Language, Power and Pedagogy: Bilingual Children in the Crossfire
... When it comes to the development of theories on the subject, the USA has a lead over its European and Flemish counterparts as well. Supporters of bilingual education can fall back upon the insights of the Canadian educational psychologist Jim Cummins (1979Cummins ( , 2000. In the seventies he formulated a theory to explain the effectiveness of bilingual education. ...
... Much-quoted examples are the French immersion programmes for English-speaking students in Quebec (Canada) and the Catalan immersion programmes for Spanish-speaking students in Catalonia (Spain). There is little or no dispute about the positive effects of these programmes (Cummins, 2000;Huguet et al., 2000;Lazaruk, 2007). But in almost all cases the programmes involve students who come from high-status groups and are learning a second language in a context of additive bilingualism. ...
This chapter argues that multilingual education is not the only way of responding to language diversity at school; indeed, the large number of home languages present in many schools means that it is impossible to implement traditional modes of bi- and multilingual education. We begin by distinguishing between the multilingualism of educational elites, which involves languages that enjoy a high degree of cultural prestige, and the multilingualism of children from immigrant homes, whose languages are often felt to have no educational value. We then consider the arguments advanced in favour of monolingual and multilingual educational models. Proponents of the monolingual model believe that children from immigrant backgrounds should be immersed in the language of schooling; home languages have no role to play at school because they are seen as obstacles to effective acquisition of the majority language. Proponents of bilingual models, on the other hand, argue that education partly in the pupil’s home language provides a more effective basis for learning the language of schooling than immersion, enhances pupils’ self-esteem, and helps to preserve immigrant languages. A review of empirical research shows that there is no knock-down argument in favour of one particular model of language education; clearly, no single model can possibly suit all contexts. We propose that there are three strategies for responding to linguistic diversity at school: a constructive language policy; raising language awareness; and facilitating functional multilingual learning. This last is conceptualised as an alternative to the binary opposition between monolingual and multilingual education: a new pedagogical approach that exploits children’s plurilingual repertoires as didactic capital for learning.
... Several hypotheses need to be discussed when understanding how transfer or interference affects FL reading comprehension. The interdependence hypothesis postulated by Cummins (1991Cummins ( , 2000 claims that L1 and the FL are interrelated, whereby L1 academic proficiency transfers to FL proficiency. If strong language proficiency is developed in the L1, this will transfer to the FL. ...
... If strong language proficiency is developed in the L1, this will transfer to the FL. In other words, poor reading in the FL is caused by poor reading in the L1 and vice versa (Cummins, 2000;Genesee et al., 2006;Jiang, 2011 interdependence hypothesis and the central processing hypothesis, which also states underlying cognitive and linguistic abilities in both L1 and L2 (Geva & Siegel, 2000). The common denominator between all three hypotheses is that reading development in L1 and FL is interrelated and based on standard linguistic abilities. ...
A plethora of research has investigated the effects of mindfulness intervention in education, but few have researched the benefits of mindfulness intervention on learning English as a foreign language (EFL). This action research explores a holistic approach to improving EFL education for 10th-grade students in an Israeli high school by integrating a 13-week Mindfulness-Based Intervention (MBI) program taught in the target language into the EFL school curriculum. The research assesses the impact of the intervention on reading comprehension skills, vocabulary acquisition, self-efficacy, well-being, and foreign language enjoyment. The motivation for this study stems from the significant role of EFL proficiency in Israeli education and the growing need for innovative pedagogical strategies. The intervention program, Attention Please, combines elements of the author's teaching experience and Broderick's Learning to Breathe program, adapted for Israeli students.
A mixed-methods approach was employed in an Israeli high school with two 10th-grade classes, a total of 57 pupils (experimental and control), combining quantitative tests, questionnaires, qualitative interviews and a qualitative teacher's journal.
Key findings indicate significant improvements in productive vocabulary and self-efficacy (SE) in the experimental group compared to the control group. Moreover, the experimental group demonstrated higher levels of mindfulness in the post-stage of the experiment. Correlations were not found between levels of mindfulness and productive vocabulary scores or self-efficacy scores. The data from the semi-structured interviews conducted with half of the experimental group reveal a positive attitude and overall satisfaction with the intervention program, decreases in school-related anxiety, increases in focus on school work, a meaningful experience and enjoyment in the EFL classroom and potential improvements in emotional regulation. The teacher's journal provides valuable insights for pedagogical recommendations for future mindfulness-based interventions in foreign language classrooms.
Overall, this research can act as a catalyst, encouraging scholars and practitioners in the field of foreign language acquisition (FLA) to embrace mindfulness as both an instructional holistic strategy in the target language and a focal point for investigation.
Keywords: Mindfulness, Mindfulness-based interventions, EFL, SE, FLA
... 55). Cummins (2000) and García et al. (2018) argue that bilingual education is often portrayed as a problem, and a threat to national identity. Through bilingual education being seen as problematic, bilingual students are marginalized and stripped of an education that is based on their own language knowledge. ...
... (2009, p. 132) The renegotiation of identity creates a new Self; Block, like Norton, shows that awareness of this is of great importance in order for language learning to be successful. Cummins (2000) investigates how transformative pedagogy can have a positive effect on learner identity and learner outcomes. Transformative pedagogy emphasizes the interactions between teachers and students, and sheds light on power structures in classroom settings. ...
Dissertation in Educational work
... (Cummins, 2000) . (UNESCO, 2022) .به ...
... به مادري زبان به فرهنگي و شناختي ساختار يك عنوان است ارتباط در او اجتماعي و فردي هويت با مستقيﻢ طور (Cummins, 2000) . (Diba & Priyadarshini, 2023b) . ...
This study examines the impact of mother tongue on the learning process, particularly in multilingual communities, with a focus on bilingual students at Shahid Navab Safavi School in the village of Bozandan. The findings indicate that mother tongue-based education not only improves academic performance and facilitates the understanding of scientific concepts but also plays a crucial role in strengthening students' cultural and social identity. As a cognitive and cultural tool, the mother tongue provides a deeper understanding of educational concepts and reduces language anxiety. In contrast, instruction in a language other than the mother tongue presents challenges, such as reduced comprehension of concepts and academic decline. This research emphasizes the need for implementing mother tongue-based educational policies in multilingual communities to achieve educational equity and sustainable development by reducing language and social gaps. However, the implementation of these policies requires training specialized teachers, adapting curricula, and ensuring the provision of appropriate educational resources.
... The reports of this paper are consistent with findings of Cummins (2000) and UNESCO (2008) that mother tongue based instructional medium is most advantageous at early primary school level in Papua New Guinea, Mali and Peru (Ball, 2010). UNESCO find out that the rate of success of students' upto grade 5 was very low in most of developing countries. ...
In this study the role of UN and its specialized agencies is reviewed to know the importance of mother tongue in education. Most of children who attended school, they encountered serious educational problems due to the instructional medium. Annual reports by UNESCO indicated the high rate of dropout and class repetition among students before they finish six years of education was due to not using their mother tongue in education. UNESCO's Director General stated on the 11 th Annual Mother Language Day that three-languages formula: mother tongue, national language and an international language are most suitable instructional mediums. UN and its specialized agencies were agreed upon and recommended the mother tongue-based education system at least for six years of formal schooling. Hence education will be based upon already achieved knowledge and experiences of students. This will also enhance their enrollment, academic performance and social equality.
... Many of the newcomer students we spoke to shared a normative view of academic quality education as essentially monolingual and found multilingualism disruptive to language education. This is problematic, as research on bi-and multilingual education has shown that supporting and including first languages of language minority students in learning positively influences their identity construction, academic achievements, cognitive and linguistic abilities (Cummins, 2000;Cummins et al., 2015;García, 2009;García & Wei, 2015;Sierens & Avermaet, 2018). Our findings highlight the need for preparatory class teachers to challenge the monolingual discourses and approaches to language learning. ...
Learning a new language is a challenge facing most young immigrants and refugees arriving in a new resettlement country. Yet, learning the resettlement country language is critical for the young immigrants and refugees’ life chances, in terms of future education, social integration, and participation in the labour market. While literature concerned with Language Learning Strategies (LLS) points to the determining effects of social and physical learning environments on language acquisition, few studies have systematically examined how LLS are practiced in the social and educational contexts of preparatory classes for newcomer adolescents. Guided by the concept of LLS, we qualitatively explore the tactics adopted by 85 newcomer adolescents in Danish preparatory classes when learning the Danish language. We disentangle a range of different social and affective language learning strategies such as interacting with native speakers, practising with people sharing the same language skills, and using laughter and exchanging praise to overcome nervousness and anxiety. We highlight how these informal strategies interact and how the newcomer students adopt the strategies to facilitate their language learning. We argue that preparatory classes serve as unique social and educational spaces for supporting the development of social and affective language learning strategies that constructively interact to create conducive conditions for language acquisition.
... Previous studies have highlighted the cognitive advantages of bilingualism, including improved executive functioning, working memory, and metalinguistic awareness. Researchers such as Bialystok (2001) and Cummins (2000) have provided evidence that bilingual children develop superior problem-solving skills and exhibit higher levels of creativity. Moreover, bilingual education has been linked to enhanced academic performance, particularly in mathematics and reading comprehension (Thomas & Collier, 2012). ...
Bilingual education has been a subject of extensive research, with studies examining its influence on cognitive abilities and academic outcomes. This longitudinal study explores how bilingual education impacts students' cognitive development and academic performance over time. By analyzing data from elementary school students enrolled in bilingual programs, this study aims to determine the long-term benefits and challenges associated with bilingual education. Findings suggest that bilingual students exhibit enhanced cognitive flexibility, problem-solving skills, and overall academic performance compared to their monolingual peers. Additionally, the study investigates how bilingualism affects executive functioning, memory retention, and linguistic proficiency, offering insights into how dual-language instruction contributes to intellectual growth. The results underscore the importance of well-structured bilingual curricula in fostering academic excellence and cultural competence among students. Moreover, the study highlights the role of bilingual education in enhancing students' adaptability to diverse learning environments. It also examines how bilingual proficiency influences career opportunities and global competitiveness in the future. Ultimately, these findings reinforce the necessity of integrating bilingual programs within mainstream education systems to maximize student potential.
... The situation is complicated by a strongly articulated desire from parents for their children to learn in English-it is seen as the language of economic and social power, a way to access social and personal goods (Lasagabaster and van der Walt 2024). However, it means that many South African learners matriculate from school without developing strong cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP) in any language (Cummins 2000(Cummins , 2015. ...
... The dramatic reduction in students requiring full refresher intervention from 55.17% to 1.64% demonstrates how mother tongue-based instruction facilitates the critical phonological awareness development that Vygotsky's sociocultural theory identifies as essential for early literacy acquisition. This substantial improvement reflects the theoretical principle that learning in one's primary language reduces cognitive load, allowing students to focus on skill development rather than language comprehension (Cummins, 2000). The consistent pattern of improvement in Grade 2 supports Stanovich's (1986) 'Matthew Effect' theory in reading development, where initial reading success compounds over time. ...
This three-year longitudinal Study addresses a critical gap in understanding reading proficiency development in multilingual educational settings, particularly in post-pandemic recovery in Philippine basic education. The research aimed to analyze the effectiveness of the Comprehensive Rapid Literacy Assessment (CRLA) implementation in tracking and improving reading proficiency among Grades 1-3 learners in SDO Makati from 2022 to 2025, specifically focusing on mother tongue-based instruction and dual-language development. Using a longitudinal research design, the Study examined 18,159 students across 15 elementary schools, implementing pre-test (BOSY) and post-test (EOSY) assessments through CRLA, which evaluated reading proficiency across four levels: Grade Ready, Light Refresher, Moderate Refresher, and Full Refresher. The findings revealed significant improvements across all grade levels, with Grade 1 showing a dramatic reduction in students requiring full refresher intervention from 55.17% to 1.64%, Grade 2 from 32.17% to 0.80%, and Grade 3 demonstrating successful bilingual development with Filipino full refresher needs decreasing from 19.88% to 0.71% and English from 12.43% to 1.16%. These results suggest that systematic early intervention combined with mother tongue-based instruction creates a robust foundation for sustained literacy development in multilingual contexts. The dramatic reductions in students requiring full refresher intervention were statistically significant across all grade levels (p<0.001), with large effect sizes (Cohen's d ranging from 1.45 to 2.13), indicating not only substantial but reliable improvements. The 95% confidence intervals for these improvements (Grade 1: 52.3%-55.7%; Grade 2: 30.2%-32.5%; Grade 3 Filipino: 18.4%-19.9%; Grade 3 English: 10.5%-12.0%) further demonstrate the consistency of these positive outcomes across the student population.
... In response to CLIL's inherent characteristics-the cognitive depth connected to learning subject matter in a foreign language-Coonan has invited teachers to reconsider standard operating procedures in teaching and implement new ones ever since the inception of CLIL teaching and teacher training. Taking up Coyle's (2008) argument that CLIL involves learning to use language appropriately whilst using language to learn effectively (Coyle, 2008), Coonan clarified for many Italian teachers that in CLIL the focus is on CALP (Cummins, 2000;2008), a cognitively more demanding skill linked to cognitive processes that allows learners to acquire complex contents through the foreign language, as anticipated above; a skill that is developed, at the same time, through using the foreign language to learn (Coonan, 2009). Similarly, another Italian scholar reflecting on the issue, Mazzotta (2009), brought attention to the development of competence in academic discourse, which consists in knowing how to use the foreign language both to understand complex and decontextualized linguistic constructs and to analyze, explore and break down concepts present in study texts as a crucial component of CLIL. ...
While critical thinking is becoming gradually more important in education, memorisation of rules, procedures and facts is still predominant. Italy has undergone a moderate level of innovation over the last two decades. Despite this, rote-learning strategies appear to be the norm at secondary education level (Vincent-Lancrin et al., 2019). This paper examines whether the currently compulsory CLIL activity, with its focus on higher-order thinking skills (Coyle et al., 2010), has had a beneficial impact on learning in Italian secondary education. More specifically, teachers' current practices and students' reactions to them after the official CLIL implementation are discussed, through analysis of data collected from 1,343 respondents to a questionnaire distributed throughout the country. The findings align with the thinking-centered, integrative nature of the approach advanced by CLIL scholars, providing evidence both of the success of CLIL teacher training measures in the Italian context and of further cognitive achievements stemming from CLIL activity. However, critical considerations of the need to update assessment measures in light of these findings are included.
... On the other hand, when defining bilingualism within the context of bilingual education, the word biliteracy comes into play where Bialystok (2001) defines it as the ability to read and write in two languages. This academically related language competence (Baker, 2011;Cummins, 2000) is developed as a result of exposure to and interaction with academic content, i.e. school curriculum, that is presented in two languages, mostly the mother-tongue language and a second language. According to studies conducted in the field of language education, many researchers support bilingual education referring to the concept in different words such as translanguaging (García, 2011), multilingualism (Blackledge & Creese, 2010) and foreign language education (Fortune et al., 2008). ...
This edited volume provides a comprehensive and detailed insight into the Teaching of English as a Second Language (TESOL) in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). It describes a variety of challenges that native speakers of Arabic face when learning the English language and presents contemporary teaching strategies for supporting them. The book provides analyses of TESOL syllabi and policies currently adopted in the UAE’s K-12 education sector, addressing strengths and areas which can be improved. The book also includes a critical discussion about the difficulties of implementing Western-based TESOL methodologies in a Middle Eastern context, from the perspectives of real-world practitioners. By presenting a combination of research-based and theory-based chapters, this book is a great resource to TESOL-related graduate students, teachers-in-training, educational leaders and policy makers in the UAE and beyond.
... …. bilingual or multilingual children do not operate as separate monolinguals but occupy a linguistic third space with one linguistic repertoire consisting of all the languages they speak (Cummins, 2010;Flores and Garcia, 2013). The space they occupy is known as a translanguaging space (Li Wei, 2017). ...
Objective: The objective of this study is to investigate the concept of literacy as a fundamental human right, with the aim of analysing its role in fostering equity, sustainability, and socio-economic progress while interrogating Eurocentric conceptualisations and integrating Global South perspectives. Theoretical Framework: This research is grounded in the rights-based and development-oriented frameworks espoused by UNESCO, alongside theories of multiliteracies and translanguaging. These provide a foundation for understanding literacy's cultural, historical, and socio-economic dimensions, particularly in contexts like South Africa. Method: The study employs a qualitative literature review approach, synthesising global frameworks, declarations, and indigenous critiques. Key texts from UNESCO, the United Nations, and scholars such as Prinsloo (1999) and Guzula (2019) were analysed to uncover themes related to literacy's evolving definitions and applications. Results and Discussion: The findings reveal that while global frameworks prioritise literacy, their operationalised definitions often exclude culturally specific practices. Indigenous perspectives highlight the embeddedness of literacy in social and historical contexts, challenging dominant Eurocentric views. The study also underscores literacy’s role in achieving the Sustainable Development Goals, particularly Goal 4. Research Implications: The study provides practical and theoretical insights for policymakers and educators by advocating for pluralistic, contextually grounded literacy frameworks. This includes addressing multilingualism, cultural integrity, and accessibility in literacy initiatives. Originality/Value: This study contributes to the discourse by critically examining literacy from a Global South perspective, offering a more inclusive understanding that challenges universalist norms. Its focus on sustainability and equity underscores its relevance in advancing education and human rights globally.
... An assumption of policymakers is that the students will be able to switch to using a dominant language in the classroom, and that there is a "right time" to introduce an L2. This is a problematic framing because it implies that there is an optimal moment or threshold to transition (Nakamura et al., 2023) when it is well known that it takes at minimum 6 to 7 years for a child to develop L1 literacy skills and 4-6 years to develop L2 skills (Cummins, 2000;Collier & Thomas, 2017). The idea of an optimal moment to transition also implies that all students will be ready to transition at the same time, when, if one has been a teacher of emergent multilinguals, one knows that each learner progresses at her, his, or their own pace. ...
The purpose of this paper is to highlight how the concepts of transfer and transition differently influence the way language-in-education policies are developed and enacted. We are particularly concerned with multilingual countries and contexts of the Global South, but we would argue that the language-in-education policy implications are similar around the world.
... Lewis (2006) examines the cognitive aspects of language, highlighting how early cultural conditioning shapes thought processes and influences organizational practices, such as leadership and decision-making. Cummins (2000) contributes to this discussion by introducing the Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) theory, which distinguishes between Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills (BICS) and the more advanced language proficiency required for academic contexts. His work underscores the challenges faced by second language learners in mastering both BICS and CALP, further illustrating the deep connection between language and culture. ...
The preliminary idea of incorporating culture into language teaching has not been thoroughly framed from the Sociopragmatic and Pragmalinguistic dimensions, whereas second/foreign language learning was the focal point of attention in the various contexts. At this point, Hofstede defines the term "culture," and its six dimensions: Masculinity/Femininity, Indulgence/Restraint, Power Distance, Individualism/Collectivism, Uncertainty Avoidance, and Long/Short Term Orientation. It is helpful to remember that each of the six culture layers that Hofstede established may help us to comprehend individual differences, which is the fundamental idea behind the SLA (Second Language Acquisition) process. The relationship between language and culture is examined in the present narrative study by using the lens of Sociolinguistics and SLA principles to understand the role of culture in the SLA process via unrevealing the similarities between Hofstede’s culture layers’ and the principle of individual differences in SLA (Dörnyei, 2007). Depending upon the results of the present narrative literature review study, the process of learning a language is culture-specific, which is also supported by the idea of "culture" being homogenized. There is undoubtedly no objective tool for assessing culture inside a certain society. Nonetheless, during the SLA process, taking into account the unique characteristics of EFL environments could aid in the development of both large- and small-scale policies and initiatives that will further the process.
... However, the significant finding from the regression analysis (OR ¼1.942, p ¼ 0.044) indicates that language of instruction may still influence clarity in specific cases, warranting further investigation into how language impacts specific subjects or concepts. Thus, language of instruction has been shown to impact comprehension and academic performance (Cummins, 2000), and our findings underscore the importance of language support services to enhance understanding. ...
This study evaluates student satisfaction with the terminological apparatus in natural and mathematical textbooks used in Kazakhstani schools. A quantitative cross-sectional design was employed, using a structured questionnaire administered to 678 students across various school types. Stratified random sampling ensured diversity in gender, residence, and study language. Key findings indicate that 84.7% of students found textbook terms clear, with males reporting significantly higher clarity than females (p < 0.001). Kazakh-speaking students reported slightly higher clarity than Russian-speaking counterparts, though this difference was not statistically significant. Most students relied on teachers to resolve unclear terms, making it the most effective strategy. Additional illustrations were useful for 81.1% of participants, especially in IT and natural sciences, though mathematics terminology remained challenging. These findings have educational policy implications, suggesting improvements in textbook terminology, teacher training, and curriculum design. Enhancing clarity through precise definitions, visual aids, and teacher support could improve student comprehension. Study limitations include reliance on self-reported data and the exclusion of qualitative insights from teachers and policymakers. Future research should integrate these perspectives for a more comprehensive understanding of textbook effectiveness.
... Scholars in the field of language education and applied linguistics have been debating the aims of language education, advocating for more critical versions of bilingualism (Cummins, 2000;Nieto, 2017), multilingualism (Blackledge & Creese, 2010;Conteh & Meier, 2014;May, 2014;Meier, 2016), plurilingualism (Corcoran, 2019), and translanguaging (García & Leiva, 2014;Li, 2023) to achieve the goals of socially just language education (Phillipson, 1992;Piller, 2016). Advocates of critical multiculturalism in LE support an open-minded attitude to people of diverse linguistic, ethnic, and racial backgrounds (Kubota, 2004;Kubota & Lin, 2009). ...
The question of social justice in language education (LE) became prominent due to increased linguistic and cultural diversity fuelled by globalization and migration, which exacerbated social inequality in this neoliberal era. The critical “turn” in education resulted in the emphasis on issues of social inequality, racial discrimination, and decolonization of curriculum, among others. Nancy Fraser’s tripartite theory (3Rs), where social, cultural, and political injustices are compensated for by redistribution, recognition, and representation, has the potential to address social justice issues in LE. This theory has already been applied to education research, but not extensively. The purpose of this paper is to explore plurilingualism for social justice in LE by analysing its possibilities for cultural recognition, economic redistribution, and political representation and present a new understanding of the concept of social justice in LE through recognition, redistribution, and representation.
... Preserving and promoting mother tongues is crucial, not merely for cultural heritage but also for cognitive development, educational success, and social cohesion. As Cummins (2001) highlights, children who receive early education in their mother tongue demonstrate stronger literacy and numeracy skills, reinforcing the role of linguistic diversity in fostering creativity, tolerance, and social harmony. Moreover, a strong foundation in one's mother tongue enhances cognitive flexibility, problem-solving abilities, and the capacity to learn additional languages, making it an invaluable asset for individuals and society alike. ...
India, with its vast linguistic diversity, is home to 1,652 mother tongues, making it one of the most complex multilingual nations in the world. However, globalization, urbanization, and the increasing dominance of English and Hindi have marginalized many indigenous languages, posing a serious threat to their survival. International Mother Language Day (IMLD), observed annually on February 21 st , serves as a global initiative to promote linguistic diversity and protect endangered languages. This article explores the challenges of preserving mother tongues in India's sociolinguistic landscape, highlighting the historical context, policy interventions, and technological advancements aimed at safeguarding linguistic heritage. The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 has reinforced mother tongue-based education, but its implementation remains a challenge due to infrastructure gaps and societal attitudes favoring English. Furthermore, Artificial Intelligence (AI) and digital technologies offer promising solutions, yet the dominance of English in digital spaces limits access for many regional languages. Government initiatives such as the Bhashini Project aim to bridge this gap, but concerted efforts are needed to integrate regional languages into education, media, and technology. The discussion underscores the importance of preserving mother tongues as an integral part of India's cultural identity and socioeconomic progress while advocating for inclusive language policies in an increasingly digital world.
... The sensitivity of vocabulary to reduced input effects has been ascribed to the distributed and context-specific characteristic of vocabulary (Bedore et al., 2005). Despite gains in HL vocabulary over time, bilingual children constantly face the challenge of trying to catch up to a "moving target" (Cummins, 2000) in that while bilingual children are trying to bridge the vocabulary gap, monolingual children are in the process of expanding their vocabulary. This becomes much more pronounced after the onset of schooling in the societal language and the gradual shift in language dominance, especially when HL children lack access to literacy programs and are not given the opportunity to learn about the different "registers and the pragmatic functions of [their heritage] language in different contexts and for different purposes" via text exposure (Montrul, 2022, p. 403). ...
Purpose
To avoid misdiagnosis with developmental language disorder (DLD) in bilingual children, it is recommended to evaluate both languages. However, unlike their monolingual peers, bilingual children acquire their heritage language under adverse input conditions. Focusing on Levantine Arabic, the study evaluates the clinical utility of a standardized test for Arabic and an Arabic Language Impairment Testing in Multilingual Settings sentence repetition task (LITMUS-SRT) for ruling in/out DLD in bilingual children acquiring Arabic as a heritage language in Germany. Both tools were developed for the majority diglossic Lebanese bilingual context. However, it is still unclear whether they can be reliably applied in heritage contexts.
Method
Fifty-nine children (5;6–9;1 [years;months]) participated in the study: 18 bilingual typically developing ([BiTD]) children with early exposure to German (heritage BiTD), nine heritage bilingual children with DLD (heritage BiDLD), eight typically developing late-successive bilingual children, and 24 typically developing monolingual children, who served as controls.
Results
Unlike monolingual and late successive bilingual children with typical language development, many heritage BiTD children resembled their BiDLD peers, especially on measures of expressive/receptive vocabulary and morphosyntax production, which were negatively affected by early second language exposure. In contrast, the Arabic LITMUS-SRT did not disadvantage heritage BiTD children, who performed on par with their typically developing monolingual and late successive bilingual peers on most structures. BiDLD showed poor performance on all structures.
Conclusions
Standardized tests assessing language domains sensitive to reduced heritage language input bear a risk of overdiagnosis with DLD in heritage contexts. The Arabic LITMUS-SRT, on the other hand, provides a fair estimate of heritage language abilities. However, task construction should consider morphophonological aspects vulnerable in heritage Arabic.
... The challenges of literacy acquisition run rampant, because the gap between the mother tongues of literacy students and the lingua franca of Pakistan is a significant one. Its significance is exacerbated by the research-backed argument that a child must be taught in their most familiar language during their early years of formal education (UNESCO 2003;Cummins 1992Cummins , 2000. The most familiar language is often the mother tongue, which is also called the first language or L1. ...
This article evaluates a case study of language learning and teaching in adult asylum seekers and refugees ESL beginner learners in Wales, UK. Communicative and intercultural competencies are the two main focuses in this context, whereas social identity, motivation, and monolingual bias influence the outcome of English learning. Since the researcher was the course’s teacher for ten months, this study examines the teaching environment and learners’ behaviour through reflective critical analysis under Gibbs’ Reflective Cycle. Though the classroom used English as the lingual Franca, most learners whose native language is Arabic tended to use the translation method to enhance their understanding. This article reveals the challenges in this case study as (1) a potential information gap caused by an inaccurate translation that the teacher could not verify, (2) demotivated learners’ willingness to participate impact their learning outcomes, and (3) incapability to link learners’ existing literacy in English. This study also suggests several aspects to solve these issues, including (1) applying task-based learning and communicative language teaching to raise learners’ intercultural awareness, (2) providing visual aids in class and adopting translanguaging as pedagogy to encourage learners to build connection with their prior knowledge, (3) use scaffolding to help learners improve step by step, and (4) encourage for group work collaboration to create a supportive community. The study provides valuable insights into English teaching to adult asylum seekers and refugees to teachers and relative parties. It can also inform future policy-making changes regarding ESL teaching to asylum seekers and refugees.
What happens after middle-class parents arrive at an underperforming majority-minority school with a Mandarin immersion strand program? I use parent interviews and observations to examine the institutional changes in an elementary school. I show how a struggling school located in a working-class neighborhood gradually gentrifies without neighborhood demographic change. I find the immersion program creates a disconnect between the demographically different immersion and the non-immersion parents and students. This pushes the immersion parents to seek a school that is completely immersion. The findings suggest those that may benefit most from an improved school environment may lose the opportunity to participate.
This study explores how English language ability functions a linguistic capital for Senior High School students of Southern Mindanao Institute of Technology, Inc., impacting their academic performance, professional readiness, social connections, and personal development. Using thematic analysis of in-depth interviews, the research reveals that English proficiency enhances students' academic achievement, facilitates professional communication, and fosters social interactions across diverse cultural backgrounds. English plays a crucial role in shaping students' identities, cultural practices, and sociocultural dynamics, influencing their social status and future prospects. The findings highlight the broader political and economic implications of English proficiency, demonstrating its significance in accessing educational resources, expanding professional opportunities, and promoting economic mobility. English is shown to be essential for students' ability to interact with diverse individuals and engage in global exchanges. Moreover, the study emphasizes that students' perceptions of themselves and their social standing are shaped by their English skills, reinforcing their sense of identity in various social and cultural settings. Proficiency in English benefits students academically and professionally and helps them build social capital, increasing their willingness to participate in cross-cultural interactions and global discussions. The twofold effect of English proficiency underscores its importance in influencing students' educational experiences and shaping their future pathways. The study ultimately highlights the crucial role of English in students' sociocultural integration, professional preparedness, and academic success.
In the intricate tapestry of Zimbabwean society, the interplay between language and culture emerges as a pivotal determinant of national identity. The nation's rich linguistic diversity comprising languages such as Shona, Ndebele, and English poses significant challenges and opportunities within higher education. The prevailing focus on English, particularly in the domain of Religious Studies, frequently alienates students from their cultural heritage, thus hindering their comprehension of the multifaceted nature of religious teachings. This study explores the efficacy of inclusive pedagogical methodologies that integrate indigenous languages, with the aim of enriching both religious comprehension and cultural identity among learners in Zimbabwean higher education institutions.
The mother language is highly valuable for several reasons. It plays a crucial role in shaping a person's thoughts and emotions. For a child's overall development, learning to speak their mother language is essential. Fluency in their native language benefits children in various ways; it connects them to their culture, promotes cognitive development, and facilitates the learning of additional languages.Children begin to understand the world around them through the language they hear from their mothers, starting before they are even born and continuing throughout their lives. Unfortunately, many children in developing regions receive very little effective instruction in school. This lack of comprehension is often due to teaching being conducted in a language they do not fully understand. Such practices can lead to limited learning outcomes, alienating experiences, and high rates of dropout and repetition in education.This article aims to highlight the important views of student teachers of Goa Education College and the importance and role of the Mother language in the teaching-learning process.To improve the quality of education, language policies must prioritize mother-tongue learning. Educational models that ignore the mother language during early years can be unproductive and detrimental to children’s learning. Implementing mother-tongue education, especially in the early stages, allows teachers to instruct more effectively and enables learners to grasp concepts more easily.
The Critical Pedagogies Research Team (PEDACRI-ULL) participates in the Program for the Inclusion of Migrants at Risk of Social Exclusion (PIPE) 2023-1-ES01-KA220-ADU-000160578, funded by the European Union. This project aims to design, implement and promote a transnational cooperation network to enhance the skills and competencies of migrants. Its purpose is to provide an educational response aligned with the European Commission’s Pact on Migration and Asylum.. Among its objectives, the program develops tools for professionals and institutions working with migrants, fostering collaborative learning to envision a culture of peace. In this essay, we explore the Pedagogy of Hospitality through critical pedagogies and the dialogue of knowledge. We propose a model of migrant citizenship based on an interlinguistic didactic relationship that promotes intercultural coexistence, grounded in an ethic of miscegenation. Furthermore, we advocate language teaching as a universal right and argue that hospitality should not be seen as an act of generosity but as a moral duty. This perspective supports an inclusive and just education, where language serves as a bridge for integration and mutual recognition.
This special issue contains the work of eight authors who were at the time of writing their articles pre-service teachers (most of them specifically: students) of English Language Education at Bielefeld University. The authors started to focus on Critical English Language Education in various moments during their professionalisation, from very early in their Bachelor studies to later on in their Master degree programmes. They all, however, have one common goal: to better understand, analyse and reshape the discource dedicated to questions of social justice and teacher education. The articles represent both empirical research on the ways both in-service and pre-service teachers position themselves towards social justice education and conceptual research that shows at the example of various analog and digital materials how English language lessons can relate to social justice topics.
The education system is a key site for the organization and legitimization of linguistic resources and for socializing children according to existing norms and understandings of language and diversity. In Galicia, an autonomous community of Spain, language policies designed to address linguistic diversity have emerged separately, through different historical processes. Spanish (as the national, majority language); Galician (as the local minority language); languages spoken by migrant families; and the more globally powerful English are assigned distinct and hierarchical roles in the Galician educational system. Based on a systematic discourse analysis of four key educational policies enacted at the national of autonomic level, our analysis explores how concepts of linguistic and cultural diversity are represented within policy and how languages and language learning are understood. Our results indicate that while these policies employ some explicit discourses that acknowledge and celebrate multilingualism, a careful reading of the ideologies that underpin them are monolingual. Deficit discourses are embedded throughout the policies in so far as linguistic and cultural diversity are frequently associated with special needs and language is positioned as a factor that might contribute to educational deficits. Migrant languages are never framed as assets that could contribute in a positive way to the learning environment. We argue that educational policy—as a social practice of power—must acknowledge and incorporate students full cultural and linguistic repertoires in order to provide the most effective learning. By critically analysing the status quo, we seek inspiration for designing policy from asset rather than deficit perspectives.
Background
Since the outbreak of a large-scale war in Ukraine on 24 February 2022, tens of thousands of Ukrainian children have found themselves in a situation of forced migration, had to adapt to the Austrian school system, learn a new foreign language and adapt to a new team and teachers. The main task of the school was to create a safe, stable and reliable environment. But at the same time, a school in Austria is a place where another language is spoken and taught, which added even more stress to the difficult situation in which Ukrainian students found themselves. In this context, the possibility of identifying, recognising and supporting the potential of a child in forced migration, which is fully reflected in the process of written or oral communication in the mother tongue, as opposed to communication in a foreign language, plays a significant role in establishing emotional and psychological balance and influences the acquisition of a new language.
Purpose
The aim of the article is to highlight the peculiarities of interaction between the native Ukrainian language and German as a language of instruction in Austria in written communication using the tool for analysing the acquisition of early written language competence developed within the framework of the international ELA project.
Methods
To achieve the aim of the study, the tool for analysing the acquisition of early written language competence ELA (Erfassung früher literaler Aktivitäten in Ukrainisch, Türkisch, Russisch und Deutsch) was used, which aims to identify and analyse the early bilingual or multilingual written competence of children based on samples of written texts. ELA provides an opportunity to consider the process of acquiring German as a language of instruction from a resource-based perspective and can also serve as a basis for purely scientific research. The method of elicitation was used to obtain the sample texts. The elicitation was carried out with the help of a stimulus-illustration and a stimulus-sentence formulated in Ukrainian and German.
Results
Based on the resource-based approach to learning a foreign language, it can be stated that the mother tongue is the resource that allows us to see the child’s abilities that remain hidden if we take into account only German-language texts. The collected and analysed written samples show that more creativity and diversity in linguistic means are recorded in texts written in the mother tongue. An interesting observation was that characters and aspects that go beyond situational depiction (illustration from Serena Romanelli’s children’s book ‘Kleiner Dodo, was spielst du?’) are almost exclusively found in texts written in the mother tongue, where descriptions are much more detailed and differ from texts written in German in being more emotional and imaginative. Texts in German are shorter and have a simpler structure. In the absence of certain words, the children replaced them with their Ukrainian or English equivalents and gave proper names to animals whose names were unknown to them in German. This strategy allowed them not to remain silent and successfully complete the task. In the German-language samples, nouns that did not come at the beginning of a sentence were often written with a lowercase letter, which can be interpreted as a transfer of Ukrainian spelling to German.
The names of animals in some Ukrainian-language samples were capitalised, even if they did not appear at the beginning of the sentence. It can be assumed that these animals were perceived as the main characters of the story, or that the German spelling rules, where all nouns are capitalised, were transferred to the Ukrainian language. Very often, the main character was used in the diminutive form, which is typical for the Ukrainian language.
Discussion
The ELA tool makes it possible to objectively assess the abilities and skills of children whose mother tongue is not German, to perceive their mother tongue as a resource and to promote the successful acquisition of German as the language of instruction in Austria. The testing of the tool for analysing the acquisition of early written competence by teachers of German as a language of instruction has allowed to change the focus and move from a monolingual (namely, German) and deficit-oriented approach to a multilingual and mother tongue-oriented approach to learning a second foreign language, which corresponds to the modern pedagogical strategy called Translanguaging, which allows students to use the entire language repertoire in solving problems.
This study underscores the crucial role of mother tongue instruction in language policy planning at different levels due to its impact on kids' ability to grow cognitively. The aim of this research is to study the importance of and challenges associated with using mother tongue in education. The focuses on the Hawrami variety spoken in the Hawraman area of Halabja province, Kurdistan Region/Iraq and explores a range of mother tongue education initiatives, opportunities and challenges in this area vis-à-vis Kurdish language policy. In other words, the study is investigating mother tongue education specifically designed for children in this particular area from a sociolinguistics perspective. This research addresses issues about the real-world implications of mother tongue education for Hawramani children. It has been found that significant efforts have been taken in this direction since ideas of mother tongue education is closely linked to cultural significance. Moreover, learning in one's mother tongue fosters cultural pride and protects legacy. This is crucial for Hawramani children because it helps them develop a strong sense of who they are, connect with their heritage, and feel more a part of their communities.
In today’s globalized world, the ability to communicate across cultures is essential, making foreign language education a crucial component of modern curricula. However, effective language teaching extends beyond just vocabulary and grammar; it must also consider the students' diverse social backgrounds. Understanding the social context in which a student lives can significantly influence how they learn and use a new language. This article explores the importance of tailoring foreign language teaching to students’ social backgrounds and provides strategies for educators to better support diverse learners.
More than four and a half million Asian Latin Americans currently reside in South America, Central America, Mexico, and the Caribbean. The present study focuses on one of the Latin Asian communities—the Korean community in Argentina, the largest Korean diaspora community in Spanish‐speaking America. The paper examines the linguistic trajectory of Korean Argentines since the arrival of the first Korean immigrants in Buenos Aires in 1965. A notable transformation from one generation to the next, particularly from a monolingual generation to a global and multilingual one, is analyzed through the lens of the super‐diversity framework. The study focuses on English language competence among the younger generation and its contributing factors to the current multilingual status. The data were derived from semistructured interviews with twenty‐three 1.5‐ and second‐generation Korean Argentines from Buenos Aires.
This chapter explores teacher perceptions of student engagement in the English Language Teaching classroom. Engagement is a multifaceted concept involving behavioural, cognitive, emotional, and social dimensions, influenced by classroom dynamics, cultural factors, and teaching approaches. Based on semi-structured interviews with teachers working at a private English language school in Malta, the study highlights how they interpret and foster engagement through strategies that prioritise inclusivity and cultural sensitivity. It reveals insights into the nuances of engaging diverse students, emphasising the significance of teacher-student relationships, adaptive instructional methods, and intrinsic motivation. Findings show that positive relationships and responsive teaching enhance student engagement, while the integration of technology and culturally relevant materials supports dynamic and inclusive learning environments. The study underscores the importance of institutional support and teacher autonomy in creating engaging classrooms.
This article explains the benefits of learning multiple languages for young learners. Those who speak multiple languages have better listening skills, increased concentration, enhanced memory, and improved problem-solving and critical-thinking abilities.
In the field of language assessment, emphasis is usually placed on widely spoken languages. However, amidst this focus, a multitude of less commonly taught languages (LCTLs) remain in obscurity, their potential overlooked and their learners underserved. This paper reports a study that illuminates the importance of training teachers of an LCTL in enhancing their assessment literacy levels. Τhe study involved 89 teachers of Greek as a second language (L2) who attended an online training course based on a major LAL teacher resource produced by a European-funded project. Through a mixed method design (pre-/post-surveys and teachers’ end of term assignments), we advocate for the empowerment of LCTL teachers through the transformative impact of assessment literacy on language education. The paper offers research and pedagogical recommendations in enhancing teachers’ language assessment literacy in LCTL contexts.
Ukugqoza kokuthuthukiswa nokuqhakanjiswa kwezilimi zengabadi zase-Afrika njengezilimi ezingasetshenziselwa ukufunda nokufundisa kuyimbangela yokubekwa eceleni kweningi labafundi base-Afrika ngokolimi emfundweni ephakeme. Le athikili ibika ngemizamo eyenziwa ngesinye isikhungo semfundo ephakeme KwaZulu-Natal ukuqhubezela ukuqhakanjiswa kobuliminingi okufaka ulimi lwebele lusetshenziselwa ukufunda nokufundisa, okungulimi lwesiZulu. Le athikili incike emsebenzini wokuzibheka lapho umcwaningi ebukeza izenzo zesikhungo semfundo ngenqubomgomo yolimi. Ucwaningo luthole ukuthi nakuba isikhungo sithathe amagxathu abanzi, kuningi okusamele kwenziwe ngenxa yomthelela wobuqhwaga bolimi lwesiNgisi. Ucwaningo luphetha ngokuncoma ukuthi kuphuthunyiswe ukunakwa kokuqhakanjiswa nokuthuthukiswa kwezilimi zengabadi ukufunda nokufundisa, ikakhulu njengoba izinkomba zibonisa ukuthi isiZulu siyasebenziseka njengolimi lokufunda nokufundisa.
Zusammenfassung
Grundschulen, insbesondere im innerstädtischen Einzugsgebiet, sind von einer heterogenen Schülerschaft gekennzeichnet. Eine der Heterogenitätsdimensionen ist die sprachliche, die bildungspolitisch und fachwissenschaftlich im Kontext des Handlungsfelds „Deutsch als Zweitsprache“ thematisiert wird. In nationalen und internationalen Bildungsstudien wird demgegenüber die Zuwanderungsgeschichte der Kinder und Jugendlichen problematisiert. In diesem Beitrag werden konzeptionelle Eckpfeiler zur Diagnostik sprachlicher Heterogenität in den ersten beiden Jahren der Primarstufe diskutiert und anhand von Projektdaten eines zweijährigen Unterrichtspraxisprojektes konkretisiert. Es zeigt sich, dass Kinder mit Migrationshintergrund auf Grund der großen Heterogenität der Gruppe keine sinnvolle pädagogische Kategorie ist. Hoch relevant sind demgegenüber die je individuellen sprachlichen Repertoires der Kinder, die Gegenstand der pädagogischen Diagnostik sein sollten. Eine fundierte Förderdiagnostik ist im Kontext des Unterrichts jedoch nur bedingt möglich. In dem Beitrag wird diskutiert, welche Optionen es für eine Lehrkraft dennoch gibt.
This research investigates the challenges faced by Second Language students using English-Medium Instruction in a B.A. program at a Thai international college. Employing an insider practitioner research approach with an autoethnographic lens, the study examines the experiences of local L2 students as developing practitioners. Findings reveal significant language barriers, cultural differences, and limited awareness of holistic development opportunities. These challenges vary across CEFR levels, with A1 students facing the most severe difficulties and B1 students experiencing minimal challenges. To address these issues, the study recommends implementing language-sensitive development practices grounded in HRD 5.0 principles, fostering development frameworks, leveraging technology, and fostering collaboration among stakeholders. By implementing these recommendations, international programs with L2 learners using EMI can create more inclusive and effective programs that support the holistic development of international students and prepare them for success in the global job market.
Kenya's educational landscape has witnessed a transformative shift towards curriculum reform, aiming to enhance the quality of education. A central element of this reform has been the transition from mere knowledge and skill acquisition to fostering the creation and practical application of knowledge and skills. This study specifically focused on evaluating the readiness of teachers to implement the Competence-Based Curriculum (CBC) in language activities for Pre-Primary II students within Nambale Sub County, Kenya. The research objective was to assess Pre-Primary II teachers' ability to develop and utilize learning resources as an essential component of implementing CBC for language activities. Vygotsky's socio-cultural theory served as the theoretical framework underpinning this study. Mixed convergent research design was employed, including a sample size that involved 20 Head Teachers, 20 teachers-in-charge, 40 Early Childhood Development Education (ECDE) teachers, the County Director ECDE, the Sub County Quality Assurance and Standards Officer (QASO) and the Sub County Director of Education (MOE). These individuals were purposively chosen due to their intimate involvement with educational processes. Data collection methods incorporated questionnaires, interviews, classroom observations, and document analysis. The analysis of the study's findings revealed a significant relationship between the teachers' ability to develop and utilize resources and the effective implementation of CBC in language activities. This relationship is underscored by a coefficient value (R) of 0.619 and an R square value of 0.383 at P=0.000, signifying that 38.3% of the variation in the implementation of CBC language activities is explained by the teachers' capacity to develop and utilize resources. The study recommends the enhancement of the successful implementation of CBC in language activities for Pre-Primary II learners, such as early teacher preparation, support for resource development and acquisition, structured planning of learning experiences, and capacity-building of teacher’s initiatives.
Proficiency in English literacy skills is essential for a primary school leaver who must proceed with secondary education where English is used as the medium of instruction (MOI). A concurrent mixed-method and case study design were employed to explore the teachers’ pedagogical practices and assess the adequacy of the primary school leavers’ acquired English literacy skills. A total of 104 participants from eight (8) public primary schools selected from rural and urban areas in Tanzania were involved. In-depth interviews, open-ended questionnaires, a validated literacy skill test, classroom observations, and a review of curriculum documents were used to collect data for analysis. As for the literacy skill test, the B1 level of the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) was considered as the threshold proficiency required. Quantitative data were analysed using Spearman’s correlation, ANOVA, and measures of central tendency through STATA/MP 16.1 version, whereas qualitative data were thematically analysed. The study showed that teachers still used traditional language teaching techniques like lecturing, question and answer, translation, imitation, and drilling despite the syllabus-recommended Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach. It further reveals that the performance of school leavers on English literacy tests stood at an average of 50% for all literacy skills measured. Moreover, the pupils’ poorest performance in terms of organisation/flow of ideas, grammar/spelling, and choice of vocabulary literacy skills was evident for schools in rural areas. The study concludes that many primary school leavers acquired English literacy skills that were less than the expected threshold level for the learner’s smooth academic progression at post-primary education in Tanzania, according to CEFR standards and Cummins’ (1979) theory of Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP). The implications of the findings are discussed to enhance policy and transform English literacy practices in the country.
This paper explores the literature of foundational and contemporary research
on the digital influence on identity within multilingual educational contexts.
Framed by theoretical frameworks such as Bourdieu’s cultural capital, Norton’s investment model, and Yosso’s community cultural wealth, this review discusses how
digital technologies shape identity and linguistic development. Moreover, the paper presents the Multilingual Competence Framework, which integrates insights
from digital literacy, identity formation, and multilingual education to propose a
cohesive understanding of these interconnected domains. This paper synthesizes
empirical studies and theoretical perspectives to emphasize equal access in digital spaces and culturally-responsive pedagogies toward learner empowerment.
Keywords: identity negotiation, community cultural wealth, multilingual
education, cultural capital, Multilingual Competence Framework (MCF), digital literacy
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