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Comparison of affect-regulated, self-regulated, and heart-rate regulated exercise prescriptions: Protocol for a randomized controlled trial

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Abstract

Recent evidence has highlighted the potential benefits of affect- and self-regulated exercise prescriptions for the promotion of physical activity and exercise behavior (Baldwin et al., 2016; Williams et al., 2015, 2016). However, questions remain about which characteristics of the exercise prescriptions make them more effective. Objectives This study will compare exercise prescriptions with and without choice, and with and without an emphasis on affective valence, to determine which method of intensity regulation is most effective for increasing walking behavior. Design Parallel-groups randomized controlled trial. Methods Insufficiently active (less than 90 min per week of moderate-intensity activity) adults will be recruited to participate in a six-week study consisting of a two-week baseline period and four-week intervention. Walking behavior will be measured objectively using consumer-based activity monitors, and based on self-reported data. Other outcome measures will include affective attitudes, variables related to intrinsic motivation, self-reported compliance, resting heart rate, and weight. Participants will be randomized to one of four walking programs that either regulate intensity based on the choice of the intensity or based on heart rate, and either have or lack an emphasis on the affective valence of exercise. Conclusions Recruitment and onboarding has begun. Results of this randomized controlled trial are expected to be available by the middle of 2018.

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... Thus, intensity preference, and especially intensity tolerance, will be considered when advising participants to pursue intensity adjustments, bearing in mind that low tolerance scores would indicate the need for minor intensity adjustments, whereas higher tolerance scores would suggest a wider range of possibilities without necessarily incurring immediate negative consequences for the affective experience. Secondly, aiming for pleasure-oriented self-regulation of intensity is different from just the self-regulation of intensity (Zenko et al., 2017). Both are predicated on the idea that choice matters in promoting pleasure and enjoyment. ...
... This is based on several studies showing that imposed exercise intensities tend to decrease interest and enjoyment due to a perceived loss or restriction of autonomy, with negative consequences for perceived competence and intrinsic motivation (Parfitt et al., 2006;Rose & Parfitt, 2012;Vazou-Ekkekakis & Ekkekakis, 2009). It is expected that most individuals, when given the opportunity to self-regulate their intensity, will choose an intensity that is perceived as pleasurable (Ekkekakis, 2009;Zenko et al., 2017). However, the distinct contribution of providing participants with perceived choice and encouraging them to regulate their intensity with the express goal of optimizing their affective experience remains unexplored. ...
Article
Research on the relationship between exercise-induced affect and exercise or physical activity behavior has gained momentum in recent years, yielding several observational and longitudinal studies. However, experimental tests demonstrating a causal role of affective responses on exercise adherence are lacking. Given the need to devise exercise prescriptions that can facilitate adherence and promote regular physical activity, a Randomized Controlled Trial targeting individual pleasurable responses in a health-club setting will be conducted. The experimental protocol will compare two individualized evaluation, prescription, and supervision methods, adjusted for intensity, with the aim to explore their impact on behavioral, affective, and motivational outcomes. The planned study will be a pragmatic randomized, single-blinded, controlled superiority trial with two parallel groups and an allocation ratio of 1:1. Apparently healthy volunteer participants (N = 46) between 18 and 45 years old, who are not regularly active, will be randomly allocated to a control or experimental group. The control group will follow a general American College of Sports Medicine exercise prescription; the experimental group will follow the same prescription but with enhancements aimed at promoting pleasure: (1) individualization based on individual differences in preference for and tolerance of exercise intensity; (2) self-regulation of intensity; and (3) repeated assessments of core affect. The primary outcome will be post-intervention exercise-session attendance. Affective and motivational variables will be examined as secondary outcomes. The results are expected to advance exercise prescriptions by promoting affective regulation, thus helping to improve exercise adherence and related outcomes.
... Woodward et al. (15) evidencian que tanto la actividad física como el ejercicio físico representan una acción positiva, comparada con el uso de medicamentos. Ante ello, Zenko et al. (16) evidencian estudios donde la autorregulación de la intensidad del ejercicio es más ventajosa y permite una mayor adhesión, favoreciendo la elección y disfrute de la actividad física. ...
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Introducción: Patologías de base limitan a la persona desde diversas dimensiones y estas por temor no realizan actividad física, pero una intervención autorregulada desde la actividad física beneficia tanto al aspecto físico como mental. Métodos: Estudio tipo ensayo aleatorio controlado de carácter longitudinal, con 34 mujeres con artritis reumatoide a quienes se les aplicó un programa de actividad física durante 6 semanas; las evaluaciones estuvieron a cargo de personal médico de apoyo al proyecto y se diligenciaron formatos propios para catalogar el tipo de flexibilidad, la presión arterial, respuesta cardiorrespiratoria ante el ejercicio y se determinaron variables antropométricas. Resultado: Se evidenció que el grupo experimental mejoró significativamente (p=0,00) en todas las variables y el grupo control presentó variaciones en su agrupación. Permanecieron valores que pueden afectar la salud a futuro. Conclusiones: La actividad física regulada y mantenida es un notable coadyuvante a limitar procesos patológicos de base, facilitando la regulación del dolor y síntomas asociados.
... These results were discussed by several authors as an expected outcome of the traits analysis, given that it was not expected that a high or lower trait would, by itself, be an indicator of more or less well-being. Instead, some studies proposed that it should be the proximity of the current training intensity and individual preference/tolerance that should depict the most relevant associations (e.g., Marques et al., 2022;Teixeira et al., 2022), grounded on the rationale that an individually and pleasureoriented adjusted exercise intensity would potentiate well-being (Ladwig et al., 2017;Stevens et al., 2020;Zenko et al., 2017). Some support for this hypothesis is now clearer given that several of the included studies have shown a role of the traits on the reinforcing value of exercise (Flack et al., 2017(Flack et al., , 2019a(Flack et al., , 2019b(Flack et al., , 2019c and exercise behavior like intention, habit, and frequency (e.g., Faria et al., 2021;Flack et al., 2019c;Marques et al., 2022). ...
Article
Individual preference and tolerance can be seen as relevant traits for the understanding of the relationship between exercise intensity and behavioral outcomes. To better understand that relationship, this scoping review aimed to analyze preference for, and tolerance of, exercise intensity constructs in physical activity settings by verifying the contextual utility and feasibility of the subscales in the multiple settings of their application, the interpretation of the subscales, associations with other variables, and the reported limitations of the subscales' use. The search was conducted through PubMed, SPORTDiscus, PsycINFO, and B-on databases. Inclusion criteria were healthy individuals including athletes, experimental and nonexperimental studies written in English based on the assessment of subjective intensity in exercise; studies including the variables tolerance and/or preference. Exclusion criteria were instrument validation studies with no concurrent data, gray literature, and systematic reviews. Thirty-six studies published between 2005 and 2022 were analyzed. Results indicate that both constructs appear to be useful and feasible in various physical activity settings. No relevant limitations were reported for its use. Preference and tolerance constructs assessed with the PRETIE-Q (Preference for and Tolerance of the Intensity of Exercise Questionnaire) seem to offer a simple but useful understanding of the individual relation with exercise intensity in several physical activity-related outcomes.
... On another example, allowing to selfselect an intensity or asking to self-select an intensity that is pleasurable is another possible approach. As stated by Zenko et al. (2017) and Teixeira et al. (2023), targeting pleasure-oriented self-regulation is different from just self-regulate intensity. As expected, and seen in the results, distinct affective (valence) results were obtained when intensity selection was focused on pleasurable responses. ...
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Allowing selection of the exercise intensity has been proposed as a method to support exercise adherence, but no extensive exploration was found contrasting this approach to an imposed intensity method. For this matter, this systematic review aimed to explore the relationship between self-selected exercise intensity and affective, cognitive, and behavioral outcomes in physical activity settings, and whenever possible, compare this approach to other forms of exercise intensity prescription. Search was conducted in the PubMed, SPORTDiscus, and PsycINFO databases (last search date July 2022) with the following inclusion criteria: (1) experimental and non-experimental; (2) published in a peer-reviewed journal; (3) written in English; (4) exploring intensity self-selection and/or self-regulation in exercise settings; (5) samples with individuals aged between 18 and 65 years; and (6) focused on apparently healthy individuals. Twenty-nine studies (N=749 participants) were included in this review, 25 exploring aerobic exercise and four resistance training activities. Overall, self-selected exercise intensity showed better positive affective, cognitive, and behavioral outcomes compared to imposed exercise intensity prescription, but high heterogeneity in the methods and outcomes warrant caution when interpreting the results. Self-selected intensity may promote improved affective responses, autonomy perceptions, self-efficacy, intention to be physically active, and more minutes of exercise participation. However, discrepancies in the intensity of self-selection methods, exercise protocol differences, and sample characteristics, highlight the need for further studies on the topic to better understand the possible magnitude of this effect.
... Woodward et al. (15) evidencian que tanto la actividad física como el ejercicio físico representan una acción positiva, comparada con el uso de medicamentos. Ante ello, Zenko et al. (16) evidencian estudios donde la autorregulación de la intensidad del ejercicio es más ventajosa y permite una mayor adhesión, favoreciendo la elección y disfrute de la actividad física. ...
Article
Introducción. Patologías de base limitan a la persona desde diversas dimensiones y por temor no realizan actividad física, pero una intervención autorregulada desde la actividad física, beneficiando el aspecto físico como mental. Métodos. Estudio tipo ensayo aleatorio controlado de carácter longitudinal, con 34 mujeres con Artritis Reumatoide, a quienes se les aplico un programa de actividad física durante 6 semanas, las evaluaciones estuvieron a cargo de personal médico de apoyo al proyecto, diligenciando formatos propios para catalogar el tipo de flexibilidad, la presión arterial, respuesta cardiorrespiratoria ante el ejercicio y determinaron variables antropométricas. Resultado. Se evidencio que el grupo experimental mejoro significativamente (p=0,00) en todas las variables y el grupo control presento variaciones en su agrupación, permaneciendo valores que pueden afectar la salud a futuro. Conclusiones. La actividad física regulada y mantenida es un notable coadyuvante a limitar procesos patológicos de base, facilitando la regulación del dolor y síntomas asociados. Palabras claves. Actividad física, mujer, artritis reumatoide, salud.
... While traditional PA prescriptions instruct participants to regulate PA based on certain thresholds for intensity (e.g., % of VO 2 max or % heart rate reserve; , selfselected intensity PA prescriptions allow participants to choose their own intensity, whereas affect-regulated prescriptions explicitly instruct participants to choose an intensity that feels good (Zenko et al., 2017). Both self-selected intensity and affect-regulated prescriptions appear to yield more positive affective responses to PA (Parfitt et al., 2006;Lind et al., 2008;Williams et al., 2016) and greater PA engagement over time compared to traditional intensity-based PA prescriptions (Williams et al., 2015Baldwin et al., 2016). ...
... While traditional PA prescriptions instruct participants to regulate PA based on certain thresholds for intensity (e.g., % of VO 2 max or % heart rate reserve; Garber et al., 2011), selfselected intensity PA prescriptions allow participants to choose their own intensity, whereas affect-regulated prescriptions explicitly instruct participants to choose an intensity that feels good (Zenko et al., 2017). Both self-selected intensity and affect-regulated prescriptions appear to yield more positive affective responses to PA (Parfitt et al., 2006;Lind et al., 2008;Williams et al., 2016) and greater PA engagement over time compared to traditional intensity-based PA prescriptions (Williams et al., 2015Baldwin et al., 2016). ...
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The common approach to the multiplicity problem calls for controlling the familywise error rate (FWER). This approach, though, has faults, and we point out a few. A different approach to problems of multiple significance testing is presented. It calls for controlling the expected proportion of falsely rejected hypotheses — the false discovery rate. This error rate is equivalent to the FWER when all hypotheses are true but is smaller otherwise. Therefore, in problems where the control of the false discovery rate rather than that of the FWER is desired, there is potential for a gain in power. A simple sequential Bonferronitype procedure is proved to control the false discovery rate for independent test statistics, and a simulation study shows that the gain in power is substantial. The use of the new procedure and the appropriateness of the criterion are illustrated with examples.
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The primary purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between psychological need satisfaction (competence, autonomy, and relatedness), exercise regulations, and motivational consequences proposed by Self-Determination Theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000). The secondary purpose was to explore changes in these constructs over the course of a 12-week prescribed exercise program. Results indicated competence and autonomy were positively correlated with more self-determined exercise regulations, which in turn were more positively related to exercise behavior, attitudes, and physical fitness. Multiple regression analyses revealed that exercise behavior mediated the relationship between self-determined motives and physical fitness, and both identified and intrinsic exercise regulations contributed significantly to the prediction of attitudes. Paired-sample t tests supported modest to large changes in need satisfaction constructs, as well as identified and intrinsic regulations over the 12-week exercise program. These results suggest that SDT is a useful framework for studying motivational issues in the exercise domain.
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Experiments on factors affecting intrinsic motivation have generally inferred intrinsic motivation from subjects' engagement in a target activity during a free-choice period when external contingencies are no longer operative. However, internally controlling regulation is a form of internal motivation that is very different from intrinsic motivation and can underlie free-choice-period activity. This paper presents three experiments concerned with differentiating internally controlling from intrinsically motivated persistence in situations where ego-involved vs. task-involved subjects had received positive vs. nonconfirming (or no) performance feedback. The first experiment showed that ego-involved (relative to task-involved) subjects displayed less free-choice persistence when they received positive feedback, whereas the second experiment showed that ego-involved (relative to task-involved) subjects displayed more free-choice persistence when they received nonconfirming feedback. In both experiments, however, it was shown that ego-involved subjects did not report the expected affective correlates of intrinsic motivation—namely, interest/enjoyment and perceived choice—whereas task-involved subjects did. In the third experiment, as predicted, ego-involved subjects tended to show less free-choice persistence than task-involved subjects when they received positive performance feedback but greater free-choice persistence when they received no performance feedback. The problem of distinguishing intrinsically motivated activity from internally controlled behavior is discussed.
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The purpose of the study was to compare affective and motivational responses to exercise performed at self-selected and prescribed intensity [close to ventilatory threshold (VT)] between physically active and sedentary women. Following a graded exercise test, the women completed two 30 min bouts of treadmill exercise (on separate days, order counterbalanced). Intensity was prescribed in one session and self-selected in the other. Exercise intensity, exercise-efficacy, perceived competence, autonomy and affective responses were assessed. Results showed that the active women self-selected to exercise at a significantly higher %HR(peak) than their sedentary counterparts but, importantly, both groups exercised close to their VT. The order of conditions influenced affective and motivational responses. The active women experienced more positive affect during exercise and greater competence than sedentary women when the self-selected condition was completed first. Autonomy was higher for the self-selected condition. Self-efficacy and competence were higher in the active women. Differences in self-efficacy perceptions before the exercise depended on which condition was completed first. In conclusion, sedentary women felt relatively positive in the self-selected condition but would benefit from familiarization and experience with exercise to enhance their self-efficacy and competence.
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The present study was designed to assess selected psychometric properties of the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI) (Ryan, 1982), a multidimensional measure of subjects' experience with regard to experimental tasks. Subjects (N = 116) competed in a basketball free-throw shooting game, following which they completed the IMI. The LISREL VI computer program was employed to conduct a confirmatory factor analysis to assess the tenability of a five factor hierarchical model representing four first-order factors or dimensions and a second-order general factor representing intrinsic motivation. Indices of model acceptability tentatively suggest that the sport data adequately fit the hypothesized five factor hierarchical model. Alternative models were tested but did not result in significant improvements in the goodness-of-fit indices, suggesting the proposed model to be the most accurate of the models tested. Coefficient alphas for the four dimensions and the overall scale indicated adequate reliability. The results are discussed with regard to the importance of accurate assessment of psychological constructs and the use of linear structural equations in confirming the factor structures of measures.
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Randomized controlled trials almost always have some individuals with missing outcomes. Inadequate handling of these missing data in the analysis can cause substantial bias in the treatment effect estimates. We examine how missing outcome data are handled in randomized controlled trials in order to assess whether adequate steps have been taken to reduce nonresponse bias and to identify ways to improve procedures for missing data. We reviewed all randomized trials published between July and December 2001 in BMJ, JAMA, Lancet and New England Journal of Medicine, excluding trials in which the primary outcome was described as a time-to-event. We focused on trial designs, how missing outcome data were described and the statistical methods used to deal with the missing outcome data, including sensitivity analyses. We identified 71 trials of which 63 (89%) reported having partly missing outcome data: 13 trials had more than 20% of patients with missing outcomes. In 26 trials that measured the outcome at a single time point, 92% performed a complete case analysis and 8% imputed the missing outcomes using baseline values or the worst case value. In 37 trials with repeated measures of the outcome, 46% performed complete case analyses, potentially excluding individuals with some follow-up data, while 14% performed a repeated measures analysis, 19% used the last observation carried forward, 11% imputed with the worst case value and 2% imputed using regression predictions. Thirteen (21%) of trials with missing data reported a sensitivity analysis. Our review shows that missing outcome data are a common problem in randomized controlled trials, and are often inadequately handled in the statistical analysis in the top tier medical journals. Authors should explicitly state the assumptions underlying the handling of the missing outcomes and justify them through data descriptions and sensitivity analyses.
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To describe physical activity levels of children (6-11 yr), adolescents (12-19 yr), and adults (20+ yr), using objective data obtained with accelerometers from a representative sample of the U.S. population. These results were obtained from the 2003-2004 National Health and Nutritional Examination Survey (NHANES), a cross-sectional study of a complex, multistage probability sample of the civilian, noninstitutionalized U.S. population in the United States. Data are described from 6329 participants who provided at least 1 d of accelerometer data and from 4867 participants who provided four or more days of accelerometer data. Males are more physically active than females. Physical activity declines dramatically across age groups between childhood and adolescence and continues to decline with age. For example, 42% of children ages 6-11 yr obtain the recommended 60 min x d(-1) of physical activity, whereas only 8% of adolescents achieve this goal. Among adults, adherence to the recommendation to obtain 30 min x d(-1) of physical activity is less than 5%. Objective and subjective measures of physical activity give qualitatively similar results regarding gender and age patterns of activity. However, adherence to physical activity recommendations according to accelerometer-measured activity is substantially lower than according to self-report. Great care must be taken when interpreting self-reported physical activity in clinical practice, public health program design and evaluation, and epidemiological research.
Sport and exercise psychology Research: From theory to practice
  • P Ekkekakis
  • Z Zenko
Ekkekakis, P., & Zenko, Z. (2016). Escape from cognitivism: Exercise as hedonic experience. In M. Raab, P. Wylleman, R. Seiler, A. M. Elbe, & A. Hatzigeorgiadis (Eds.), Sport and exercise psychology Research: From theory to practice. New York, NY: Elsevier.
Exercise experience influences affective and motivational outcomes of prescribed and self-selected intensity exercise
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Riebe, D., Franklin, B. A., Thompson, P. D., Garber, C. E., Whitfield, G. P., Magal, M., et al. (2015). Updating ACSM's recommendations for exercise preparticipation health screening. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 47, 2473e2479. Rose, E. A., & Parfitt, G. (2012). Exercise experience influences affective and motivational outcomes of prescribed and self-selected intensity exercise. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 22, 265e277.
Recommending self-paced exercise among overweight and obese adults: A randomized pilot study
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Williams, D. M., Dunsiger, S., Miranda, R., Jr., Gwaltney, C. J., Emerson, J. A., Monti, P. M., et al. (2015). Recommending self-paced exercise among overweight and obese adults: A randomized pilot study. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 49, 280e285.