while the water holding capacity was 55, 60, 71 and 53 and the viscosity was 7000, 8900, 6700 and 1510 respectively. The results of the texture properties were 126.2, 199.5, 176.3, and 38.9 for firmness, while the cohesive-ness values were 0.41, 0.63, 0.65, and 0.4, respectively. Finally, T2-BM and T3-SM yogurt excelled in the value obtained for sensory evaluation. The importance of the present study lies in the fact that milk with a high percentage of total solids gives good-quality yogurt.
... In 2020, world milk production grew up to 2% from last year, with a projected increase of 1.6% in the different regions of the world (FAO, 2021). Consumption of goat's milk and its manufactured dairy products has raised attention due to the high nutritive values and sensorial attributes, even superior to those of bovine's milk (Kovácová et al., 2021;Turkmen, 2017;Masotti, et al., 2012). Goat's milk is composed of 4% lipids (98% triacylglycerols), 3.5% of proteins, 4% of lactose, 1% ashes, and water, with an important content of minerals such as zinc, manganese, calcium, selenium, copper, and vitamins like vitamin A (retinol), vitamin B2 (riboflavin), and vitamin B3 (niacin) (Ferrerira Soares Cabral et al., 2020;Lima et al., 2016). ...
... On average, the composition of goat milk includes total solids of 13.2% which consists of 4.5% fat, 3.6% protein, 4.3% lactose and 0.8% minerals. Goat milk contains lower lactose levels compared to cow's milk and has higher total solid, fat, protein, casein and minerals than cow's milk (Turkmen, 2017). The structure and content of their milk lipids are the main differences between goat milk and cow milk. ...
The objective of this study is to discover how wild honey and sugar ratios used in goat milk yogurt formulations affect physical, lactic acid bacteria (LAB) growth and sensory analysis. Four distinct goat milk yogurt formulations were developed: goat milk yogurt with additions of 8% honey (HH), 6% honey
and 2% sugar (LS), 4% honey and 4% sugar (MH), and 2% honey and 6% sugar (LH). 8% sugar was added to goat milk yogurt sample to create a control sample (HS). The goat milk yogurt's pH, color,
moisture content, acidity, and lactic acid bacteria count were determined. A total of 40 untrained panelists performed a sensory assessment to gauge consumer acceptance of the goat milk yogurt with different honey composition. For all of the formulations, the physical examination of moisture content, pH, and titratable acidity revealed values between 70.61% and 79.90%, 4.36 and 4.53, and 0.60% and 0.95%, respectively. The L*, a*, and b* values for all of the formulations were between 56.24 and 63.40, (-1.62) and (-2.40), and 4.56 and 5.76, respectively, for the color analysis. The lactic acid bacteria count ranged from 3.06 to 5.49 log cfu/ml, with HS recorded the highest number. LH yogurt was found to be most
preferred by the panelist than other yogurt compositions. It can be concluded that the incorporation of honey at 2% improved the goat milk yogurt characteristics and has potential to be developed into new goat milk based products.
... Indeed, dairy farming is a tangible source of income for producers as they can sell both the animals themselves and their products, creating employment opportunities for thousands of people (Peacock 2005). In addition, although goat milk production per capita remains relatively low compared to bovine, goat milk is an important source of nutrients in the communities where it is consumed (Turkmen 2017). These chains (bovine and caprine) therefore act as a critical source of nutritionally rich food, providing protein, vitamins, minerals, and essential fatty acids and helping to meet the dietary needs of millions of Senegalese, particularly children and women of childbearing age. ...
Domestic animals, especially small ruminants, are an important source of income for millions of smallholder farmers, particularly women, in Senegal. The aim of this study was to understand the place of the bovine and caprine milk value chains and to identify the role and challenges for women in the Fatick livestock production sector. A survey was conducted among a sample of 50 female producers, including 30 and 20 from the bovine and caprine milk value chains, respectively. Descriptive statistics were performed to compare the caprine and bovine milk value chains in terms of activities, products, and implications for household incomes while showing the place of women at different links of these value chains. The result of the study showed that the bovine milk value chain provided higher income compared to the caprine’s, but the latter was found to be more diverse in terms of milk-derived products with increased income opportunities’ potential. Remoteness, lack of equipment, and cultural biases were reported to be the main constraints in the caprine value chain, while milk price fluctuations were reported to be the biggest challenge for producers in the bovine milk value chain. Access to land and government subsidy programs and domestic time management were the main and specific challenges affecting women in the bovine and caprine value chains. Therefore, there is a need for the establishment of policies and interventions that consider the needs, opportunities, and complementarity offered by both the caprine and bovine milk value chains across smallholder women settings, while putting gender mainstreaming at the center of the discussions and reforms.
... According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), it is predicted that by 2050 the consumption of animal-origin proteins, including milk and dairy products, will increase by 17% in the Business as Usual (BAU) scenario and 20.9% per capita in the Stratified Societies (SS) scenario [1]. In recent years, goat milk has gained a great deal of attention among consumers due to its higher digestibility, higher content of mediumchain triglycerides, oligosaccharide, β-casein and lower αS1-casein, resulting in reduced allergenicity compared with cow milk [2][3][4][5][6][7][8]. ...
Goat mastitis is still frequently diagnosed in dairy farms, with serious consequences on milk quality and composition. The aim of this study was to establish correlations between milk microorganisms and biochemical parameters in goats with no signs of clinical mastitis. Thus, 76 milk samples were collected from a dairy goat farm, Carpathian breed, followed by microbiological, molecular (16S rRNA sequencing) and somatic cells analysis, determination of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), β-glucuronidase, catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity, total antioxidant capacity (TAC), nitric oxide (NO) and lipid peroxides (LPO) using spectrophotometry and the ELISA method for 8-hydroxy-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) as the oxidative DNA damage indicator. Samples positive for bacterial growth showed a significant (p < 0.05) increase in the number of somatic cells, LDH and β-glucuronidase activity, as well as higher levels of CAT, GPx, NO, LPO and 8-OHdG compared with pathogen-free milk whereas TAC was lower in milk from an infected udder. These findings suggest that subclinical mastitis is associated with increased enzymatic activity and induction of oxidative stress. Nevertheless, changes in biochemical parameters tended to vary depending on the pathogen, the most notable mean values being observed overall in milk positive for Staphylococcus aureus.
... high digestion rate, a low allergic effect, and includes useful chemicals and proteins. Goat milk contains a higher concentration of short and medium fatty acid chains, giving it a unique potential to deliver energy, especially to developing children (Turkmen 2017). Goat milk contains prebiotics that helps feed the probiotics in the gut. ...
Objectives
This work provides to evaluate cholesterol assimilation and folic acid production by determining the probiotic properties of Lactobacillus spp. from raw goat milk with prebiotic properties.
Results
We isolated Lactobacilli from goat milk and identified API 50, CHL, and 16sRNA. Probiotic properties were determined according to bile salt and acidic tolerance, hydrophobicity, hemolytic activity, antibiotic sensitivity, antagonistic effect, and exopolysaccharide production. In addition, the cholesterol assimilation and folate production of cultures were determined.
Conclusions
L. plantarum GM-12 and L. plantarum GM-15 showed the highest folate production and the highest cholesterol assimilation.These two strains are strong candidates for use as potential probiotics and starter cultures.
Globally goat milk ranks as the third most produced milk, following cow and buffalo milk. It is distinguished by a unique nutritional profile enriched with bioactive components that offer numerous therapeutic benefits. Its distinct protein, such as low αs1-casein as well as higher β-casein, and fat composition, like smaller fat globules and higher concentrations of medium-chain triglycerides, taurine, polyamines, oligosaccharides, bioactive peptides, essential minerals, and vitamins, contribute to enhanced digestibility and nutrient absorption. Research reports indicate that aforesaid unique features of goat milk collectively impart hypoallergenic, antioxidant, antipathogenic, immune-modulating, anti-inflammatory, and anti-proliferative effects, supporting brain health, cardiovascular function, and gut health. Because of these properties, goat milk and components are being applied for different physiological and health-boosting potentials. Also, the bioactive constituents of goat milk are currently under investigation for their therapeutic potential and have facilitated the development of a range of specialty products. This review explores goat milk’s exceptional composition, physiological functionality, and medicinal value, highlighting its expanding role in consumer health and wellness.
Non-bovine dairy animals, commonly referred to as non-traditional dairy species, include goats, sheep, yaks, buffalo, donkeys, alpacas, llamas, and other less commonly farmed species. These animals have been integral to livestock systems since ancient times, providing milk and other essential products. Despite their historical significance, dairy production from many of these species remains predominantly confined to rural areas in developing countries, where scientific advancements and technical improvements are often limited. As a consequence of this, the scientific literature and technological developments in the processing and characterization of dairy products from these species have lagged behind those for cow's milk. This review aims to compile and analyze existing research on dairy products derived from non-traditional animals, focusing on their molecular characteristics, including proteins (alpha, beta, kappa, and total casein), fats (cholesterol and total fat), lactose, albumin, ash, total solids, and somatic cell count, among others, for each of these species. Additionally, we discuss emerging technologies employed in their processing, encompassing both non-thermal methods (such as high-pressure processing, pulsed electric fields, ultrasound processing, UV-C irradiation, gamma radiation, microfiltration, and cold plasma processing) and thermal methods (such as ohmic heating). This review also explores the specific potential applications and challenges of implementing these technologies. By synthesizing recent findings, we aim to stimulate further research into innovative technologies and strategies that can enhance the quality and yield of non-bovine dairy products. Understanding the unique properties of milk from these species may lead to new opportunities for product development, improved processing methods, and increased commercialization in both developing and developed markets.
Goat milk can be beneficial in cardiac diseases, mouth ulcers, dengue fever, etc. but ingestion of raw goat milk may have severe side effects as it may comprise pathogenic bacteria. Raw goat milk samples (n-55) were collected from diverse villages of the Udaipur district, Rajasthan, India and analyzed for bacterial diversity and pathogens using biochemical, molecular, and bioinformatic methods. Goat milk samples displayed an incidence of 36.36% for bacterial pathogens and the most prevalent bacteria reported were Listeria spp. and Staphylococcus spp. Bacillus cereus and Staphylococcus xylosus showed high resistance to tested antibiotics followed by Listeria. The dominant phylum found in the raw goat milk was Firmicutes
(67.47%) and the dominant genus was Bacillus (28.32%). Listeria sp. was found dominant during the winter season while Staphylococcus spp. was dominant during summer. Three novel species were identified viz. S. xylosus (GM61), Streptomyces sp. C7 (GM2) and Pantoea agglomerans (GM31) can be further explored for their potential applications as bacteriocin producers' which can be used as food
preservatives. New antibiotics or any antimicrobial produced by these three novel species can be used for the treatment of diseases. Pseudomonas yangonensis and Streptomyces sp. have not been previously reported in goat milk at the global level while S. xylosus at the National level.
Simple Summary
In the near future, several areas of the world will be affected by climate change, reducing their water availability. More than 90% of goats are found in Asia and Africa, and it is believed that these animals would be more resilient to climate change. Their milk is a good source of nutrients, contributing to the food security of the poorest and rural communities. Considering that milk is mostly water, it is essential to understand how the goat mammary gland can respond at a productive, cellular, hormonal, and blood level when faced with reduced water intake scenarios, as well as analyzing prospects in terms of more sustainable goat milk production.
Abstract
Due to climate change, diverse territories of the planet will suffer from water restrictions. Goats are perceived as the most resilient ruminants in this scenario. So, various studies have focused on describing how a lower water intake influences milk production, especially in breeds adapted to desert environments. In water-stress situations, goats lose up to 32% of their body weight (BW), the rate of passage is reduced, and the digestibility of the feed increases. When goats consume water again, the rumen prevents hemolysis and osmotic shock from occurring. Regarding milk production, the response varies depending on the breed and the level of water restriction, maintaining the milk volume or reducing it by up to 41%. Systemically, it decreases the urinary volume and glomerular filtration rate, increasing blood osmolality and the vasopressin (ADH) concentration. Studies are scarce regarding changes in blood flow to the mammary gland, but there would be a reduction in blood flow velocity of up to 40% without changing blood pressure. New studies must be undertaken to determine which breeds or crosses are the best adapted to changing environmental conditions and to improve our understanding of the changes that occur at the morphophysiological level of the caprine mammary gland.
Occurrence of antibiotics in animal sourced foods not only affects economy but also poses potential health risks.
The present study aimed to validate simultaneous detection of amoxicillin, penicillin – G and enrofloxacin in raw
migratory goat milk (N = 223) by HPLC-DAD and assess human health risks in Western Himalayan region, India.
The analytical method was found to be linear (R2 > 0.99), accurate (recoveries > 80 %), precise (RSD < 10 %),
and sensitive (CCα, 0.92–1.61 ng/mL) with LOQ values well below the MRLs. Antibiotic residues were detected
in 11 (4.9 %) samples, and 9/11 (81.8 %) samples had levels above MRLs. Human health risk assessments based
on comparison of estimated daily intakes with acceptable daily intakes of antibiotics revealed that there are no
acute health risks to adults and children at current levels of contamination. However, % contribution to ADI for
enrofloxacin and penicillin-G were significantly higher in children. Therefore, keeping in view, availability and
routine consumption of goat milk especially by families of nomadic pastoralists in Himalayan region, children
may be at a greater risk than adults. Hence, the present study highlights the need for monitoring of goat milk for
contaminants, and education of nomadic pastoralists to meet food safety standards and for protection of human
health.
Goat milk proteins are unique in their nutritional and functional properties and have become increasingly popular in recent years. A variety of methods have been studied for extracting and isolating these proteins, with coprecipitation being a particularly effective approach. Compared to cow milk proteins, goat milk proteins contain higher levels of certain amino acids such as tryptophan and cysteine, while maintaining similar nutritional properties. Additionally, they have superior functional properties, including better emulsifying and foaming properties, which make them an attractive option for developing new food products. Research has shown that goat milk proteins have several health benefits, including immunomodulatory effects, allergy management, anti‐inflammatory, and antioxidant effects, as well as antimicrobial and anticancer properties. They have the potential to be used as a treatment for autoimmune diseases, allergies, and other immune system disorders due to their ability to modulate the production of cytokines and other immune system components. Furthermore, their antimicrobial properties can help prevent the growth of harmful bacteria and reduce the risk of infection. Future research will focus on the potential of goat milk proteins as a functional food ingredient, their effects on gut health and microbiota, and their therapeutic potential for various health conditions. This research may lead to the development of new functional foods that promote health and prevent disease, and potentially pave the way for the use of goat milk proteins as a therapeutic agent for various health conditions.
Goat's milk has been among the priority milk in consumer preferences, in recent years. It is an excellent food for children and adults due to its chemical composition and functional properties, and it can be easily consumed by individuals with cow's milk allergy. In the study, semi-hard type cheese was produced from cow’s and goat’s milk. Acidity, pH, fat, dry matter, ash, water activity, salt, color, protein, yield, organic acid and textural properties of cheeses were investigated. As a result of the analysis, it was determined that the titration acidity (% lactic acid), ash, total protein and value of cheese produced from goat's milk were higher. In terms of color, goat's cheese has a more matte appearance than cow's cheese, a* values are higher in semi-hard type cheese produced from goat's milk, and b* value is lower. The study determined that the firmness value of cheese produced from cow's milk was higher than that of goat cheese. In the study, 6 organic acids (oxalic acid, tartaric acid, formic acid, lactic acid, acetic acid and succinic acid) were determined. Formic, succinic and tartaric acid amounts were found higher in cheeses produced from goat milk. It was determined that the lactic acid level was designated the highest organic acid in cheese produced from both milk types. Cheeses produced from goat milk are more appreciated in terms of cross-sectional appearance and taste in sensory analysis. It is thought that semi-hard type cheeses can be produced from goat's milk can be an alternative to cheeses produced from cow's milk.
Milk can improve sleep, and the effects of different animal milks vary. Accordingly, we evaluated the effectiveness of goat milk and cow milk in alleviating insomnia. The findings demonstrated that both goat milk and cow milk significantly increased the length of time that mice with insomnia slept compared to the model group and lowered the relative abundance of Colidextribacter, Escherichia-Shigella, and Proteus in these mice. A notable finding was that goat milk considerably increased the relative abundance of Dubosiella, Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus, and Mucispirillum, whereas cow milk dramatically increased the relative abundance of Lactobacillus and Acinetobacter. Diazepam therapy could lengthen the slumber of mice; however, analysis of bacteria indicated that although the relative abundance of dangerous bacteria such as Mucispirillum, Parasutterella, Helicobacter, and Romboutsia increased, that of Blautia and Faecalibaculum decreased. Both Listeria and Clostridium experienced a large increase in relative abundance. Additionally, goat milk provided efficient restoration of neurotransmitters including 5-HT, GABA, DA, and NE. Besides that, the expression of genes and proteins for CREB, BDNF, and TrkB in the hypothalamus was up-regulated, and the pathophysiology of the hypothalamus was improved. Overall, the effects of goat and cow milk on insomnia in mouse models differed, and goat milk is preferred over cow milk.
Fermented goat milk is an artisanal beverage with excellent nutritional properties. There are limited data on its physicochemical properties, fatty acids, phenolic acids, and on any insight on microbiota. The aim of this research was to conduct a pilot study to compare these parameters in raw cow and goat milk before and after spontaneous fermentation in a clay pot and glass container at 37 °C for 24 h. Both types of milk and fermentation containers significantly affected the pH, acidity, proximate composition, viscosity, and whiteness index of fermented milks. A total of 17 fatty acids were identified in fermented milks, where palmitic, stearic, and myristic were the main saturated acids, and oleic and linoleic acids were the main unsaturated ones. These profiles were primarily influenced by the type of raw milk used. Three to five phenolic acids were identified in fermented milks, where quinic acid was the major phenolic compound, and salviolinic acid was identified only in raw goat milk. Preliminary metataxonomic sequencing analysis showed that the genera Escherichia spp. and Streptococcus spp. were part of the microbiota of both fermented milks, with the first genus being the most abundant in fermented goat milk, and Streptococcus in cow’s milk. Moreover, Escherichia abundance was negatively correlated with the abundance of many genera, including Lactobacillus. Overall, the results of this pilot study showed significant variations between the physicochemical properties, the fatty and phenolic acids, and the microbial communities of goat and cow fermented milk, showing the opportunity to further investigate the tested parameters in fermented goat milk to promote its production.
В данной работе изучались показатели качества мороженого, полученного с использованием сухого козьего молока, с различным содержанием СОМО –10 % и 13 %. В качестве источника молочного жира и белка при приготовлении смеси для мороженого использовалось сублимированное козье молоко. Экспериментально определена криоскопическая температура смесей для мороженого с применением козьего молока, расчетным путем получены значения температуры выгрузки мороженого из фризера, обеспечивающие достижение количества вымороженной влаги в продукте на уровне не менее 50 %. Образцы мороженого с использованием козьего молока характеризуются меньшей твердостью: в образце № 1 данный показатель снижен на 38 %, в образце № 2 – на 48 % по сравнению с контрольным образцом, выработанным с применением коровьего молока. Замена коровьего молока козьим сказывается на титруемой кислотности продукта: в опытном образце мороженого с массовой долей СОМО 10 % она снижена на 3,5 ºТ, в образце с массовой долей СОМО 13 % повышена на 1,5 ºТ. Несмотря на это, полученные значения соответствуют требованиям нормативных документов, предъявляемым к данному показателю. В опытных образцах мороженого после гомогенизации смеси жировая фаза преобразуется в мелкодисперсную: на долю жировых шариков размером до 1,3 мкм приходится более 50 % от их общего количества, в контрольном образце данный показатель составляет менее 30 %. Замена коровьего молока козьим не оказывает влияния на дисперсность кристаллов льда, однако есть небольшие различия в формировании воздушной фазы мороженого после его закаливания. Молочное мороженое с использованием козьего молока можно производить на действующих предприятиях отрасли с целью расширения ассортимента, выпускаемой ею продукции. Использование сублимированного козьего молока позволит выпускать продукцию на удаленных от ферм предприятиях
Goat milk is closer to human milk in some respects than cow milk, and therefore preferred by many consumers. Because of the short lactation period and consequently less milk production of goats, the price of goat milk is often higher than that of cow milk, so that adulteration of goat milk is common. N-glycans have stability and thus have a good potential for acting as a new biomarker for identifying dairy adulteration. In this study, the N-glycan structures of goat milk and cow milk were analyzed by Ultra-high performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) and MALDI-TOF-MS. Based on the high species specificity of N-glycans, a method for identifying goat milk mixed with cow milk was established. The adulteration content of 5% cow milk in goat milk could be qualitatively and quantitatively detected. A prediction model of adulteration in goat milk was established by using partial least squares (PLS).
يعد حليب الماعز مصدر مهم للعناصر الغذائية اذ يحتوي على العديد من العناصر الغذائية المهمة كالبروتينات والدهون والكربوهيدرات والمعادن والفيتامينات فضلا عن احتواءه على مركبات نشطة كالسكريات قليلة التعدد والاحماض الامينية كالمثيونين والتربتوفان والاحماض الدهنية متوسطة السلسلة كالكابريليك والكابريك والمركبات الفعالة والببتيدات النشطة حيويا كالببتيدات المثبطة للانزيم المحول للانكوتنسين الناتجة عن تحلل الكازين مما يجعله يؤدي عددا من الانشطة الحيوية المفيدة في جسم الانسان اذ يعمل كمضادات حياتية ومثبطات لمسببات الامراض والسرطان ومحسنات للمناعة ولصحة الجهاز الهضمي وتقليل حساسية الحليب. تعطي هذه المراجعة نظرة عامة عن التركيب الكيميائي لحليب الماعز وفوائده الصحية وقيمته الغذائية وفوائده العلاجية أيضا مقارنة حليب الماعز مع أنواع الحليب الأخرى من حيث تفوقه ومحتواه الغذائي .
To modify soft candy made of dairy goat milk could be conducted by adding salad dressing consisting of mayonnaise, yogurt drinks, and red Dragon fruit. This research was carried out to evaluate its nutritional contents and physical and organoleptic properties. This study used a completely randomized design with five treatments and four replications. They were soft candy with 0% red Dragon fruit (T0), 30% red Dragon fruit (T1), 35% red Dragon fruit (T2), 40% red Dragon fruit (T3), and 45% red Dragon fruit (T4). Data obtained were analyzed using analysis of variance (Anova). For any significant results (P<0.05), then further analysis was carried out using Duncan's Multiple Range Test (DMRT). The results showed that the treatments (T3 and T4) had a significant effect (P<0.05) on organic matter, protein, and fat contents, hence, they had no significant effect (P>0.05) on moisture and dry matter contents. The physical properties study showed that the treatments had no significant effect (P>0.05) on the density yet, a significant effect (P<0.05) on the yield. The treatment increased the panelists' preference for color (5.16 – 5.51), aroma (5.15 – 5.46), taste (5.61 – 5.69), texture (5.50 – 5.74), and tenderness (5.43 –5.70). It is concluded that the soft candy with 30% red Dragon fruit is the preferred one.
As goat milk has a higher economic value compared to cow milk, the phenomenon of adulterating goat milk with cow milk appears in the market. In this study, the potential of Raman spectroscopy along with chemometrics was investigated for the authentication and quantitation of liquid goat milk adulterated with cow milk. First, the results of principal component analysis (PCA) showed that there were differences between the Raman spectra of cow and goat milk, which made quantitative experiments possible. For quantification, three different brands of cow milk and goat milk were selected randomly and adulterated goat milk with cow milk at the proportion of 5-95%. 342 samples were used for the construction of the partial least squares regression (PLSR) model with 80% for the calibration set and 20% for the prediction set. The PLSR model showed excellent performance in quantifying the level of adulteration, for the prediction set, with a coefficient of determination (R2) of 0.9781, root mean square error (RMSE) of 3.82%, and a ratio of prediction to deviation (RPD) of 6.8. The results demonstrated the potential of Raman spectroscopy as a rapid, low cost and non-destructive analytical tool for detecting adulteration in goat milk.
Food allergies in children present with a wide spectrum of clinical manifestations, including anaphylaxis, urticaria, angioedema, atopic dermatitis and gastrointestinal symptoms (such as vomiting, diarrhoea and failure to thrive). Symptoms usually begin in the first 2 years of life, often after the first known exposure to the food. Immediate reactions (occurring between several minutes and 2 hours after ingestion) are likely to be IgE-mediated and can usually be detected by skin prick testing (SPT) or measuring food-specific serum IgE antibody levels. Over 90% of IgE-mediated food allergies in childhood are caused by eight foods: cows milk, hens egg, soy, peanuts, tree nuts (and seeds), wheat, fish and shellfish. Anaphylaxis is a severe and potentially life-threatening form of IgE-mediated food allergy that requires prescription of self-injectable adrenaline. Delayed-onset reactions (occurring within several hours to days after ingestion) are often difficult to diagnose. They are usually SPT negative, and elimination or challenge protocols are required to make a definitive diagnosis. These forms of food allergy are not usually associated with anaphylaxis. The mainstay of diagnosis and management of food allergies is correct identification and avoidance of the offending antigen. Children often develop tolerance to cows milk, egg, soy and wheat by school age, whereas allergies to nuts and shellfish are more likely to be lifelong.
This article discusses the content and physical state of the main components, fat, protein, lactose, and minerals, in goats’ milk. The data presented are about the variability in the composition of goats’ milk as a result of genetic, physiological, and environmental factors. Goats’ milk proteins are similar to cows ’major milk proteins in their general classifications of caseins (αs1-CN, αs2-CN, β-CN, and κ-CN) and whey proteins, α-lactalbumin, β-lactoglobulin, serum albumin, and immunoglobulins, but they differ in genetic polymorphism and their frequency in goat populations. Also, goats’ milk fat differs significantly in the profile of its fatty acids (FAs) from cows’ milk fat. Global description of fat components, especially FA composition and percentages of triacylglycerols, has been described, as well as the effect of manipulating the diet. Carbohydrates, distribution of mineral elements between the colloidal and soluble phases, and the comparison with cows’ and ewes’ milks are also described. The more important types of goats’ milk cheeses, overall composition, and main characteristics are described.
Amounts of alphas1-casein (αs1-CN), protein, fat, SNF and total solids were measured in 125 goat milk samples. Coagulation time, coagulation rate and curd firmness were measured in 75 goat milk samples by dynamic mechanical analysis using a Bohlin VOR Rheometer. After adjustments were made for month, time of milk collection and animal age, it was confirmed that goat milk with high percent total solids, SNF, fat and protein coagulated faster (high coagulation rate) and formed a firmer curd than milk that had lower levels of milk components. Coagulation was delayed (long coagulation time) in milk with high protein but resulting curds were firmer than curds made from low protein milks. Amount of αs1-CN was positively correlated with milk components and coagulation time. Goat milk that lacked αs1-CN had lower percentages of milk components and poorer coagulation properties than milk that contained αs1-CN, suggesting that the presence of αs1-CN in milk should improve coagulation properties. However, percent total solids, SNF and protein were more highly correlated with coagulation properties than αs1-CN. Thus, measuring total solids, SNF or protein may be more practical in predicting cheese-making potential of goat milk than measuring αs1-CN, which is more tedious and expensive. Milk from Nubians and Nubian×Alpine crosses contained a higher amount of αs1-CN and other milk components, and exhibited higher coagulation rate and curd firmness than milk from Toggenburgs and Saanen×Alpine crosses. Selection of goats with high solids, particularly Nubians, is recommended if cheese-making is the objective.
Contradictory results have been reported on the use of goats' milk in cows' milk allergy. In this study the hypothesis was tested, using a guinea pig model of cows' milk allergy, that these discrepancies could be due to the high genetic polymorphism of goats' milk proteins. Forty guinea pigs were fed over a 20 d period with pelleted diets containing one of the following: soyabean proteins (group S), cows' milk proteins (group CM), goats' milk proteins with high (group GM1) or low (group GM2) αs1-casein content. Parenteral sensitization to GM1 and GM2 proteins was also assessed. The sensitization was measured (1) by systemic IgG1 antibodies directed against bovine or caprine β-lactoglobulin (β-lg), α-lactalbumin (α-la) and whole caseins, and (2) by intestinal anaphylaxis measured in
vitro in Ussing chambers, by the rise in short-circuit current (ΔIsc) in response to milk proteins. Guinea pigs fed on CM and GM1 developed high titres (> 1500) of anti-β-lg IgG1, with an important cross reactivity between goat and cow β-lg. However, in guinea pigs fed on GM2, anti-goat β-lg IgG1 antibodies were significantly decreased compared with GM1 guinea pigs (mean IgG1 titres were 546 and 2046 respectively), and the intestinal anaphylaxis was significantly decreased (3·5±4·5 μA/cm2) compared with that observed in GM1 guinea pigs (8·3±7·6 μA/cm2). Animals receiving GM1 or GM2 proteins via the parenteral route developed a marked sensitization. These results suggest that the discrepancies observed in the use of goats' milk in cows' milk allergy could be due, at least in part, to the high genetic polymorphism of goats' milk proteins.
Hypersensitivity to cow milk proteins is one of the main food allergies and affects mostly but not exclusively infants, while it may also persist through adulthood and can be very severe. Different clinical symptoms of milk allergy have been established. The diagnosis of milk allergy differs widely due to the multiplicity and degrees of symptoms, and can be achieved by skin or blood tests. Cow milk contains more than 20 proteins (allergens), that can cause allergic reactions. Casein fractions and -lactoglobulin are the most common cow milk allergens. Human milk is free of -lg, similar to camel milk. On the contrary, -lg is a major whey protein in cow, buffalo, sheep, goat, mare and donkey milk. Caseins in milk of the different species differ in fraction number, amino acid composition, and their peptide mappings. -Casein is the major fraction in goat casein, which is similar to human casein and different from cow casein. The peptide mappings of goat -la and -lg are completely different from those of cow milk. Different procedures can reduce the allergenicity of cow milk proteins by heat or enzymatic treatment to some degree. Allergies to milk proteins of non-bovine mammals have also been documented due to cross-reactivity between cow milk proteins and their counterpart in other species, and even between goat and sheep caseins. Genetic polymorphisms of milk proteins play an important role in eliciting different degrees of allergic reactions. Goat milk lacking -s1-casein, which is the main casein in cow milk, is less allergenic than goat milk with -s2-casein, which is more typical for many goat breeds. Several studies have reported real and dramatic benefits from using goat, camel, mare or even soy milk as alternatives in cases of cow milk allergy and they can be considered hypoallergenic. However, therapeutic benefits vary with the degree of severity of the allergy and may be only around 60% of all cases, since other studies revealed allergenicity to occur also for any of those other milks. © 2006 Published by Elsevier B.V.
The separation and identification of the components in milk fat, which are mainly triglycerides, is a challenge due to its
complex composition. A reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method with gradient elution and light-scattering
detection is described in this paper for the triglyceride analysis in ewes’ milk fat. Triglyceride identification was carried
out by combining HPLC, gas-liquid chromatography (GLC), and the calculated equivalent carbon numbers of several triglyceride
standards. Quantitation of partially resolved peaks in the HPLC chromatogram was accomplished by applying a peak deconvolution
program. Forty-four fatty acids were identified by GLC analysis, but only 19 were used for the following prediction of triglyceride
molecular species; 181 triglycerides were identified, some of which were grouped at the same peak and needed application of
the deconvolution program. Consequently, coefficients of variation were close to or lower than 5%. Moreover, the triglyceride
composition of ewe, cow, and goat milk fat were compared by using these methods. These results show that ewe milk fat is richer
in short- and medium-chain triglycerides, and cow milk fat is richer in long-chain and unsaturated triglycerides.
In vitro digestion was performed by human proteolytic enzymes on bovine and caprine individual milks. Two types of caprine milk were investigated: with high and low contents of αS1-casein (CN). In addition the influence of heating of the milk on digestion was examined. The digestion was performed in two steps using human gastric and duodenal juice. Protein and peptide profiles were studied by sodium dodecyl sulphate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and isoelectric focusing (IEF). Caprine milk proteins were digested faster than bovine milk proteins. This was confirmed by the degradation profile obtained for both cows’ and goats’ milk, and was most evident for β-lactoglobulin. Comparing the digestion of milk protein from two groups of goats, high and low in αS1-CN content, respectively, did not show significant differences. Heat treatment of milk had a strong and significant effect on the level of digestion. Raw milk was degraded faster than the heat-treated milk, and the effect of heating was different for bovine and caprine milk.
Cow milk allergy is the most frequent allergy in the first years of life. Milk from other mammalian species has been suggested as a possible nutritional alternative to cow milk, but in several cases, the clinical studies showed a high risk of cross-reactivity with cow milk. In the goat species, αS₁-casein (αS₁-CN), coded by the CSN1S1 gene, is characterized by extensive qualitative and quantitative polymorphisms. Some alleles are associated with null (i.e., CSN1S1 0(1)) or reduced (i.e., CSN1S1 F) expression of the specific protein. The aim of this work was to obtain new information on goat milk and to evaluate its suitability for allergic subjects, depending on the genetic variation at αs₁-CN. Individual milk samples from 25 goats with different CSN1S1 genotypes were analyzed by sodium dodecyl sulfate PAGE and immunoblotting, using monoclonal antibodies specific for bovine α-CN and sera from children allergic to cow milk. A lower reaction was observed to 2 goat milk samples characterized by the CSN1S1 0(1)0(1) and 0(1)F genotypes. Moreover, a fresh food skin prick test, carried out on 6 allergic children, showed the lack of positive reaction to the 0(1)0(1) milk sample and only one weak reactivity to the 0(1)F sample. The risk of cross-reactivity between cow and goat milk proteins suggests the need for caution before using goat milk for infant formulas. However, we hypothesize that it can be used successfully in the preparation of modified formulas for selected groups of allergic patients. The importance of taking the individual goat CN genetic variation into account in further experimental studies is evident from the results of the present work.
Fatty acids undergo different metabolic fates depending on their chain length and degree of saturation. The purpose of this review is to examine the metabolic handling of medium chain fatty acids (MCFA) with specific reference to intermediary metabolism and postprandial and total energy expenditure. The metabolic discrimination between varying fatty acids begins in the GI tract, with MCFA being absorbed more efficiently than long chain fatty acids (LFCA). Subsequently, MCFA are transported in the portal blood directly to the liver, unlike LCFA which are incorporated into chylomicrons and transported through lymph. These structure based differences continue through the processes of fat utilization; MCFA enter the mitochondria independently of the carnitine transport system and undergo preferential oxidation. Variations in ketogenic and lipogenic capacity also exist. Such metabolic discrimination is supported by data in animals and humans showing increases in postprandial energy expenditure after short term feeding with MCFA. In long term MCFA feeding in animals, weight accretion has been attenuated. These differences in metabolic handling of MCFA versus LCFA are considered with the conclusion that MCFA hold potential as weight loss agents.
Milk from French-Alpine goats and Holstein cows was obtained from a bulk tank immediately prior to analyses. Fat globule size was determined by laser particle size analysis. Individual globules of fat in goat milk ranged from 0.73 to 8.58 microm in diameter. The average diameter of particles based on volume to surface area ratio (dvs) was 2.76 microm and was less than the mean (dvs) of 3.51 microm for bovine milk, in which fat globules ranged from 0.92 to 15.75 microm in diameter. The specific surface area of particles in caprine milk was 21,778 cm2/ml, whereas the specific surface area of particles in bovine milk was 17,117 cm2/ml. Ninety percent of the total particles found in goat milk were less than 5.21 microm in diameter, whereas 90% of the total particles in bovine milk were less than 6.42 microm based on the volume frequency distribution. Dissociation of casein micelles by urea in goat whole and skim milk caused larger dvs values due to the effect of fat particles and reduced the specific surface area in both milks because the total number of detectable particles in both whole and skim milk was reduced.
The effects of lactulose and lactitol (2x10 g/d) were studied in 36 healthy volunteers in comparison to placebo. All parameters studied were affected by both treatments, lactulose in general leading to more pronounced changes compared to lactitol. Probiotic bacteria were increased, and putrefactive bacteria and potential pathogens were significantly reduced. These variations in colonic flora had the following consequences: (i) a reduced activity of pro-carcinogenic enzymes: azoreductase, 7α-dehydroxylase, ß-glucuronidase, nitroreductase and urease activity; (ii) a global increase of short-chain fatty acids in faeces; (iii) an effect on pH and moisture of faeces, and (iv) also on aromatic compounds such as phenol, cresol, indole and skatol. The findings suggest that lactulose and lactitol are not comparable in their effect on the colonic microflora, its metabolism, and the consequent probiotic effects on human health. The differences found may also be of clinical relevance suggesting that neither compound is equipotent.
Although goats have been the most ignored domesticated species in many parts of the world, they have played an important role in human nutrition and well-being. This article focuses on the composition of goat milk (GM). Fat globules of GM resemble those of cow milk (CM) in lipid composition and properties of the globule membrane, but GM lacks ‘agglutinin’ that causes fat globules of CM to cluster when cooled. Carbohydrates other than lactose found in GM are oligosaccharides, glycopeptides, glycol–proteins, and nucleotide sugars in small amounts. Milk oligosaccharides have considerable antigenic properties and are valuable in the growth promotion of the intestinal flora of the newborns. The GM and its processed speciality products are greatly useful as functional foods, maintaining nourishment and health for the young and elderly, especially those who have CM allergy. The demand for GM products like caprine cheeses is specially promising. An overview of some dairy products is also discussed in this article.
First-year freshened French-Alpine and Anglo-Nubian does, ten each, were randomly selected from the University milking herd to study concentration profiles of calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium, magnesium and sulphur for 0 h, 6 h, 12 h, 24 h, and 2, 3, 10, 30, 60, 90, 120 and 150 days postpartum and to evaluate differences in levels of teh six major minerals between breeds, stages of lactation and their interactions. Overall mean contents (mg/100ml) for Alpines and Nubians were: calcium: 138.6, 139.3; phosphorus: 129.2, 142.8; sodium: 55.4, 66.1; potassium: 110.8, 87.0; magnesium: 17.6, 19.2; sulphur: 2.97, 2.81, respectively. For pooled breed data, there were no differences in mean contents of calcium, phosphorus and sodium among lactation periods, but a few variations occurred in separate breed cases. The magnesium and sulphur levels revealed typical lactation trends, where colostrum contained significantly (P<0.05) greater levels than normal milk. The potassium levels fluctuated greatly by periods, and potassium and sodium levels were significantly (P<0.01) different between breeds. Interactions between breeds and lactation periods had no influence on the levels of any minerals. There were significant (P<0.01), positive correlations between calcium and phosphorus and negative correlations between sodium and potassium or calcium in the milk.
Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is a mixture of positional and geometric isomers of linoleic acid. This family of polyunsaturated fatty acids has drawn significant attention in the last three decades for its variety of biologically beneficial properties and health effects. CLA has been shown to exert various potent protective functions such as anti-inflammatory, anticarcinogenic, antiadipogenic, antidiabetic and antihypertensive properties in animal models of disease. Therefore, CLA represents a nutritional avenue to prevent lifestyle diseases or metabolic syndrome. Initially, the overall effects of CLA were thought to be the result of interactions between its two major isomers: cis-9, trans-11 and trans-10, cis-12. However, later evidence suggests that such physiological effects of CLA might be different between the isomers: t-10, c-12-CLA is thought to be anticarcinogenic, antiobesity and antidiabetic, whereas c-9, t-11-CLA is mainly anti-inflammatory. Although preclinical data support a benefit of CLA supplementation, human clinical findings have yet to show definitive evidence of a positive effect. The purpose of this review is to comprehensively summarize the mechanisms of action and anti-inflammatory properties of dietary CLA supplementation and evaluate the potential uses of CLA in human health and disease.
Copyright © 2015. Published by Elsevier B.V.
Dietary fatty acids (FA) are increasingly recognized as major biologic regulators and have properties that relate to health outcomes and disease. Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is a generic term denoting a group of isomers of linoleic acid (C18:2, n-6) with a conjugated double bond. CLA has attracted increased research interest because of its health-promoting benefits and biological functions. In a variety of studies, CLA has been shown to impact immune function and has protective effects against cancer, obesity, diabetes, and atherosclerosis in animal studies and in different human cell lines. Studies investigating the mechanisms involved in the biological functions of CLA are emerging with results from both in vivo and in vitro studies. Most of the biological effects have been attributed to the c9,t11-CLA and t10,c12-CLA isomers. The purpose of this review is to discuss the effects of CLA on health and disease and the possible mechanisms for CLA activities.
Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is a mixture of positional and geometric isomers of octadecadienoic acid with two conjugated double bonds. Of more than a dozen isomers of CLA found naturally in dairy and meat products from ruminants, c-9, t-11 and t-10, c-12 are the two isomers with known physiological importance, including anticarcinogenic, antidiabetic, antilipogenic, and antiatherosclerotic effects. Positive effects of CLA on immune function and bone modeling have also been reported. In spite of the compelling findings in tissue cultures and experimental animal models, its effect, dose, and mechanism of action vis-a-vis specific isomers remains speculative. Results obtained from animal models are inconclusive and conflicting at times in humans, where the research data is limited. It appears that there is a long way to go before CLA could be accepted unequivocally as having definite effects in any or all of these physiological states and how such effects actually occur in humans. The objective of this review is to critically examine the available literature on potential health benefits of CLA observed in cell culture, animal models, and human subjects, wherever possible and to a certain extent the mechanism of action associated with these biological activities.
Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is a group of positional and geometric (cis or trans) isomers of linoleic acid with a conjugated double bond. The most representative CLA isomers are 9c,11t-18:2 and 10t,12c-18:2. CLA has been shown to exert various potent physiological functions such as anticarcinogenic, antiobese, antidiabetic and antihypertensive properties. This means CLA can be effective to prevent lifestyle diseases or metabolic syndromes. Also, reports suggest that physiological effects of CLA are different between the isomers, for example the 10t,12c isomer is anticarcinogenic, antiobese and antidiabetic, whereas the 9c,11t isomer is mainly anticarcinogenic. We describe here the physiological properties of CLA including the possible mechanism and the possibility to benefit human health.
Goats and sheep producing milk for people start with the beginnings of domestication. For thousands of years they provide sustainance for the people. During the last 150 years genetic selection and better feeding conditions led to several superior goat and sheep breeds in some countries in terms of milk and solids productivity, proving a great potential for evolution in both species, and responding to an increasing market demand and popularity especially of cheeses from goat and sheep milk. Some sheep breeds can produce more than 1000 kg milk in one lactation and several goat breeds more than 2000 kg milk, but in physiologically comparable terms of 4% fat-corrected milk both species can be equal. Goat milk production leaders have been capable of producing 10 kg milk per day of lactation. Comprehensive reviews are presented of the latest aspects of production and technology of goat and sheep milk.
Chemical and microbiological characteristics of ewe milk of Boutsiko and Karamaniko breeds and goat milk of the indigenous Greek breed (Capra prisca) were determined. No significant differences were observed for fat, protein, lactose, casein and solids-non-fat contents of ewe milk of both breeds. The microbiological quality of ewe milk of both breeds was, generally, better than that of goat milk. The mean content of vitamin A was significantly (P<0.05) higher in ewe milk of Boutsiko than in Karamaniko breed, while no significant differences were found for vitamins E and C contents between the two breeds of ewe milk. Goat milk had lower content of vitamins A and E than ewe milk of both breeds but the vitamin C content was about the same in ewe and goat milk. Oleic acid was the most abundant fatty acid in ewe milk of both breeds while palmitic acid was the major fatty acid in goat milk. Butyric, stearic and conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) contents of ewe milk of Boutsiko breed were higher than those of Karamaniko breed. Goat milk had lower contents of CLA and higher quantities of lauric and stearic acids than ewe milk of both breeds.
The aim of this study is to update the values concerning nutritional components for sheep and goat dairy products. The bibliography examines first the main biochemical constituents of sheep and goat milk products but also the more specific components with potential nutritional impact and lastly it gathers information on the relationship between cheese and milk compositions and the impact of technologies. Since the composition of French small ruminant cheeses is not well established, with composition tables being old and lacking information, recent studies have been conducted in France to investigate the nutritional characteristics of sheep and goat milks and cheeses on a large scale. Goat milk cheese sampling was representative of French production, taking into account the variability linked to geographic origin, dairy or on-farm transformation and type of cheeses. Fresh lactic cheeses made with raw (6 samples) or pasteurised (6) milk, ripened lactic cheeses made with raw (11) or pasteurised (6) milk, spreads (4), soft ripened cheeses (6 “Chèvre Boite or “Brique” type cheeses) and 4 bulk raw milks were sampled twice in a summer–autumn period. These 86 samples were analysed for their nutritional value. The impact of the technological process was assessed with, for example, its effect on mineral and vitamin B content. With respect to sheep, 5 representative samples of milk were collected, just before cheese making, in the 3 main French traditional areas of dairy sheep production. The sampling was carried out 4 times in the year. The objective was to explore the variability of the nutritional characteristics of the original milk. The cheeses made with these milks were analysed after ripening with a double objective: to specify their nutritional content and to assess the relationship between milk and cheese content. Some preliminary results are given concerning fatty acids.
Although it may not be important in certain parts of the world, the contribution of goat milk to the economic and nutritional wellbeing of humanity is undeniable in many developing countries, especially in the Mediterranean, Middle East, Eastern Europe and South American countries. Goat milk has played a very important role in health and nutrition of young and elderly. Goat milk has also been known for its beneficial and therapeutic effects on the people who have cow milk allergy. These nutritional, health and therapeutic benefits enlighten the potentials and values of goat milk and its specialty products. The chemical characteristics of goat milk can be used to manufacture a wide variety of products, including fluid beverage products (low fat, fortified, or flavored) and UHT (ultra high temperature) milk, fermented products such as cheese, buttermilk or yogurt, frozen products such as ice cream or frozen yogurt, butter, condensed/dried products, sweets and candies. In addition, other specialty products such as hair, skin care and cosmetic products made from goat milk recently have gained a further attention. Nevertheless, high quality products can only be produced from good quality goat milk. The quality milk should have the potential to tolerate technological treatment and be transformed into a product that satisfies the expectations of consumers, in terms of nutritional, hygienic and sensory attributes. Taste is the main criteria used by consumers to make decisions to purchase and consume goat milk and its products. Typical goat taste is considered as a quality component in certain goat cheese products. Farmers can produce more value-added products for the economic sustainability of their business and the dairy goat industry in general.
Goat milk production is a dynamic and growing industry that is fundamental to the wellbeing of hundreds of millions of people worldwide and is an important part of the economy in many countries. The aim of the present review is to provide an integrated and critical analysis of the major aspects in this field to highlight unexploited nutritional potential of goat milk and the need for improvements, particularly in food safety. First, it should be kept in mind that goat milk like cow milk delivers many nutrients with relatively low energy content, and is relevant to the health of consumers throughout the life cycle. In addition, the review presents data suggesting that goat milk possesses many advantages over cow milk, for use as a nutritional source for infants and children and as a medicinal food. Furthermore, goats, by consuming large amounts of natural browsing plants all year around, are a potentially overlooked “treasure trove”, with respect to health promoting components. The survey suggests that total bacterial count that is currently used as the major quality measure to prevent pathogen-related food toxicity is not sufficiently effective. The proposal is to include somatic cell count as a routine criterion to qualify the hygienic status of goat milk in terms of the relevant physiology and biochemistry. The paper presents a novel mechanism controlling milk secretion, and demonstrates the use of this knowledge in making decisions for two major managerial tasks that farmers face, namely milking frequency that dictates to a large extent the milk yield and workload on the farm, and helping to deal with subclinical mastitis that is the single major cause for economical losses in dairy farms worldwide.
INTRODUCTIONANATOMY OF PORCINE MAMMARY GLANDSSECRETION OF MILK FROM MAMMARY GLANDSFACTORS AFFECTING THE YIELD OF SOW MILKCOMPOSITION OF SOW MILKDIETARY MANIPULATION OF SOW MILK COMPOSITIONUTILIZATION OF SOW MILK AS A MODEL FOR HUMAN NUTRITION AND HEALTH RESEARCH
Goat milk and its products of yoghurt, cheese and powder have three-fold significance in human nutrition: (1) feeding more starving and malnourished people in the developing world than from cow milk; (2) treating people afflicted with cow milk allergies and gastro-intestinal disorders, which is a significant segment in many populations of developed countries; and (3) filling the gastronomic needs of connoisseur consumers, which is a growing market share in many developed countries. Concerning (1), very much improvement in milk yield and lactation length of dairy goats, especially in developing countries must be accomplished through better education/extension, feeding and genetics. Concerning (2), little unbiased medical research to provide evidence and promotional facts has been conducted, but is very much needed to reduce discrimination against goats and substantiate the many anecdotal experiences about the medical benefits from goat milk consumption, which abound in trade publications and the popular press. Goats have many unique differences in anatomy, physiology and product biochemistry from sheep and cattle, which supports the contention of many unique qualities of dairy goat products for human nutrition. Concerning (3), a few countries like France have pioneered a very well-organized industry of goat milk production, processing, marketing, promotion and research, which has created a strong consumer clientele like in no other country, but deserves very much to be copied for the general benefit to human nutrition and goat milk producers. The physiological and biochemical facts of the unique qualities of goat milk are just barely known and little exploited, especially not the high levels in goat milk of short and medium chain fatty acids, which have recognized medical values for many disorders and diseases of people. The new concept of tailor making foods to better fit human needs has not been applied to goat milk and its products so far, otherwise the enrichment of short and medium chain fatty acids in goat butter, and their greater concentration compared to cow butter, could have become a valued consumer item. Also revisions to human dietary recommendations towards admitting the health benefits of some essential fats supports the idea of promoting goat butter. While goat yoghurt, goat cheeses and goat milk powder are widely appreciated around the world, goat butter is not produced anywhere commercially in significant volume. © 2003 Published by Elsevier B.V.
Physico-chemical characteristics of milk are related to its composition for a particular animal species. Sheep milk contains higher levels of total solids and major nutrient than goat and cow milk. Lipids in sheep and goat milk have higher physical characteristics than in cow milk, but physico-chemical indices (i.e., saponification, Reichert Meissl and Polenske values) vary between different reports. Micelle structures in goat and sheep milk differ in average diameter, hydration, and mineralization from those of cow milk. Caprine casein micelles contain more calcium and inorganic phosphorus, are less solvated, less heat stable, and lose -casein more readily than bovine casein micelles. Renneting parameters in cheese making of sheep milk are affected by physico-chemical properties, including pH, larger casein micelle, more calcium per casein weight, and other mineral contents in milk, which cause differences in coagulation time, coagulation rate, curd firmness, and amount of rennet needed. Renneting time for goat milk is shorter than for cow milk, and the weak consistency of the gel is beneficial for human digestion but decreases its cheese yield. Triacylglycerols (TAG) constitute the biggest part of milk lipids (nearly 98%), including a large number of esterified fatty acids. Sheep and goat milk also have simple lipids (diacylglycerols, monoacylglycerols, cholesterol esters), complex lipids (phospholipids), and liposoluble compounds (sterols, cholesterol esters, hydrocarbons). The average fat globule size is smallest (<3.5 m) in sheep milk followed by goat and cow milk. Five fatty acids (C10:0, C14:0, C16:0, C18:0, and C18:1) account for >75% of total fatty acids in goat and sheep milk. Levels of the metabolically valuable short and medium chain fatty acids, caproic (C6:0) (2.9%, 2.4%, 1.6%), caprylic (C8:0) (2.6%, 2.7%, 1.3%), capric (C10:0) (7.8%, 10.0%, 3.0%), and lauric (C12:0) (4.4%, 5.0%, 3.1%) are significantly higher in sheep and goat than in cow milk, respectively. Principal caseins (CN) in goat, sheep and cow milk are s1 -CN, s2 -CN, -CN and -CN. The main forms of caprine and ovine caseino-macropeptides (CMP), which are the soluble C-terminal derivatives from the action of chymosin on -casein during the milk clotting process of cheesemaking, have been identified and are a good source of antithrombotic peptides. Sheep and goat milk proteins are also important sources of bioactive angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory peptides and antihypertensive peptides. They can provide a non-immune disease defence and control of microbial infections. Important minor milk proteins include immunoglobulins, lactoferrin, transferrin, ferritin, proteose peptone, calmodulin (calcium binding protein), prolactin, and folate-binding protein. Non-protein nitrogen (NPN) contents of goat and human milks are higher than in cow milk. Taurine in goat and sheep milk derived from sulphur-containing amino acids has important metabolic functions as does carnitine, which is a valuable nutrient for the human neonate. Mineral and vitamin contents of goat and sheep milk are mostly higher than in cow milk.
Human milk oligosaccharides are thought to be beneficial for the infant with regard to their prebiotic and anti-infective properties. However, so far no milk from farm animals has been considered to be a good natural source of lactose-derived oligosaccharides for human nutrition. In this study, the characterization and quantitation of neutral and sialylated lactose-derived oligosaccharides in mature caprine milk was performed and compared to ovine, bovine and human milk. The quantification was carried out using high-pH anion-exchange chromatography with pulsed amperometric detection (HPAEC-PAD), and the characterization was performed by fast atom bombardment mass spectrometry (FAB-MS). A large amount and variety of acidic and neutral oligosaccharides were found in goats’ milk when compared with cow and sheep milk. In addition, 15 new oligosaccharide structures were identified in caprine milk. In order to isolate the goats’ milk oligosaccharide fraction, a two-stage tangential ultrafiltration–nanofiltration process was selected. Tubular ceramic membranes with molecular mass cut-offs of 50 and 1 kDa, respectively, were employed. A virtually lactose and salts-free product containing more than 80% of the original oligosaccharide content was obtained.
Goats were apparently the first species to be domesticated as livestock about 8000 b.c. in the area of Mesopotamia, today’s Middle East. This region of domestication was also the cradle of one of the first civilisations, the Sumerians, and goats had a strong impact on all phases of their life. The importance of this small but useful animal for the ancient people was also the reason for its being acknowledged as a holy entity for worship at the side of gods and for its recognition in myths and legends. In the current status of people in the Middle East, goats are an important economic part of utilising the arid and semi-arid lands through farming with goats and sheep, evidencing a long continuity of tradition and the lasting usefulness of goats, which are in many cases irreplaceable by any other livestock. Furthermore, goats have spread all over the world adapting well to many different climates, geological and management conditions, and have become a major part in the economies of the Mediterranean countries, on the Indian subcontinent, the far east, Africa and the Americas.
The aim of this study was to identify, under the best possible conditions, the interspecific differences between the proteins, fat and minerals in goat and cow milk. The protein fractions presented evident differences, especially concerning the amount of αS1-casein, which was lower in the goat milk (62.8%; P < 0.05). The amino acid profile of the two proteins revealed certain differences, although the total quantity of essential amino acids did not vary (P > 0.05). The composition of fats was well-differentiated, mainly as concerns the content of medium-chain fatty acids (C6–14), which were higher in the goat milk (28.8%; P < 0.05). The same was true for n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (10.0%; P < 0.05) and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (51.0%; P < 0.05), and also the total level of conjugated linoleic acid (33.8%; P < 0.05). The quantities of Ca, P, Mg and Cu were greater in the ash derived from goat milk (17.4, 15.6, 16.3 and 66.6%, respectively; P < 0.05). Due to the greater quantity of total solids present in goat milk (16.3%; P < 0.05), all of the above-mentioned differences would be considerably increased by the fact that they refer to the amounts present in a given volume. The differences detected between cow and goat milk mean that the latter constitutes a food of particular interest, in terms of both health and nutrition.
Galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS) are considered to have bifidogenic properties in humans. To study the effect of GOS-containing syrup (60% GOS) alone or together with the probiotic strain Bifidobacterium lactis Bb-12 on selected components of the faecal flora, and the effect of GOS supplementation on colonisation of B. lactis Bb-12, a feeding trial on 30 healthy volunteers was performed. Mean numbers of bifidobacteria increased slightly in all study groups during the feeding period. Isolates having the identical RAPD genotype with B. lactis Bb-12 were detected in high numbers in the Bb-12 group and in the GOS-containing syrup+Bb-12 group indicating a good survival of B. lactis Bb-12 through the gastrointestinal tract. No differences in the prevalence or numbers of isolates with B. lactis Bb-12 genotype could be observed between groups suggesting that GOS-containing syrup did not enhance the survival or persistence of B. lactis Bb-12 in the gut.
Raw goat milk samples from the indigenous Greek breed in the area of Ioannina, northwestern Greece, were collected during one lactation and analyzed for vitamins A, E, B1, B2, and C and for minerals Ca, Mg, P, Na, K, Cu, Fe and Zn. Also, the major constituents of goat milk, namely fat, protein, lactose and solids-non-fat, were determined. The average composition (%) of milk was: fat 4.10, protein 3.36, lactose 4.48 and solids-non-fat 8.54. The mean concentration of the fat-soluble vitamins retinol (A) and α-tocopherol (E) were 0.013 and 0.121 mg/100 ml, respectively. The mean concentration of the water-soluble vitamins, thiamin (B1), riboflavin (B2) and ascorbic acid (C) were 0.260, 0.112 and 5.48 mg/100 ml, respectively. Seasonal variations were observed for all vitamins studied. Thiamin had significantly (P < 0.05) higher concentrations during summer than in winter and early spring. The observed variations of the studied vitamins might be attributed to the differences in the feeding of goats during lactation. The mean mineral contents (mg/100 g) of goat milk were Ca 132, P 97.7, Na 59.4, K 152, Mg 15.87, Cu 0.08, Fe 0.06, Zn 0.37 and Mn 6.53 μg/100 g. Seasonal variations were observed for the major minerals Ca, P, K, and the trace elements Cu and Zn.
Lactulose, lactitol and lactobionic acid are unabsorbable lactose derivatives with prebiotic potential. They are utilised in varying extent by different Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium species/strains. To explore the possibility of improving the properties of probiotic strains with a specific prebiotic, the effect of the lactose derivatives on the technological and functional properties of putative probiotic Lactobacillus strains was studied in vitro. The properties studied were growth in different conditions (aerobic versus anaerobic with varying substrate concentrations), acid and bile tolerance, antimicrobial activity, and stability during cold storage. In general lactose derivatives did not effect the technological or functional properties of the Lactobacillus strains. However, our results suggest that lactulose might improve the bile tolerance and cold-storage stability of Lactobacillus salivarius. Finding synbiotic pairs where the prebiotic would benefit the specific probiotic strain is not a simple task, but worth pursuing for, since this kind of capacity would give added value to the synbiotic product.
Lactose is a unique disaccharide, which occurs exclusively in the milk of mammals. It has wide applications as a food ingredient and in pharmaceutical preparations. Discouragement of milk consumption, because of the existence of lactase deficiency in the majority of the world population, is unjustified, because even in the complete absence of this enzyme, nutritionally significant volumes of milk, corresponding to about 11 g of lactose per day, are well tolerated, if the milk intake is distributed over the day and combined with meals. Lactose has interesting nutritional properties. These include a relatively low sweetening power, calorific value and glycemic index. It also has dietary fibre-like and prebiotic properties and enhances the absorption of calcium and magnesium. Its cariogenicity is low compared with that of other simple carbohydrates. The lactose derivatives lactulose, lactitol and galacto-oligosaccharides find applications in foods and pharmaceutical preparations as prebiotics to promote gut health. Similarly to non-digested lactose, these compounds enhance the intestinal absorption of calcium and magnesium. Other lactose-derived compounds (e.g., tagatose and lactobionic acid) have potential applications as bioactive ingredient in foods.
Using rats with induced iron (Fe)-deficiency anaemia, this study investigated the effects of diets based on goat milk (GM) or cow milk (CM) lyophilates on the nutritive utilization of Fe, its deposit in target organs and haematic parameters involved in Fe metabolism. GM improved Fe metabolism, especially in Fe-deficient rats, leading to a higher Fe content in the spleen, liver, sternum and femur in comparison with CM. After feeding the rats for 2 weeks with the different diets, the anaemia had decreased, especially with GM, as assessed by higher haemoglobin regeneration efficiency (HRE), serum Fe, red blood cells (RBC) and packed cellular volume (PCV) levels and lower platelet count. We conclude that dietary GM improves Fe bioavailability in both control and anaemic rats, increasing Fe deposits in target organs and favouring the recovery of haematological parameters after ferropenic nutritional anaemia.
Research in the past decade has extended knowledge of composition of goat milk and of properties of its constituents. Goats of several European breeds produce milk of lower fat content in the tropics than in temperate zones. Fat, protein, and lactose contents of milk of dwarf goats are higher than those of other breeds. Fat globules of goat milk resemble those of cow milk in lipid composition and properties of the globule membrane, but goat milk lacks “agglutinin” which causes fat globules of cow milk to cluster when cooled. Five principal proteins of goat milk, α-lactalbumin, β-lactoglobulin, κ-casein, β-casein, and αs2-casein, closely resemble their homologs in cow milk. Goat milk lacks a homolog of bovine βs1-casein, the most abundant protein in cow milk. Caseinate micelles of goat milk contain more calcium and inorganic phosphorus, are less solvated and less heat stable, and lose β-casein more readily than bovine micelles. Activities of ribonuclease, lipase, and xanthine oxidase are less in goat than in cow milk. Goat milk contains more potassium and chloride but less orotic acid, N-acetyl neuraminic acid, folate, vitamin B6, and vitamin B12 than cow milk. Little work in the past decade has been on nutritive value of goat milk for humans except to describe cases of folate deficiency in infants.
This article describes Heifer International's experience promoting goats for the poor. Heifer International provides livestock to the poor in 55 countries using a value-based participatory approach. Drawing from recent case studies conducted in China, Peru, Romania and Tanzania, the benefits to the poor and major constraints are outlined. Constraints to livestock raising include the lack of good breeding stock, lack of veterinary and extension services, lack of credit and access to markets. Focusing more assistance on women farmers would improve impact on the poor. Value-based holistic community development with self-help groups creates a foundation for increasing farmer incomes by providing a forum for education, mutual support and developing markets.
Medium-chain fatty acids (MCFAs) comprise saturated fatty acids with 6–10 carbons. Besides synthetic medium-chain triglyceride (MCT) oils there are natural sources, like coconut oil and dairy fat. Compared with long-chain fatty acids (LCFAs), the chemical and physical properties of MCFAs show substantial metabolic differences. MCFAs do not require binding to proteins such as fatty-acid binding protein, fatty acid transport protein, and/or fatty acid translocase (FAT, homolog to human platelet CD36). MCFAs are a preferred source of energy (β-oxidation). MCFAs are also incorporated into adipose tissue triglycerides, and may influence adipose tissue and other systemic functions more substantially than previously assumed. MCTs reduce fat mass, through down-regulation of adipogenic genes as well as peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-γ. Recent studies confirmed the potential of MCFAs to reduce body weight and particularly body fat. This effect was not transient. MCFAs reduce lipoprotein secretion and attenuate postprandial triglyceride response. It was, however, frequently observed that MCTs increase fasting cholesterol and triglyceride levels. But, given in moderate amounts, in diets with moderate fat supply, MCFAs may actually reduce fasting lipid levels more than oils rich in mono- or polyunsaturated fatty acids. The same is true for glucose levels. MCTs improved several features contributing to enhanced insulin sensitivity. Under certain in vitro conditions, MCTs exert proinflammatory effects, but in vivo MCTs may reduce intestinal injury and protect from hepatotoxicity.
We studied the effects of dietary inclusion of freeze-dried goat and cow milk on the utilization of copper, zinc and selenium, and on the metabolic fate of copper and zinc, in rats using a standard (non-milk) control diet recommended by the American Institute of Nutrition and diets based on goat or cow milk. For animals given the goat milk diet, the apparent digestibility coefficient (ADC) of copper is similar to that obtained with the standard diet and higher than that in animals given the cow milk diet. The copper balance was higher among the rats given the goat milk and the standard diets than among those given cow milk. The ADC and retention of zinc and selenium were higher for the goat milk diet than for the other two diets. The copper content in the kidneys and in the femur was greater when the animals consumed a goat milk diet than a cow milk diet. Zn deposits in femur, testes, liver, kidney, heart and longissimus dorsi muscle were greatest with the goat-milk diet, followed by the standard diet and were lowest for the rats given cow-milk diet. This study shows that the goat-milk has an important and beneficial effect on the bioavailability of copper, zinc and selenium.
Structural abnormalities and disaccharidase deficiency were demonstrated in biopsies of duodenal mucosa from four infants who had symptoms of failure to thrive and chronic diarrhea associated with a megaloblastic anemia. Goat's milk was the main dietary constituent for each infant for six to eight months prior to presentation. The structural abnormalities consisted of villous blunting, crypt hypertrophy, megaloblastic changes in epithelial cells, and nuclear enlargement. All changes reverted to normal with the addition of folic acid to the diet. This study provides evidence that nutritional folic acid deficiency can cause structural and functional alterations of the small intestine in infants.
This review concerns the role of calcium in nutrition and health and its relation to the changing American diet. The ideal dietary calcium intakes for women and children represent the United States Department of Agriculture's most recent recommended dietary allowances. Both calcium and total nutrient composition of cow, goat and human milk differ. Goat milk has special utility in the treatment of childhood allergy.
Buffering capacities of goat milk (Alpine, Nubian), cow milk (Holstein, Jersey), soy-based infant formulas, and non-prescription antacid drugs were estimated. Total N, protein, NPN, and P2O5 as major buffering entities were quantified for each milk category. Nubian goat milk had the highest levels of the three major buffering chemical entities, and the infant formulas contained less total N and NPN compared with natural goat and cow milks. Buffering capacities of the formulas also were lower than those of natural milks. Combinations of milk and antacid drugs had higher buffering capacities than either the milk or drug alone. Drug plus goat milk combinations upon addition of more than 2 ml of acid titrant exhibited fewer changes in pH than the respective drug plus cow milk combinations.
Samples of goat milk with low and high alpha S1-casein content collected from animals of Alpine and Saanen breeds in the same stage of lactation were compared for coagulation properties (coagulation time, rate of curd formation, curd firmness) and chemical composition (total solids, ash, total protein, total casein, whey protein, fat, Ca, P, pH). Milk with low alpha S1-casein had a faster coagulation time, whereas milk with high levels produced the firmer curd associated with a better chemical composition. Within high alpha S1-casein milk, comparison between breeds showed milk from the Alpine breed had significantly better coagulation properties than that from the Saanen breed. Milk composition accounted for 27% of the variation in coagulation time, 21% of variation in cured formation rate, and 54% of variation in curd firmness.
Conjugated dienoic linoleate (CLA), a linoleic acid derivative, has received considerable attention as a chemoprotective agent in the past few years because it has been shown experimentally to inhibit rat mammary tumorigenesis, mouse forestomach neoplasia, and mouse skin carcinogenesis. CLA has several unique structural and functional properties resulting in chemical and physiological effects that are different from those of all-cis, nonconjugated polyunsaturated fatty acids. In turn, these unique qualities appear to modulate cellular processes involved in carcinogenesis. This review will introduce the chemical background of conjugated dienoic linoleate, examine findings describing its chemoprotective qualities, present possible mechanisms of chemoprotection, and correlate the possible significance of dietary CLA modulation to carcinogenesis to humans.
The degree of proteolysis of micellar caseins of human, goat's, mare's and two breeds (Black&White and Red Polish) of cow's milk was compared for pepsin and trypsin action in vitro. Human and goat's caseins were hydrolysed in 100% and 96%, respectively, mare's casein--92%, Black&White cow's casein--90%, Red Polish cow's casein--76%. The differences can be related to the micelle structure, especially to the prevalence of beta casein in the human and goat's casein. The significant dissimilarity between the two breeds of investigated cows is surprising and indicates a different geometry of micellar aggregates.