Chia seeds (Salvia hispanica): health promoting properties and therapeutic applications – a review

Abstract

Chia has been known for over 5,500 years. Chia seeds were one of the most important components of the diet of Mayas and Aztecs. The chemical composition and technological properties of chia give the plant a high nutritional potential. Chia is a good source of polyunsaturated fatty acids: omega-3 and omega-6, soluble dietary fiber. It also contains appreciable amount of proteins and phytochemicals. Nutritional value of chia is the reason why it is used in prophylaxis of several non-infectious diseases such as obesity, hypertension, cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), cancer and diabetes. Nutritional and therapeutic aspects of chia are currently being researched by many scientific centres. The aim of this article is to present the nutritional and therapeutic values of chia.

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© Copyright by the National Institute of Public Health - National Institute of Hygiene
Rocz Panstw Zakl Hig 2017;68(2):123-129
* Corresponding author: Katarzyna Marcinek, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Department of Human Nutrition and Hygiene, 60-
637 Poznań, Poland, phone: +4861 8487306, e-mail: kmarcin@up.poznan.pl
REVIEW ARTICLE
CHIA SEEDS (SALVIA HISPANICA): HEALTH PROMOTING PROPERTIES
AND THERAPEUTIC APPLICATIONS – A REVIEW
Katarzyna Marcinek*, Zbigniew Krejpcio
Poznan University of Life Sciences, Department of Human Nutrition and Hygiene, Poznan, Poland
ABSTRACT
Chia has been known for over 5,500 years. Chia seeds were one of the most important components of the diet of Mayas
and Aztecs. The chemical composition and technological properties of chia give the plant a high nutritional potential. Chia
is a good source of polyunsaturated fatty acids: omega-3 and omega-6, soluble dietary ber. It also contains appreciable
amount of proteins and phytochemicals. Nutritional value of chia is the reason why it is used in prophylaxis of several
non-infectious diseases such as obesity, hypertension, cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), cancer and diabetes. Nutritional and
therapeutic aspects of chia are currently being researched by many scientic centres. The aim of this article is to present the
nutritional and therapeutic values of chia.
Key words: chia seeds, Salvia hispanica, health, fatty acids
STRESZCZENIE
Szałwia hiszpańska jest znana od ponad 5500 lat. Nasiona szałwii hiszpańskiej były jednym z najważniejszych składników
pożywienia dla Majów i Azteków. Skład chemiczny oraz właściwości technologiczne szałwii hiszpańskiej sprawiają iż
roślina ta posiada duży potencjał żywieniowy. Szałwia hiszpańska jest dobrym źródłem niezbędnych wielonienasyconych
kwasów tłuszczowych omega-3 i omega-6 oraz rozpuszczalnego błonnika. Zawiera także znaczne ilości białka i związków
tochemicznych. Wartość odżywcza szałwii sprawia iż roślina ta wykorzystywana jest wspomagająco w prolaktyce wielu
chorób niezakaźnych, takich jak: otyłość, nadciśnienie, choroby sercowo-naczyniowe, a także chorób nowotworowych
czy cukrzycy. Aspekty żywieniowe i zdrowotne szałwii hiszpańskiej są obecnie przedmiotem badań w wielu ośrodkach
naukowych. Niniejszy artykuł ma na celu przybliżenie czytelnikowi walorów żywieniowych i zdrowotnych szałwii
hiszpańskiej.
Słowa kluczowe: nasiona chia, Salvia hispanica, zdrowie, kwasy tłuszczowe
INTRODUCTION
Salvia is a genus of about 900 species of green
plants, shrubs, subshrubs and bushes of the Salvia L.
family. Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) is a representative
of the Salvia genus. Among the species of the Labiatae
family chia is distinguished by both high nutritional
and therapeutic potential. Salvia hispanica L. is
an annual plant growing in an area stretching from
western Mexico to northern Guatemala. The optimal
development of the plant is guaranteed by the warm
climate, high rainfall and temperatures of 15-30 °C
[13, 14]. The maximum height of the plant is 1 m. It
has opposite leaves, which are 4-8 cm long and 3-6
cm wide [38]. The owers are purple or white and
sized 3-4 mm. They are gathered in whorls on top
of shoots. The fruits (schizocarps) contain numerous
oval seeds, which are about 2 mm long. The seeds are
mottle-coloured with brown, grey, black and white
[23, 33, 39]. The word ‘chia’ derives from the Náhuatl
word ‘Chian’, which means ‘oily’. The other part of
the name Salvia hispanica was given to the plant by
Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778), who discovered the wild-
growing plant in the new world and confused it with
a native plant from Spain [16]. However, chia comes
from Mexico and it was imported to Spain by Hernán
Cortés [40].
Chia has a high nutritional potential due to the seed
composition. The composition depends on genetic
factors and on the effect of the ecosystems where the
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124 No 2
Chia seeds (Salvia hispanica): health promoting properties and therapeutic applications – a review
plants were grown [5]. Chia seeds contain 16-26% of
protein, 31-34% of fat, 37-45% of carbohydrates in
total, 23-35% of total dietary bre (Table 1). Apart
from that, they are a source of minerals (calcium,
phosphorus, potassium and magnesium), vitamins
(thiamine, riboavin, niacin, folic acid, ascorbic acid
and vitamin A) and antioxidant compounds [23, 33].
The energetic value of chia seeds is 459-495 kcal/100
g [15, 27].
The inuence of bioactive compounds in chia
seeds is the subject of research conducted in numerous
scientic centres. The aim of this article is to present
the nutritional and therapeutic values of chia.
NUTRITIONAL PROPERTIES
OF CHIA SEEDS
Lipids
Lipids are bioactive substances which the
human organism needs to accumulate energy, form
structural elements of cell membranes and regulate
physiological functions. If there are no enzymatic
systems capable of forming double bonds at positions
n-3 and n-6, the organism cannot synthesise fatty
acids, such as ω-3 alpha-linolenic acid and ω-6 alpha-
linoleic acid. Therefore, it is necessary to provide
the organism with a supply of lipids in food. Chia
seeds contain 25 - 40% of fat, most of which is in
the form of polyunsaturated fatty acids, such as ω-3
alpha-linolenic acid and ω-6 alpha-linoleic acid
[33]. As a result of the processes of desaturation and
elongation these acids are converted into long-chain
polyenoic acids, such as eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)
and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) [18]. In comparison
with other vegetable oils chia seed oil is characterised
by high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids (Table
2). The therapeutic quality of a diet is affected not
only by the amount of omega-3 PUFAs consumed
but also by their proportion to omega-6 acids. The
adequate ratio between the supply of ω-6 and ω-3
acids is 4-5:1 [25, 46]. However, this proportion is far
from recommended (15-20:1) in the diet of an average
European inhabitant due to excessive consumption of
ω-6 fatty acids and saturated fatty acids. In chia seed
oil the ratio between ω-6 and ω-3 acids is 0.32-0.35
[12, 44]. The high content of ω-3 acids in chia seed
oil enables reduction of the share of ω-6 acids in daily
food rations. Apart from that, an adequate supply of
unsaturated fatty acids reduces the risk of ischaemic
heart disease and increases immunity of the organism
[32].
Table 1. The chemical composition of chia seeds
Component Content of nutrients in chia seeds [g/100 g d.w.]
Reference [38] Reference [5] Reference [44] Reference [5] Reference [34]
Protein 16.54 19.6 21.52 16.45-26.03 18.65
Fats 30.47 34.4 21.69 29.98-33.50 33.00
Ash - 4.6 3.63 -4.35
Carbohydrates - 41.4 45.30 -37.73
Dietary bre 34.4 23.7 - - 28.36
‘-’ no data
Table 2. The composition of fatty acids in chia seed oil
Fatty acids Content of individual fatty acids [% of total fat content]
Ref. [12] Ref. [3] Ref. [1] Ref. [22] Ref.[15] Ref.[44]
Palmitic acid 16:0 7.10 9.66 6.30 7.2 6.69 5.85
Stearic acid 18:0 3.24 4.34 3.10 3.8 2.67 2.49
Oleic acid 18:1 10.53 6.84 7.50 15.2 10.55 6.16
ω-6 α-linolenic acid 18:2 20.37 17.65 19.90 19.1 17.36 17.47
ω-3 α-linolenic acid 18:3 59.76 64.08 63.4 64.7 62.02 54.49
Proteins
Proteins, peptides, amino acids being different
matrices are necessary cell components enabling
normal function of the organism. The content of
proteins in chia seeds is 16-26%, most of them being
prolamins (538 g/kg of crude protein), followed by
glutelins (230 g/kg of crude protein), globulins (70 g/
kg of crude protein) and albumins (39 g/kg of crude
protein) [5, 38, 39]. Patients suffering from coeliac
disease can consume chia seeds because they do not
contain gluten proteins [35]. Chia seeds contain more
proteins than rice, maize, barley or oats seeds [2].
According to the data of the United States Department
of Agriculture [38], chia seeds contain 18 amino

125No 2 K. Marcinek, Z. Krejpcio
Table 3. The percentage of polyunsaturated fatty acids [PUFAs] in chia oil vs other vegetable oils
Type of oil
PUFAs (% of total fatty acids)
References
ω-3 ω-6 Total
Chia 59.76 20.64 80.40 [12]
Perilla 60.93 14.72 75.85 [12]
Flax 42.90 30.90 73.80 [29]
Wheat germ 2.90 56.60 59.60 [29]
Sunower 0.50 55.90 56.40 [29]
Pumpkin seed 0.50 47.30 47.80 [29]
Rapeseed 9.80 20.30 30.20 [29]
acids, including 7 exogenous amino acids, which are
considered to be indispensable. The study by Olivos-
Lugo et al. [39] revealed that glutamic acid, which is
responsible for proper functioning of the brain, is the
predominant amino acid in chia seeds.
Table 4. The content of indispensable amino acids in chia seeds
Amino acid
[g/100 g]
USDA
[38]
Amino acid
[mg/kg/day]
WHO data for
2002
[54]
WHO data
for 1985
[54]
Argininea2.14 Histidine 10 8-12
Lysine 0.97 Isoleucine 20 10
Histidine 0.53 Leucine 39 14
Phenylalanine 1.01 Lysine 30 12
Leucine 1.37 Methionine + cysteine 15 13
Methionine 0.59 Phenylalanine + tyrosine 25 14
Valine 0.95 Threonine 15 7.0
Threonine 0.71 Tryptophan 4.0 3.5
Total 8.27 Total 184 93.5
a not recognised as indispensable in the report published by the FAO/WHO/UNU [WHO 2007]
Dietary bre
Dietary bre is an important component of
everyday diet. Optimal consumption of dietary bre,
i.e. 25-30 g/day has positive inuence on health.
The American Dietetic Association established the
preferable ratio between insoluble and soluble dietary
bre fractions at 3:1 [9]. The content of bre in chia
seeds is 23-41%, where the insoluble fraction makes
about 85% and the soluble fraction makes about 15%
[30, 42]. The content of bre in chia seeds depends
on the region of cultivation and climate. Chia seeds
contain about twice as much bre as bran, 4-5 times
more than almonds, soy, quinoa or amaranth [38].
They may play an important role in preventing and
treating diseases of the digestive and circulatory
systems, diabetes, colorectal cancer, kidney stones,
haemorrhoids and metabolic disorders [3, 26].
Vitamins and minerals
Vitamins and minerals are necessary for normal
function of the organism. An adequate supply of these
elements enables optimal control of the amount of
hormones, growth regulators and differentiation of
cells and tissues. It also protects the organism from
oxidative stress. Chia seeds are a source of B vitamins:
thiamine (0.62 mg/100 g), riboavin (0.17 mg/100 g),
niacin (883 mg/100 g) and folic acid (49 mg/100 g)
[38]. In comparison with rice and maize seeds chia
seeds contain more niacin and comparable amounts of
thiamine and riboavin [7].
Table 5. Content of minerals in chia seeds
Minerals Content of minerals (mg/100 g)
Ref. [38] Ref. [8] Ref. [28]
Calcium 631 624 580
Phosphorus 860 799 696
Potassium 407 666 870
Magnesium 335 369 403
Iron 7.7 24.4 10.9
Zinc 4.6 6.9 6.0
Selenium* 55.2 78.0 -
* µg/100 g; – no data

126 No 2
Apart from that, chia seeds are a source of minerals.
They contain 6 times more calcium, 11 times more
phosphorus and 4 times more potassium than cow’s
milk [7].
Antioxidants
Oxidation is an important biological process,
which is indispensable for the production of energy
in the human organism. During metabolism molecular
oxygen is reduced to water. When electrons are being
transferred, free reactive forms of oxygen are being
generated, such as hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl and
peroxide radicals. Free radicals are considered to be
the cause of neurological diseases, inammations,
immunodeciency, ageing, ischaemic heart disease,
strokes, Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases and
cancers [21, 41].
The following substances have been detected
in chia seeds: tocopherols, sterols (approx. 50%
β-sitosterol), and polyphenolic compounds, such as
protocatechuic acid, gallic and p-coumaric acids,
caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid as well as epicatechin,
quercetin, kaempferol, rutin and apigenin (Table 6)
[12, 24, 42].
The total content of vitamin E in chia seeds is 238-
427 mg/kg and it is comparable to peanut oil (398.6
mg/kg), but it is lower than in linseeds (588.5 mg/kg),
sunower (634.4 mg/kg) or soybean (1,797.6 mg/kg).
Reyes-Caudillo et al. [42] observed that the content of
antioxidants was different, depending on the method
of their extraction (Table 7).
THERAPEUTIC AND DIETETIC
PROPERTIES OF CHIA SEEDS
The nutritional properties of chia seeds, such as:
high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids, vegetable
protein, dietary bre, vitamins, minerals and bioactive
substances result in numerous studies on these seeds in
order to prove their therapeutic properties. Hypotensive
[52], antineoplastic, laxative and analgesic properties
are attributed to chia seeds. They are said to protect the
cardiovascular system [2], exhibit anti-inammatory
properties, control lipid metabolism [10, 11, 43], have
anti-oxidative properties and increase the performance
of athletes [49] (Table 8). A randomized, single-
blind trial on 20 adults with type 2 diabetes found
signicant reduction in systolic blood pressure and
C-reactive protein concentration in blood plasma
even after ingesting 37g chia seeds added to bread
per day for 12 weeks, a double increase of α-linolenic
acid and eicosapentaenoic acid in plasma was noted
as compared to the control group. Anticoagulant and
anti-inammatory effect of chia seeds may help in
preventing strokes and heart attacks in type-II diabetic
patients [52]. Increase of unsaturated fatty acids
in plasma blood was observed also in the study of
postmenopausal healthy women supplemented with
25 g milled chia seeds per day for 7 weeks [24].
Effect of ingesting 50 g chia seeds for 12 weeks
was examined on 76 adults. This study found no
signicant reduction in inammatory markers, body
weight, blood pressure, lipid prole and blood sugar
levels [36]. Similar results were obtained in the study
conducted with 62 obese women supplemented with
25g whole or 25g milled chia seeds [37]. However,
reduction in postprandial glycaemia in healthy subjects
was showed in another studies [20, 51, 53].
Effect of dietary intervention in checking metabolic
syndromes was evaluated through randomized double-
blind trial. This trial conducted on 67 adults found
signicant reduction of triacylglycerols, C-reactive
protein concentrations and insulin resistance in
group with chia-based diet [19]. It was observed
that ingesting 35 g chia our for 12 weeks decreased
total cholesterol level and increased LDL cholesterol
[47]. Although the presence of active ingredients in
chia seeds contributes to health benets, safety and
efciency of this medicinal food or natural product,
they need to be validated by scientic protocols, since
clinical studies on the safety and efciency of chia
seeds are still limited and those reported have not
shown conclusive results [50].
Table 6. Content of antioxidants in chia seed extracts (mg/g)
Antioxidant Reference
[42]
Reference
[6]
Reference
[15]
Polyphenols 0.511-0.881 0.914-0.975 0.641
Chlorogenic
acid 0.0459-0.102 0.214-0.235 0.00468
Caffeic acid 0.003-0.0068 0.141-0.156 0.03089
Quercetin 0.15-0.268 0.006 0.17
Kaempferol 0.360-0.509 0.024-0.025 0.00017
Table 7. Content of polyphenols in chia seed extracts (mg/g)[42]
Antioxidant Crude extract Hydrolised extract
Polyphenols 0.757-0.881 0.511-0.777
Chia seeds (Salvia hispanica): health promoting properties and therapeutic applications – a review

127No 2
Table 8. The therapeutic properties of chia seeds.
Duration
of study Population under study Supplementation form Results References
12
weeks
26 men and women aged 45-55
years (placebo 7; chia our 19) 35 g chia our/day
Decreased body weight in the group consuming
chia our, a greater decrease in obese people,
no difference from the placebo group.
Reduced total cholesterol and increased LDL
cholesterol in the supplemented group.
[47]
6-12
weeks 36 young obese rats
133 g chia seeds/ 1 kg diet
or
40 g chia oil/ 1 kg diet
Chia seeds and oil reduced oxidative stress in
vivo by improving the antioxidant status and
reducing lipid peroxidation in diet-induced
obese rats.
[31]
5-6
weeks Hypercholesterolaemic rabbits
10 g chia oil/1kg diet
[CD] or 10 g chia oil +
1g cholesterol/ 1 kg diet
[HD-Cd]
Reduced concentration of triacylglycerols and
increased content of α-linolenic acid in the
serum in HD-cd group.
Chia seed oil may have protective effect on
blood vessels.
[45]
120
minutes
Randomized double-blind trial,
13 healthy people
50 g bread with 0, 7, 15,
24 g chia seeds added
The blood test showed reduced postprandial
glycaemia. [20]
10
weeks
Randomized double-blind trial,
62 overweight women aged 49-
75 years
25 g whole chia seeds /day
or 25 g ground chia seeds
/day
No inuence of [whole/ground] seeds on
inammatory markers, blood pressure, body
composition.
Increased concentration of α-linolenic and
eicosapentaenoic acids in the blood serum of
obese women consuming ground seeds vs the
control group and the group consuming whole
chia seeds.
[37]
2
months
Randomized double-blind trial,
67 men and women aged 20-60
years
4 g of chia seeds mixed
with palm, oats and soy
powder diluted in 250
mL of water/2 per day +
reduction diet
Reduced concentration of triacylglycerols,
CRP and insulin resistance in the supplemented
group.
[19]
7
weeks 10 women after menopause 25 g ground chia seeds /
day
Increased concentration of α-linolenic and
eicosapentaenoic acids in the serum of women
supplemented with ground chia seeds.
[24]
120
minutes 11 healthy men and women 0, 7, 15, 24 g chia seeds
added to bread /day
Postprandial glycaemia signicantly reduced in
comparison with the control group. [51]
12
weeks
Single-blind trial, 76 obese
people (placebo 37; chia seeds
39)
25 g chia seeds in 250 mL
water twice a day
Increased concentration of α-linolenic acid in
the serum of the group under study vs placebo.
No inuence of seeds on inammatory markers,
blood pressure, body composition.
[36]
1
month 18 male Wistar rats 150g chia seeds /kg diet or
50g chia oil /kg diet
No inuence on IgE concentration in the serum,
body weight and thymus weight. [17]
1
month 32 male rats
160g whole chia seeds/kg
diet [T2] or
160g ground chia seeds/kg
diet [T3] or
53.4g chia seed oil/kg diet
[T4]
Reduced triglyceride concentration in the
serum of T2 rats and increased HDL content
in the serum of T3 rats in comparison with the
control group.
Increased concentration of fatty acids 18: 3n–3,
20: 5n–3 and 22: 6n–3 in the serum of T2-T3
rats in comparison with the control group.
[4]
12
weeks
Randomized single-blind trial;
20 men and women aged 18-75
years with type 2 diabetes
37g ground chia seeds
added to bread /day
Reduced systolic blood pressure and
CRP concentration, a double increase
in the concentration of α-linolenic and
eicosapentaenoic acids in the serum of patients
supplemented with ground chia seeds in
comparison with the control group.
[52]
120
minutes
Randomized, controlled,
crossover study
15 healthy adults
25 g ground chia seeds
with 50 g glucose or
25 g ax with 50 g glucose
or alone 50 g glucose
Postprandial glycaemia signicantly reduced in
comparison with the control group.
Chia signicantly reduced the mean ratings
of desire to eat, prospective consumption and
overall appetite score, when compared with ax.
[53]
K. Marcinek, Z. Krejpcio

128 No 2
CONCLUSIONS
Chia seeds are traditionally consumed in Mexico and
south-western United States. In the Europe Union countries
the marketing of chia (Salvia hispanica) seeds as new food
ingredients has been permitted only since 13 October 2009
according to the Regulation No. 258/97 of the European
Parliament and Council. Due to the chemical composition
of chia seeds, which prove their nutritional potential, if they
are added to food, they may improve its nutritional value
and a diet with chia seeds may be an element of prevention
of civilisation-related-diseases.
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Received: 10.11.2016
Accepted: 31.03.2017
K. Marcinek, Z. Krejpcio