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Researching Vocabulary
... The acquisition and understanding of vocabulary play a vital role in the process of learning and comprehending a language (Selinker & Gass, 2008). Effective language use necessitates a substantial lexicon (Schmitt, 2010). The word knowledge of an EFL learner is tightly linked to all four language abilities. ...
... Vocabulary acquisition is a multifaceted and extremely significant process (Pythian-Sence & Wagner, 2007). The level of vocabulary knowledge is closely linked to one's proficiency in a language (Schmitt, 2010). An extensive L2 lexicon is advantageous since it enhances fluency and facilitates effective communication in a second language. ...
... However, learning vocabulary in L2 requires a deliberate effort. Increased exposure and input of the target language leads to a greater acquisition and expansion of vocabulary (Schmitt, 2010). According to Harmon and Wood (2018), teaching vocabulary mostly leads to improved reading comprehension. ...
Vocabulary knowledge plays an important role in successful reading comprehension. This study aimed at exploring the relationship between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension gains of undergraduate level Pakistani EFL learners in the selected public sector universities of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. In addition, the study also investigated the strength of association between their vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension gains. The sample of the study consisted of 300 undergraduate students, selected from six public sector universities. Pearson’s Correlation, ANOVA, and descriptive statistics were run to analyze data. Results revealed statistically significant correlation between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension skills of these learners. The strength of association was found to be medium or typical according to Cohen’s (1988) guidelines. Results also revealed statistically significant difference in the reading comprehension skills between male and female participants. Both these groups do not differ on vocabulary knowledge. Findings of this study provided important insights and empirical evidence about Pakistani L2 learners’ vocabulary knowledge and its role in their reading comprehension abilities. Findings of the study have important implication for developing effective materials and pedagogies for L2/EFL learners in Pakistan.
... Vocabulary is an essential component of language acquisition (Schmitt, 2010). Without sufficient vocabulary in their linguistic repertoire, learners are unlikely to communicate adequately (Nation, 2001). ...
... high-immersion virtual reality, immersive learning, interactivity, low-immersion virtual reality, vocabulary learning learning methods on vocabulary mastery (Schmitt, 2010). Traditional vocabulary learning strategies include the keyword method (Shapiro & Waters, 2005), rote memorization (Sagarra & Alba, 2006), flashcards (Kaplan-Rakowski & Loranc-Paszylk, 2017), and semantic mapping (Liu, 2016). ...
... The absence of a significant effect could also stem from the nature of the content, as vocabulary learning may not inherently benefit from physical interactivity with virtual objects. Learning new words primarily involves memory and semantic association (Nation, 2001;Schmitt, 2010), which are processes that rely more on cognitive engagement than on manipulating objects. Interactivity might even divert attention from the primary goal of learning vocabulary, especially if the tasks are not directly tied to meaningful language use. ...
Virtual reality (VR) has been gaining prominence in education, with its interactive capabilities continually expanding. This quantitative study (N = 91) tested the educational effectiveness of high‐immersion VR (HiVR) versus low‐immersion VR (LiVR) and the impact of interactivity on vocabulary learning. The between‐subjects portion of this study compared foreign language vocabulary learning using HiVR headsets and traditional laptops (LiVR). Multivariate analyses of covariance revealed that although the vocabulary scores of learners using HiVR were higher than the scores of learners using LiVR, the difference was not statistically significant. The within‐subjects portion of this study tested the impact of the interaction with virtual objects representing the target vocabulary. Although students reported enjoying the interactive aspects of the experience, the interactivity did not significantly impact learning outcomes in either HiVR or LiVR. These findings have practical and theoretical implications about how different degrees of immersion and interactivity influence vocabulary learning and retention. The study is relevant for scholars and language teachers, as well as curriculum and VR application designers.
Practitioner notes
What is already known about this topic? High‐immersion virtual reality (HiVR) offers contextualized vocabulary learning through interacting with objects.
Vocabulary is essential for language learning.
Research on interaction with virtual objects has received little attention.
What this paper adds? It investigates the impact of VR on vocabulary learning.
It explores the effect of object interactivity on vocabulary learning.
It shows that VR improves vocabulary learning and retention regardless of object interaction.
Implications for practice and/or policy Our main implication is that VR can be beneficial for vocabulary retention.
Students using HiVR and low‐immersion VR (LiVR) make comparable learning gains.
Practitioners should create VR activities that capitalize on the immersive features of the technology while keeping cognitive demands manageable.
... Collocations are multi-word units that play a crucial role in attaining advanced levels of language proficiency and fluency in second language (L2) acquisition (Schmitt, 2010;Siyannova-Chanturia & Pellicer-Sánchez, 2019). Research indicates that approximately 57% of spoken language and 52% of written text comprise multiword expressions (Erman & Warren, 2000). ...
... Research indicates that approximately 57% of spoken language and 52% of written text comprise multiword expressions (Erman & Warren, 2000). However, studies have revealed that collocations pose specific challenges for L2 learners, as they may encounter difficulties in grasping the degree of conventionalization associated with certain combinations (Pellicer-Sánchez, 2017), resulting in slower acquisition rates compared to single-word learning (Schmitt, 2010). ...
... Furthermore, considering the substantial impact of VK and WM on incidental learning, particularly in relation to the learning of new words, the study seeks to investigate the influence of prior VK and WM on the incidental learning of collocations through captioned videos. The examination of VK in the context of incidental vocabulary learning through captioned viewing reflects a multifaceted, incremental nature of VK framework that emphasizes both the breadth and depth of VK (Schmitt, 2010). This approach underscores the complexity and richness of vocabulary acquisition, particularly within the domain of language learning facilitated by multimedia resources like captioned videos. ...
... In vocabulary studies, there are two important multi-faceted dimensions of vocabulary knowledge to be considered, i.e., receptive and productive. Productive knowledge refers to the user's knowing a lexical item well enough to produce it in speaking or writing while receptive knowledge refers to the user's knowing and understanding a lexical item well enough during reading or listening (Schmitt, 2010). These two components of word knowledge are interrelated (Schmitt, 2014). ...
... Learners' receptive knowledge of lexical items does not mean that they are able to use them in language production. It is believed that both productive and receptive knowledge are essential for the proper assessment of a learner's overall vocabulary knowledge (Schmitt, 2010), and that learners' receptive knowledge is much larger than their productive knowledge (Webb, 2008). Thus, it appears that that language learners need both receptive and productive knowledge of PVs to function well in the real-world communication. ...
... The participants were asked to take the productive test, in which they had to recall and produce the target language, before taking the receptive test. Receptive knowledge usually precedes productive knowledge (Schmitt, 2010). Therefore, it is obvious that participants who knew the answer to an item productively would also be likely to know it receptively. ...
Recent studies in different parts of the world generally agree that multi-word expressions, including phrasal verbs (PVs), present difficulties for many language learners. The present study not only examines productive and receptive knowledge of PVs among Saudi undergraduates learning English as a foreign language, but also examines learners’ avoidance behavior in the use of PVs. To achieve this, a total of 209 Saudi undergraduates in Saudi universities completed three multiple-choice (MC) tasks to assess their productive and receptive skills, and to measure their PV avoidance behavior. In addition, it investigates the factors that can influence the Saudi learners’ use of PVs relative to their proficiency level, gender, and the semantic nature of PVs (literal-figurative); to determine to what extent these three variables can affect their knowledge and any possible PV avoidance. The results confirm the difficulty pointed out in earlier studies, particularly at the production level. The participants showed better receptive than productive knowledge with an average percentage of correct answers of 72% for the receptive and 59% for the productive tasks. Also, the results suggest that proficiency and the semantic nature of PVs have a statistically significant effect on the use of PVs by Saudi EFL learners for both productive and receptive tasks, while gender is found to have no significant effect. In terms of avoidance, the results show that PV type and proficiency level affect the frequency of PV avoidance. Therefore, it was concluded that the difference between L1 and L2 structure, semantic complexity of phrasal verbs and poor productive knowledge might cause the learners’ avoidance. The study confirms that phrasal verbs present difficulties for many language learners, and consequently deserve more attention by teachers, material designers and the learners.
... The research question was: Do students benefit more from teacher-designed flashcard activities than they do from those they designed themselves? Research (Nation, 1990(Nation, , 2001(Nation, , 2006Schmitt, 2010) has suggested that decontextualised and deliberate vocabulary learning strategies facilitate vocabulary growth. According to Nation (1990Nation ( , 2006, flashcards play a major role in such vocabulary learning. ...
... To account for vocabulary learning under each condition, similar to Folse's (2006) study, and taking on board some of Schmitt's (2010) concerns, a modified Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (VKS) (Paribakht & Wesche, 1993) was used as an achievement measuring posttest. This test type was validated both by Paribakht and Wesche (1993) and Folse (2006). ...
... This VKS based instrument seemed more useful than Word Associates Format (WAF), a test relying on word association, which does not lend itself to reliable interpretation (Schmitt, Ng, & Garras, 2011). Similarly, another test type known as Schmitt and Zimmermann Scale (Schmitt, 2010), was ruled out as it is a form of self-assessment, which has been found to have limited reliability (Lew, Alwis, & Schmidt, 2010). ...
This article describes a technology-supported
deliberate vocabulary learning study, involving
students enrolled in various university preparation
programs in Qatar. Study design is based on the
comparison of two technology supported flashcard
activities: one in which students learn vocabulary
using teacher-designed electronic cards and one
where they are asked to design their own cards. I
... Other research has found that vocabulary knowledge is negatively associated with L2 anxiety (Izadi & Zare, 2016). For the present study, vocabulary knowledge was selected because learning vocabulary has been found to be an essential part of mastering the L2 as strong correlations between higher knowledge of vocabulary and various measures of language proficiency have been consistently reported in the L2 literature (Schmitt, 2010). ...
... Following established L2 vocabulary teaching practices (Oxford, 2017;Schmitt, 2010) and expert advice, we trained the experimental group's teacher to deliver content and discuss topics known to enhance L2 vocabulary acquisition including vocabulary learning strategies, recourses, and possible ways to practice the newly learned vocabulary. The teacher received foundational training in implementing these strategies and weekly guidance on techniques that prioritized vocabulary learning. ...
... The 3,000-word level test consisted of a total of 30 correct answers, thus, the maximum score is 30 and the minimum score is 0. Students were awarded one point for each correct match and zero points for each incorrect match, i.e. there was no penalty for incorrect responses. The complete VLT 3,000-word level measure can be found in Schmitt et al. (2001) and Schmitt (2010). This measure was administered at Times 1, 2, and 3. A set of example items is provided in Appendix B. Previous studies have demonstrated the validity of the measure through an item response theory approach (see Webb et al., 2017). ...
While researchers in the second language (L2) field often consider that L2 anxiety determines subsequent L2 achievement, an emerging line of research suggests that language skills better predict L2 anxiety. This viewpoint has yet to be experimentally evaluated, and thus it motivated the present study. Two groups of university language students enrolled in the Department of English as an L2 were followed over one semester at three time points while taking a general university course unrelated to language learning. The experimental group received extra instruction (course unrelated) designed to expand their L2 vocabulary knowledge, including strategies for learning and using new vocabulary in real-life contexts over the whole semester. A typical teaching method was delivered to the control group. The conditional dual-domain latent growth curve modeling (LGCM) with grouping variable as a covariate was used to study the possible effect of the intervention on the trajectory of language anxiety and vocabulary knowledge. Results indicated that teaching vocabulary knowledge to the experimental group led to an increase in their L2 vocabulary achievement. In turn, the increase in L2 vocabulary significantly reduced students’ L2 anxiety. Notably, this reduction in anxiety was attributed solely to the improvement in vocabulary achievement, as teachers did not employ any anxiety-controlling strategies. In contrast, the control group showed no significant changes in L2 vocabulary knowledge or L2 anxiety, which aligns with typical observations in standard learning settings. Findings from the present experimental study support the idea that increasing students’ L2 achievement (e.g. vocabulary) through providing practical resources, strategies, and opportunities for using the language (even with minor errors) can reduce their L2 anxiety. According to our findings, using language-enhancing strategies, rather than anxiety-reducing ones, can more effectively help reduce L2 anxiety.
... The VLT is predominantly a diagnostic measure of vocabulary knowledge that uses the word family as the unit of counting (Kremmel & Schmitt, 2018). However, a concern has been raised about the availability of the same test structure for other languages (Schmitt, 2010). Particularly, the Arabic language lacks a vocabulary knowledge test that can be used to understand the relative vocabulary knowledge of FL learners of Arabic. ...
... Undoubtedly, vocabulary knowledge in a foreign language is considered a stepping stone to achieving fluency and proficiency in language use, particularly for reading comprehension and effective communication (Schmitt, 2010;Teng & Zhang, 2023). A study by Alderson (2005) found that vocabulary knowledge is strongly correlated with reading (r = .64), ...
... Schmitt et al. (2001) revised the VLT and structured it according to four frequency levels of English word families: 2,000, 3,000, 5,000, and 10,000. It is developed for learners of English as a foreign language (Schmitt, 2010). VLT has a specific structure such that each level in the VLT has 30 items, which are divided into 10 groups of 6 words each. ...
... Dimensions of vocabulary knowledge. It is well-established that vocabulary knowledge is a rich and multifaceted construct (Koda 2005;Schmitt 2010), and its conceptualization is a challenging task, given various dimensions and facets to consider (Stahl 1999). Aitchison (1987, p. 84) aptly describes word knowledge as a "web" of words, emphasizing the interconnected and multifaceted nature of vocabulary knowledge. ...
... While this is important for gauging their potential comprehension, tests focused only on form-meaning connections can be misleading in that vocabulary knowledge encompasses various aspects beyond form and meaning, such as derivations, collocations, and associations. According to Schmitt (2010), vocabulary learning is not limited to the development of form-meaning linkage, and the deep and sufficient understanding of lexical items should also be considered. In addition to the breadth of vocabulary knowledge, the depth of vocabulary has been typically defined by the following researchers. ...
... As is well-confirmed in prior literature, vocabulary knowledge is a multi-dimensional construct (Koda 2005;Schmitt 2010), and various aspects of a word, including its written form, form-meaning connection, collocation, and grammatical functions, may be gained to different extents during each encounter (Webb 2007). Importantly, gaining proficiency in one aspect does not guarantee a similar level of understanding in another (Webb and Nation 2017). ...
The importance of vocabulary knowledge in reading comprehension is well-recognized, and its relationship with comprehension has been widely explored in previous studies. However, there is limited research on the longitudinal relationships between them, particularly the reciprocal relations between vocabulary breadth, vocabulary depth, and reading comprehension. The present study aims to examine the contributions of vocabulary breadth and depth to reading comprehension over time as well as the reciprocal relationships between them among adolescent Chinese senior middle school students. Using structural equation modeling and a cross-lagged panel analysis, the study found that both vocabulary breadth and depth made significant contributions to reading comprehension. Vocabulary breadth was a more robust predictor of reading comprehension for 10th and 11th graders compared to vocabulary depth. However, the contribution of vocabulary depth to reading comprehension became increasingly significant as students advanced through higher grades. In addition, vocabulary breadth was reciprocally related to vocabulary depth and reading comprehension, whereas there were no reciprocal relations between vocabulary depth and reading comprehension. These findings suggested that the pattern of relationships may vary as a function of unsystematic progression in the acquisition of different aspects of vocabulary knowledge over time.
... Such schemas will enhance word retention and the logic that minimizes the retrieval of words is in agreement with the theories of cognition which explains that retention is better when the knowledge is integrated with what is already known. Schmitt (2010) argues that knowing relationships such as synonyms and antonyms or collocation is more effective in acquiring vocabulary since the learners use more of their networks in the brain. ...
... They possess benefits in practice from the contrived thinking perspective but do not engage the learners such that the acquisition of the words is deeper than what has been prescribed about the words by most of these strategies. This is however in agreement with the views presented in Schmitt (2010) whereby learners remain deficient in practical use of the vocabulary covered in class for productive communication. ...
... Only the integration of the meaning of the words assumes regularities in the vocabulary learning process and allows one to reason constructively. If vocabulary teachers teach how words are related to other words, vocabulary teaching would be more effective than it is currently (Schmitt, 2010). Consequently, lexical semantics serves as an exciting way of improving the process of vocabulary instruction making it more pertinent to the learners. ...
This study adopts a mixed-methods approach to explore the integration of lexical semantics in vocabulary instruction at Thang Long University. Using pre- and post-tests, Likert-scale surveys, semi-structured interviews, focus groups, and classroom observations, the study examines the impact of teaching vocabulary through semantic relationships on students’ language acquisition. Results indicate a significant improvement in vocabulary retention and comprehension, with mean test scores increasing from 2.39 (pre-test) to 4.04 (post-test). Both students and teachers viewed semantic-based instruction favourably, particularly for its use of contextualized learning and semantic mapping. However, lower-proficiency learners faced challenges in grasping abstract semantic relationships. The study suggests that scaffolding techniques and context-driven learning can enhance the effectiveness of lexical semantics in vocabulary teaching, leading to more meaningful language acquisition.
... Without sufficient vocabulary, learners often struggle to comprehend texts, articulate thoughts, and engage in meaningful communication. Schmitt (2010) emphasizes that vocabulary is the building block of language proficiency, making it an indispensable component of second language (L2) learning. Despite its significance, vocabulary acquisition remains a persistent challenge among English language learners in Indonesia. ...
... However, most learners, particularly Indonesian students, find it hard to retain their vocabulary due to ineffective vocabulary learning processes. Traditional rote learning, commonly practiced in the classroom, has a tendency to hinder long-term storage and functional application of vocabulary (Schmitt, 2010). Consequently, new and innovative vocabulary learning strategies have been explored to enhance learners' interest and retention. ...
This study aims to explore the implementation of vocabulary journals as an alternative strategy for improving vocabulary acquisition in English language learning at SMP Negeri 2 Blitar. A qualitative case study approach was employed, with a sample consisting of one English teacher and four eighth-grade students selected for interviews. Data were collected through classroom observations, semi-structured interviews, and document analysis of students' vocabulary journals. The findings indicate that vocabulary journals significantly improved students' vocabulary acquisition. 80% of the students showed substantial progress in recalling and using new vocabulary, while 10% showed moderate progress, and another 10% demonstrated minimal improvement. The discussion emphasizes that vocabulary journals, when implemented with regular teacher feedback and review sessions, are an effective tool for enhancing vocabulary learning. Based on these findings, future research could explore the integration of vocabulary journals with other language learning strategies and investigate their impact across different educational contexts and age groups.
... 111). Research has indicated that vocabulary is intrinsically related to success in reading, listening, writing, and grammar (Schmitt, 2010). In turn, it is now accepted that acquiring a significant portion of vocabulary is accomplished through exposure to rich interesting input. ...
... Vocabulary acquisition has been the center of academic research since the 1980s. Nevertheless, those concerned with this area of applied linguistics have not agreed upon one method for vocabulary teaching (Schmitt, 2010). Inside the classroom, vocabulary teaching emphasized word lists and word cards. ...
The present paper reports on a quantitative study that explored Moroccan EFL high school teachers' attitudes and perceptions of explicit vocabulary instruction. A survey with 12 closed-ended items was sent to 62 teachers via Google Forms. The survey aimed at eliciting teachers' perceptions of daily teaching practices, teaching materials, learner characteristics, etc. The overall findings indicated that teachers have positive perceptions of explicit instruction in improving learners' vocabulary repertoire. Yet, due to curriculum constraints and lack of rich, interesting materials, teachers could not have their learners exposed to explicit instruction routines. The current study offers comprehensive results of EFL Moroccan teachers' attitudes of explicit and direct vocabulary instruction and its impact on language development, which could yield useful information and insights for better and more effective teaching practices in EFL contexts. | KEYWORDS Vocabulary size, explicit instruction, form-focused instruction, EFL | ARTICLE INFORMATION
... Students can learn vocabulary incidentally through reading or listening activities when the focus is not on vocabulary (Boers, 2022;Krashen, 1989;Nation, 2013). It is considered a significant means of language acquisition for both first-language (L1) and second-language (L2) learners (Choi et al., 2014;Coady & Huckin, 1997;Hulstijn et al., 1996;Nagy et al., 1987;Schmitt, 2010). Despite the innate process of unintentional acquisition of new words, L2 learners face many challenges when it comes to incidental vocabulary learning. ...
... Vocabulary learning is a vital component for developing reading comprehension, writing proficiency, and overall communicative competence (Alharthi, 2018;Laufer & Aviad-Levitzky, 2017;Nation, 2013;Schmitt, 2010;Webb & Nation, 2017). Many researchers have highlighted the essential role of extensive exposure to L2 input in fostering vocabulary growth, especially through reading (Krashen, 1989;Laufer & Hulstijn, 2001;Taylor, 2021). ...
With the growing interest in integrating ICT in the EFL classroom, the present study investigates the impact of electronic first language (L1) translations and second language (L2) definitions glosses on incidental vocabulary learning and retention among Moroccan EFL learners. 172 first-year university students participated in this study. The participants were divided into three groups: a control group with no glosses (NGG), and two experimental groups namely L1 electronic gloss (EL1GG) and L2 electronic gloss group (EL2GG). During the eight-week treatment, participants had to read texts without glosses or glossed with target vocabulary items as well as complete reading comprehension questions and vocabulary tests. The results of one-way ANOVA revealed that gloss conditions significantly outperformed the no-gloss condition. Qualitative data from semi-structured interviews provided more information about learners' perceptions and preferences regarding gloss language. The study also emphasizes the importance of considering individual learner differences and providing a choice of gloss type to cater for different learning styles and needs. Implications for researchers and EFL teachers are provided.
... In contrast, productive or active lexical refers to words that are produced in written and spoken forms. Research has shown that active and passive knowledge develops at different rates (Laufer, 1998;Laufer & Paribakht, 1998;Schmitt, 2010;Waring, 1997), whereby active knowledge develops at a slower rate and, as a result, is more difficult to master (Nation, 2001;Schmitt & Schmitt, 2020;Waring, 1997). Laufer (1998) found an 84 per cent growth in passive vocabulary and a 50 per cent growth in controlled active vocabulary. ...
... call is when the FL word is given, and the learner needs to give the L1 translation; active recognition is when a learner must choose the FL definition of an L1 word when a few FL definitions are given for the L1 word; and finally, passive recognition, whereby a learner needs to recognise a word given in the FL and choose the correct L1 definition.Schmitt (2010) called these different types of meaning forms: form recall (active recall), meaning recall (passive recall), form recognition (active recognition), and meaning recognition (passive recognition). FL learners may know each of these types of vocabulary meaning aspects at different levels of mastery, and each type may facilitate L2 reading ...
A plethora of research has investigated the effects of mindfulness intervention in education, but few have researched the benefits of mindfulness intervention on learning English as a foreign language (EFL). This action research explores a holistic approach to improving EFL education for 10th-grade students in an Israeli high school by integrating a 13-week Mindfulness-Based Intervention (MBI) program taught in the target language into the EFL school curriculum. The research assesses the impact of the intervention on reading comprehension skills, vocabulary acquisition, self-efficacy, well-being, and foreign language enjoyment. The motivation for this study stems from the significant role of EFL proficiency in Israeli education and the growing need for innovative pedagogical strategies. The intervention program, Attention Please, combines elements of the author's teaching experience and Broderick's Learning to Breathe program, adapted for Israeli students.
A mixed-methods approach was employed in an Israeli high school with two 10th-grade classes, a total of 57 pupils (experimental and control), combining quantitative tests, questionnaires, qualitative interviews and a qualitative teacher's journal.
Key findings indicate significant improvements in productive vocabulary and self-efficacy (SE) in the experimental group compared to the control group. Moreover, the experimental group demonstrated higher levels of mindfulness in the post-stage of the experiment. Correlations were not found between levels of mindfulness and productive vocabulary scores or self-efficacy scores. The data from the semi-structured interviews conducted with half of the experimental group reveal a positive attitude and overall satisfaction with the intervention program, decreases in school-related anxiety, increases in focus on school work, a meaningful experience and enjoyment in the EFL classroom and potential improvements in emotional regulation. The teacher's journal provides valuable insights for pedagogical recommendations for future mindfulness-based interventions in foreign language classrooms.
Overall, this research can act as a catalyst, encouraging scholars and practitioners in the field of foreign language acquisition (FLA) to embrace mindfulness as both an instructional holistic strategy in the target language and a focal point for investigation.
Keywords: Mindfulness, Mindfulness-based interventions, EFL, SE, FLA
... It serves as the foundation upon which the four primary language skills-listening, speaking, reading, and writing-are built (Nation, 2013). Without an adequate vocabulary base, learners often face difficulties in decoding texts, constructing coherent speech, and engaging in meaningful discourse (Schmitt, 2010). Vocabulary acquisition is not merely a supplementary aspect of language learning but a central determinant of overall communicative competence. ...
This study aims to investigate the level of students' vocabulary mastery in comprehending argumentative texts at SMA Persada, Bandar Lampung. A quantitative descriptive research design was employed, involving 41 students as the sample. Data were collected using student worksheets as the primary research instrument. The collected data were analyzed using a one-sample t-test to determine the students' vocabulary proficiency. The findings revealed that students demonstrated good vocabulary mastery in understanding argumentative texts, with a mean score of 80.72. Furthermore, the statistical analysis indicated a highly significant result, with both the one-tailed and two-tailed p-values being less than .001. These findings imply that while students possess an adequate vocabulary foundation for engaging with argumentative texts, continued emphasis on vocabulary development remains essential for deeper critical reading and writing skills. Educators should consider integrating context-based vocabulary instruction within argumentative reading.
... When learners create sentences, paragraphs, or essays using new lexical items, they anchor those items to their own ideas and experiences. This personalization strengthens associative links and promotes greater accessibility of the words in future communicative contexts (Schmitt, 2010). For example, writing about one's hobbies, family, or studies using recently learned vocabulary reinforces not just the meaning of words but their pragmatic function. ...
Writing is a fundamental component of second language acquisition (SLA), enhancing learners' ability to internalize grammatical structures, expand vocabulary and engage in deeper language processing. Despite the emphasis on speaking and listening in communicative approaches, writing supports metalinguistic awareness and long-term retention. This article explores the cognitive and pedagogical functions of writing in language learning through a review of key theories and classroom-based evidence. A mixed-methods study involving literature analysis, classroom observations and learner surveys supports the conclusion that writing significantly contributes to comprehensive language development. This article seeks to explore and affirm the centrality of writing in the process of language acquisition. It draws on theoretical models, empirical studies and classroom observations to argue that writing is not only an outcome of language learning but also a driver of it. By highlighting the cognitive, pedagogical and social dimensions of writing, this article aims to contribute to a more balanced and integrated understanding of language acquisition and offer practical insights for educators, curriculum designers and language learners alike. This article investigates the significance of writing in SLA and presents evidence supporting its integration into language pedagogy.
... Moreover, context, alongside prior knowledge, can be activated with the use of prereading tasks, which make the material easier to understand. Moreover, vocabulary lists can also assist learners in becoming familiar with specialized vocabulary prior to meeting the vocabulary in the text (Nation, 2022;Schmitt, 2010). In doing so, educators can scaffold authentic materials such as the learners' advanced abilities and support them freely strategizing complex texts as well as real-life language on their own, giving them the confidence to take full advantage of such materials. ...
This research analyzes the effectiveness of tasks based on digital authentic materials (DAM) in custom language instruction in English for Specific Purposes (ESP). The study analyzes the barriers to applying DAM to enhance ESP learners' linguistic and professional skills. A case study approach was used with data triangulation to address the problems associated with using DAM in self-paced learning programs. The participants consisted of six ESP lecturers across diverse disciplines at one public university with established ESP programs across various faculties. The results indicate that although DAM enhances engagement and contextual understanding, issues of content scope, technological barriers, and learner diversity regarding proficiency levels are still present. This study advances the discourse on the optimal use of digital authentic materials by considering the parameters defined by ESP frameworks, particularly for pedagogical strategies geared towards efficient language acquisition customization. The authors offer suggestions that can be put into immediate action by educators and material creators who want to mitigate the concerns reinforced in this study while trying to harness the full capabilities of digital tools resources within an ESP teaching and learning context.
... This approach has been found to have some merits and be effective in enhancing one's vocabularies (Dang et al., 2022;Peters, 2018;Puimège & Peters, 2019). On the contrary, explicit way of teaching vocabulary items involves a deliberate intention with no attempt to indirect vocabulary instruction (Schmitt, 2010). Due to the fact that this method is time-consuming in class (Dang et al., 2022), it is suggested to use both implicit and explicit approaches in order to benefit from their advantages (Nation, 2013). ...
Although language skills have gained unparalleled momentum in language education, there is a paucity of research on one of the most significant subskills, vocabulary. Due to the underestimation of an efficient method to learn foreign language vocabularies, scant research attention has been dedicated to exploring the best vocabulary learning method. The major aim of this mixed-methods research is to assess the effectiveness of a departed vocabulary learning method, Tick8, on students’ vocabulary knowledge. It also delves into exploring its impact on learners’ sustained attention and enjoyment. Via an experimental design, 62 female middle school students were randomly assigned to control (N=31) and experimental (N=31) groups. The results of the study evidenced the positive role of Tick-8 technique in participants’ vocabulary learning and retention. The results of the semi- structured interviews with a number of participants also strengthened the results of the quantitative phase. Moreover, the results indicated significant differences between the control and experimental groups regarding their enjoyment, however the results of sustained attention were not significant. In other words, Tick-8 Technique positively influenced student's enjoyment, but did not affect students’ sustained attention.
... Moreover, these sequences serve communicative functions by helping learners achieve pragmatic goals in spoken and written language. They are instrumental in speech acts like greetings and condolences (Hatami, 2015;Schmitt, 2010), and in academic writing, they facilitate coherence, structure, and technical accuracy. ...
Using multi-word units, particularly prefabricated academic phrases, is essential for non-native English-speaking students to improve their writing and meet the structural expectations of academic discourse. However, depending too much on these phrases raises concerns about plagiarism, as universities often define it as the unauthorised use of another's words or ideas. This study examines how tertiary-level ESL instructors view the reuse of academic phrases in student writing, especially in relation to teaching practices and academic integrity. A small-scale research was conducted using an online survey with 30 ESL lecturers from two Malaysian public universities. Participants were selected through purposive sampling based on their experience teaching English at the tertiary level. The study used a structured questionnaire to explore lecturers' views on the appropriateness, benefits, and concerns surrounding students' use of prefabricated phrases in academic writing. The results show that most instructors consider the reuse of academic phrases to be a helpful learning strategy, especially for improving writing fluency, coherence, and technical accuracy. They also agreed that structured reuse helps reduce grammatical errors and misinterpretation, leading to clearer writing. However, concerns remain about students becoming too dependent on such phrases, which could hinder the development of original thought. These findings highlight the need for a balanced approach to teaching-one that encourages strategic phrase use while guiding students to develop their own voice in academic writing.
... A great interest has evolved in applied linguistics on the value of conducting both empirical and pedagogical research on formulaic language instruction. Having a rich repertoire of FcL promotes reading comprehension (Kremmel, Brunfaut, & Alderson, 2015;Xu, 2016) since vocabulary is considered a critical element for successful reading (Nation, 2013;Schmitt, 2010;Susoy & Tanyer, 2019). Several studies reported positive effects of FcL knowledge on different language skills (Rafieyan, 2018;Wood, 2015Wood, , 2016. ...
The current quantitative study investigated the effects of formulaic language (FcL) explicit instruction on Moroccan EFL learners' reading comprehension. It followed an experimental design with a pre-test, treatment, and post-test. The main body of participants in this study was composed of 84 intermediate EFL high school students. They were exposed to ten-week intervention sessions through which they received explicit instruction of 40 formulaic sequences. The treatment group was exposed to an explicit form of instruction, while the control group received more implicit communicative form of teaching. The results from the paired samples t-test showed that the learners in both study conditions made significant gains in reading comprehension; however, the independent samples t-test could not reveal any statistically significant difference between the two study conditions. The current study shed light on the effects of FcL explicit instruction on English language learning and its benefits, especially in EFL settings.
... Effective English pedagogy prioritises lexical competence as foundational to language learning. According to Schmitt (2010), vocabulary development constitutes an incremental process involving both quantitative expansion (breadth) and qualitative mastery of lexical nuances (depth). This dual progression presents particular challenges for early-stage young learners in a foreign language, whose target language exposure primarily occurs through structured instructional environments (Nation 2022). ...
... A learner's ability to understand and use a broad range of words is somehow linked to their proficiency in the four skills: speaking, reading, writing and listening (Snow, 2010). Vocabulary is not simply about knowing the meaning of words but also about understanding how and when to use them accordingly and appropriately within different contexts (Schmitt, 2010). For ESL learners, developing a strong vocabulary base is essential to mastering the complexity of English and effectively participating in academic and social interactions. ...
This article explores the potential of using Hidden Object (Video) Games as a media to enhance students experience in learning English vocabulary among ESL learners. The role of vocabulary in ESL is essential and critical, and effective vocabulary acquisition is key in improving language proficiency. Hidden Object Games (HOGs), popular for their engaging and immersive gameplay, offer a different and unique opportunity to integrate challenging yet fun activity in vocabulary learning. Moreover, HOGs enhance students experience by providing immerse and context-rich environment that promotes repeated exposure to new vocabularies in meaningful contexts, hence complimenting retention and application. This paper will discuss the benefits of these games, such as increased engagement, as well as challenges like technological barriers. Finally, several suggestions on how HOGs can assist teachers in vocabulary learning will also be discussed. It is my contention that HOGs, when carefully planned and implemented alongside traditional instructional methods, can become an amazing ally to help teachers in improving class experience and ESL vocabulary instruction, offering an interactive and immersive platform for vocabulary acquisition.
... Additionally, choosing measures that align with the research objectives improves the reliability of the study's findings. In the field of idioms knowledge, employing a variety of measures is recommended in order to evaluate different aspects of their knowledge, such as, recognition, comprehension, and production (Schmitt 2010). Understanding which facets of idiom knowledge have been assessed and at which L2 proficiency level(s), can greatly contribute to the effective and efficient teaching and learning of idioms. ...
Researchers in the field of second-language acquisition have long been interested in studying idioms. However, one important issue that has been overlooked is the lack of a comprehensive review addressing the methodological approaches used in idiom studies. This methodological review aims to fill this gap by providing a systematic overview of the main methodological characteristics of research conducted on the learning and teaching of idioms over the past 35 years (1990–2024). To accomplish this, the review first highlights the need for conducting a review study on idioms followed by a theoretical framework to discuss the concept of idioms from different perspectives. It then outlines the procedures and steps taken to identify and select relevant studies based on PRISMA. The alignment with the SMART guideline is then illuminated. Finally, the findings of the review of the selected articles are presented, discussing the range of methodological features employed in idiom research. This review serves as a foundational resource for advancing methodological rigor in idiom studies and guiding future research.
... The importance of vocabulary acquisition in language learning cannot be underestimated. Without an adequate vocabulary, learners struggle to comprehend texts, express ideas clearly, and engage in meaningful conversations (Schmitt, 2010). The role of online platform-based learning has become very important. ...
This research aimed to systematically review the impact of online platforms namely Quizlet, Duolingo, Memrise, and Wordwall on students' vocabulary acquisition. With the growing integration of technology in education, these platforms provide interactive, flexible and student centered methods to enhance vocabulary learning. Using the Systematic Literature Review (SLR) method guided by the PRISMA framework, this research analyzes studies published between 2021-2025 from databases such as Mendeley, Sinta, and Garuda. The findings show that the use of online platforms significantly improves students' vocabulary acquisition across different levels of education in Indonesia. Quizlet and Wordwall, categorized under Technology Enhanced Language Learning (TELL), proved to be particularly effective in formal education settings. Meanwhile, Duolingo and Memrise, categorized under Mobile Assisted Language Learning (MALL), offer self-directed learning experiences and show considerable effectiveness, although with variations depending on the learning context and implementation. This research concludes that online platforms are valuable tools for improving vocabulary, and recommends thoughtful integration into teaching to support the needs of diverse learners.
... The model's ability to capture sense-specific frequencies operationalizes call for usage-based lexical prioritization (D. Gardner, 2007;Nation, 2001;Schmitt, 2010). These theoretical and practical advancements highlight BERT's potential to bridge the gap between computational linguistics research and applied language pedagogy. ...
There has always been a pressing need to provide semantic information for words in high-frequency word lists, but technical limitations have hindered this goal. This study addresses this challenge by leveraging a large language model, such as BERT, to semantically annotate large corpora and identify the high-frequency senses of headwords from the General Service List (GSL). We aim to explore three key questions: (1) Can BERT automatically annotate large corpora and accurately calculate sense frequencies? (2) What are the high-frequency senses of GSL words? (3) Can this approach be verified? Using a BERT-based framework, we annotated 1,891 GSL headwords (10,925 senses) in the 100-million-word British National Corpus (BNC), representing each sense with a 1,024-dimensional vector. From this, we identified 3,695 high-frequency senses for the GSL words. Three main conclusions are drawn from this study. First, BERT demonstrates high accuracy in sense annotation, achieving 92% precision when disambiguating the senses of GSL words. Second, a relatively small number of high-frequency senses account for a significant portion of corpus coverage. Specifically, these high-frequency senses (33.8% of the total) cover approximately 60% of all GSL word occurrences in the BNC. Third, the high-frequency senses selected via this method can be verified by their consistent coverage across different corpora. This study illustrates a pioneering method for semantic annotation in large corpora, which can be easily applied to calculate semantic frequencies for other word lists.
... Data from pre-and post-tests were collected over 15 weeks during face-to-face classes, allowing for compliance monitoring. The three-week post-test timing aligned with Nation's (2008) and Schmitt's (2010) recommendations for assessing durable vocabulary acquisition. The second post-test, administered 15 weeks after initial exposure, provided a longer interval than reported in previous L2 vocabulary studies on generation use by Barcroft (2009) and Sun and Fang (2022). ...
The present study investigates the use of generative strategies and the effect on second language (L2) vocabulary retention and learner confidence in vocabulary knowledge over time. Generative strategies (or generation) are one in a group of learning methods known as desirable difficulties – strategies that improve long-term learning by adding challenge to the learning process. Previous research has established the effectiveness of other desirable difficulties, such as spacing, retrieval, and interleaving, in L2 vocabulary acquisition. However, the effect generative strategies have on L2 vocabulary learning over shorter timeframes (e.g., a few days to a week) has been found to lack efficacy. Nevertheless, long-term vocabulary outcomes implementing this strategy in L2 learning remain unclear. To address this gap, this study examined the effectiveness of generation tasks used as the sole desirable difficulty for vocabulary recall over two intervals: three weeks and 15 weeks. Using quantitative methods in a classroom action research project, this study investigated 38 first-year Japanese university English language learners at the B1 to B1+ CEFR English proficiency level. The treatments included generation tasks in the form of generating novel sentences for half of the target vocabulary and a control treatment utilizing other non-generative methods for the other half through two separate lessons. Additionally, pre and post-tests were implemented to assess the perceived confidence and actual knowledge of the target vocabulary. The study`s findings on longer-term timeframes were not found to be markedly better than those of shorter timeframes and only showed slight improvement. While the study failed to demonstrate a clear benefit for the additional effort required by generation tasks, it did not identify significant costs from using generation on the specific population studied, as found in other studies. Implications for the findings and future research are included.
... Those who played video games while learning language made bigger gains than those who didn't, and the study indicated that men were more interested in using video games to acquire vocabulary than women were. This led them to conclude that gender differences To be fluent in both spoken and written English, it is necessary to study the contents of thousands of oxford dictionaries (Peterson, 2013 (Schmitt, 2010). It seems that many children have difficulty with vocabulary for the same reason (a lack of motivation) (Jung & Graf, 2008); this is the most challenging aspect of learning a new language. ...
The purpose of this study we present the most helpful material in the field of teaching foreign languages is to analyze the results of using professional English courses with educational games in Iraqi schools, indicates, it’s a tools used in the teaching second language. In this work, we aim to explore the effects of education games on improving and developing learners’ . The participants are fifth grade from two different elementary schools. This is a deliberate selection on the part of the researcher. One hundred and thirty-eight students were selected randomly from the fifth grade class. After testing the tool with two groups; experimental and control group, researchers concluded that educational games are more beneficial than more conventional methods. Playing educational games significantly affects the motivation of Iraqi students, according to the results of this study, and they are also helpful in increasing students' exposure to vocabulary and providing students with meaningful practice of language.
... The findings of this study align with theories on lexical competence (Nation, 2022;Schmitt, 2010) which propose that, for many learners, single-word vocabulary knowledge outperforms multi-word lexical competence, supporting the need for targeted collocation practice to foster comprehensive lexical proficiency in EFL contexts. ...
This study investigates the understanding, challenges, and use of collocations among Vietnamese third-year English Language Teaching (ELT) majors in their English as a Foreign Language (EFL) writing, using a mixed methods approach. Analysing 72 letters and essays, along with group interviews with 8 students, the study revealed that while students recognised the importance of collocations in English writing, their understanding of the concept was partial. Challenges in learning collocations included difficulties with word choice and memorisation, while problems with using collocations were linked to insufficient comprehension, memory issues, and negative direct translation from their mother tongue. Although a discrepancy was found between students' perceived frequency of collocation use and their actual usage in writing samples, the most frequent subtype, Adjective + Noun, aligned with students' reported preferences. However, no significant correlation was found between the frequency of lexical collocation usage and writing scores. The study concludes with implications for improving the collocation learning process.
... • To establish baseline data on learners' academic collocational knowledge to inform future studies (Schmitt, 2010). ...
... Some words frequently co-occur with other words and form relatively fixed multiword sequences. This phenomenon is generally called formulaic language; each instance is called a formulaic sequence (Schmitt, 2010). Wray (2002, p. 9) defined a formulaic sequence as "a sequence, continuous or discontinuous, of words or other elements, which is, or appears to be, prefabricated: that is, stored and retrieved whole from memory at the time of use, rather than being subject to generation or analysis by the language grammar." ...
The drama fever has been riding high with consumer usage of over-the-top (OTT) streaming services on the rise and the prevalence of mobile devices with Internet connectivity. The researcher-teacher sometimes overhears her students chatting about the drama series they binge-watch. Given this binge-watching phenomenon on college campuses in Taiwan, where Mandarin is an official language and English as a foreign language (EFL) is a required course, the researcher-teacher is concerned about English lexical growth if Taiwanese students’ viewing habits shift from Mandarin to English subtitles. Deriving from Mandarin drama English subtitles, the researcher sought to create a list of the most frequent multiword expressions for students to learn because drama lines are often drawn from daily life and even reflect current events. A corpus of 8.46 million English-subtitled words from 50 Mandarin dramas across different genres was compiled, totaling 1,427 episodes. Based on frequency, dispersion and expert judgments, a total of 475 frequent multiword expressions were selected. Pedagogical implications and directions for future research are also discussed in the study.
... As an item-related linguistic factor, corpus frequency plays a key role in influencing PV test performance (Garnier and Schmitt 2016;Zhang and Wen 2019). The more frequent a word is, the more likely it is to be known (Schmitt 2010). For PVs, it is also important to distinguish between raw PV frequency and the frequency of each meaning sense. ...
A phrasal verb (PV) is a type of formulaic language, which is ubiquitous in informal English discourse but notoriously challenging for English language learners. With many learners struggling to develop knowledge of formulaic language, this study investigated whether they make measurable PV gains over time and which factors in a study-abroad environment facilitated the development of PVs. Seventy-five mixed-L1 foundation students in the UK were tracked over the first two terms in an academic year. They completed a productive PV test, a receptive PV test, an Updated Vocabulary Levels Test, a language contact questionnaire, and a social network survey when studying abroad. Using descriptive statistics, paired-samples t -tests, and mixed-effects modelling, the findings indicate that the participants made only small gains in PV knowledge in two terms of study abroad. Interestingly, they made larger gains in productive knowledge than receptive knowledge, suggesting that they consolidated existing knowledge more than acquiring new PVs. Overall vocabulary knowledge, PV corpus frequency, and language contact significantly predicted PV knowledge, while semantic transparency and L2 social networks did not. Overall vocabulary knowledge and L2 social networks predicted PV gains. This study reveals that the developmenet of PV knowledge is relatively slow and incremental during study abroad. Thus, high-quality L2 interaction may be necessary for international students to develop PV knowledge in such contexts.
... The chapter discusses learner-corpus research and collocations as indicators of L2 proficiency. It examines aspects of L2 collocational learning across three dimensions: amount of use, accuracy/ appropriacy of use, and goodness/automaticity of intuitions of formulaic language (Schmitt, 2010). The chapter covers contrastive interlanguage analysis and assessment of L2 lexical richness and sophistication and discusses applied corpus linguistics and the use of corpora for teaching L2 collocations. ...
... The most fundamental approach to understanding word knowledge is to categorize vocabulary as either receptive or productive (Schmitt, 2010). Receptive knowledge refers to a language learner's ability to comprehend a word they hear or read, whereas productive knowledge involves their capability to use the word in speech or writing. ...
This article explores the role of digital game-based language learning and teaching (DGBLLT) in second language (L2) vocabulary
acquisition. It emphasizes the effectiveness of commercial entertainment games in promoting incidental vocabulary learning through engaging, multimodal interactions. The article distinguishes between receptive and productive knowledge, alongside vocabulary breadth and depth, utilizing an established taxonomy to underline the complexity of L2 vocabulary acquisition that can occur through digital gameplay. Various studies and systematic reviews are synthesized to demonstrate the positive impact of DGBLLT on L2 vocabulary learning. Despite the substantial evidence supporting DGBLLT for L2 vocabulary development, challenges remain, including the need for better access to and analysis of in-game language data and player interactions. Future research directions include refining game design principles, exploring long-term retention of word knowledge, and addressing cultural and linguistic diversity, among others. The article also calls for developing tools and methodologies for researchers to enhance our understanding and optimize the impact of digital games in L2 vocabulary learning and teaching.
... Thus, teachers are constantly implementing strategies to teach vocabulary effectively and they must make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, and more effective. In line with Schmitt (2010), there are two types of strategies that can be used in vocabulary learning: Explicit and implicit vocabulary. Explicit vocabulary is more focused on learning the language where the learner is attentive to the information to learn, and the teacher plays the role of translator or language provider. ...
A good knowledge of vocabulary is crucial to successful language learning, so vocabulary learning strategies have been gaining popularity in EFL classrooms. Research in vocabulary learning has been extensively investigated the factors that affect receptive vocabulary, however the amount of research in productive vocabulary is scarce. The study reported in this article aimed to explore and describe to what extent a board game called “Active” affect 10th-grade EFL students' active vocabulary in a public school in Bello. The game was designed as a memory-based strategy and target frequently nouns relevant to students’ daily lives. Four lesson plans were applied to 32 students and the classes took place in the classroom. This study used a qualitative method. Vocabulary performance was tested with pre-test and, post-test and during-test after each lesson. The data collection included interviews and observations. The research found significant gains in vocabulary retention and retrieval. Moreover, the game fostered motivation and engagement, highlighting the value of gamification in enhancing language learning.
In recent years, studies have investigated “Subtitles as a Support” (SaS) and “Subtitling as a Task” (SaT) as two distinct approaches to audiovisual input, which have the potential to foster learners’ vocabulary. In line with the Involvement Load Hypothesis (ILH) (Laufer & Hulstijn, Applied Linguistics 22(1):1–26, 2001), Talaván (Porta Linguarum 6:41–52, 2006, p. 43) has assumed that vocabulary learning “is enhanced when subtitles are used not in a passive but in an active mode, being the students themselves the ones who create them”. This contribution addresses this assumption by means of a study in which almost 300 learners of L3-Dutch in German schools engaged with two Dutch short films, both as a more passive SaS- (sub-study 1) and a more active SaT-activity (sub-study 2). The results show that the effectiveness of SaS depends on the conditions used, with dual subtitles in L3-Dutch and L1-German yielding the highest scores. SaT also leads to significant vocabulary learning. The comparison of the sub-studies suggests that, overall, SaT is more beneficial for vocabulary acquisition than SaS, which in turn supports the ILH.
This study investigates the effect of presence and sequence of viewing activities on the learning of new words in French L2. It examined if there is a difference in perceived usefulness of pre- vs. post-viewing activity (RQ1) and whether the perceived usefulness corresponds to students’ vocabulary scores (RQ2). Eighty-seven adolescent, beginner French L2 students from Switzerland participated in the study. Fifty-one target words were selected from three captioned 13–15 min excerpts from the French TV series Plan Cœur (Netflix, 2018). The participants watched each excerpt in a different condition (episode only, episode and pre-viewing activity, episode and post-viewing activity). In the activities, the participants had to recognise the correct meaning (translation) of target words. Three immediate and one delayed meaning recognition vocabulary post-tests were administered to four upper-level classes (HI) and two lower-level classes (LO). Students’ learning beliefs were collected using a self-evaluation questionnaire. Results from the questionnaire showed that both LO and HI learners perceived the post-viewing activity as most beneficial. The descriptive analysis of the questionnaire further supported that learners’ beliefs concerning the usefulness of the pre-/post-viewing activities generally correspond to learners’ actual learning gains. These results highlight the importance of pre-/post-viewing activities when learning new vocabulary through audio-visual input in foreign language teaching.
Este libro de texto está diseñado para estudiantes de quinto nivel de la Universidad Técnica Estatal de Quevedo. Cubre habilidades lingüísticas esenciales como leer, escribir, escuchar y hablar, con un enfoque en contextos de la vida real y el uso práctico del lenguaje. El libro está dividido en ocho unidades, cada una de las cuales aborda un tema específico. Las unidades cubren temas que van desde la tecnología, la vida cotidiana, las celebraciones y tradiciones, hasta la vida urbana y la cultura gastronómica. Los puntos gramaticales incluyen el uso de infinitivos, gerundios, cláusulas relativas, cláusulas adverbiales y tiempos verbales como el pasado simple y el presente perfecto. El desarrollo del vocabulario se integra en cada unidad y cubre temas relevantes como inventos, días especiales y costumbres culturales. Además, el libro se alinea con el Marco Común Europeo de Referencia para las Lenguas (MCER), con el objetivo de llevar a los estudiantes a un nivel A2-B1. A través de actividades y ejercicios atractivos, el libro de texto busca mejorar la competencia comunicativa de los estudiantes, preparándolos para interacciones académicas y del mundo real en inglés.
This case study investigates the impact of different bilingual dictionaries on L2 vocabulary learning through meaning-focused reading among 369 intermediate English learners. Three dictionaries were selected that reflect the specific practices of the foreign language classrooms under study: PONS Online Dictionary, Langenscheidt Paper Dictionary and Le Robert & Collins Paper Dictionary. Participants read three short texts, translated 15 comprehension-relevant target words, and answered comprehension questions under one of three search conditions: online dictionary (n = 126), paper dictionary (n = 123) or on-screen glossary (n = 120). Meaning recall was assessed immediately and two weeks later. Logistic mixed-effects models revealed significant effects of the consultation method on retention, with the PONS Online Dictionary yielding the highest results. These findings highlight the potential of the PONS Online Dictionary as an effective tool for incidental L2 vocabulary learning. Future studies should examine whether these results hold with other dictionaries and different learning contexts.
Full article can be downloaded at https://www.culi.chula.ac.th/Images/asset/pasaa_journal/file-75-971-cdjb41079648.pdf
Learners frequently encounter challenges in accurately utilizing near-synonyms in the English language. This investigation explored the similarities and differences among four nearsynonymous verbs: attempt, endeavor, strive, and try. The analysis encompassed their prevalence across diverse genres, formality levels, collocational patterns, semantic preferences, semantic prosody, and colligations, utilizing linguistic data from the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) for examination. Statistical measures, including frequency, MI scores, corpus-based judgment, and linguistic research tools like the UCREL Semantic Analysis System (USAS), were employed to scrutinize the similarities and variances. The findings have shown that although the four near-synonymous verbs share surface-level resemblances in meaning and certain characteristics, they also manifest distinct and unique features. In summary, try markedly differs from other near-synonyms in terms of genre distribution and degree of formality, while strive is distinguished by its unique colligational pattern. Among the six criteria used to differentiate the four near-synonyms, their semantic preferences exhibit the most significant differences. Although the four near-synonyms share some collocations and have others that are unique to each term, an analysis of semantic preferences has revealed the semantic distinctions preferred by each near-synonym. Consequently, these four
target verbs are not interchangeable in particular contexts.
Speaking English as a foreign language (EFL) presents both challenges and engaging aspects for learners. This descriptive study set out to precisely identify the oral English proficiency levels of Chinese vocational college students and to comprehensively determine the factors that influence their oral English capabilities. A total of 60 students were randomly selected and assessed using the LAIX software to gauge their oral English proficiency levels. Additionally, 15 students and 10 teachers were conveniently sampled and interviewed to explore influencing factors. The findings revealed that a substantial proportion of Chinese vocational college students were at Level 1, indicating a relatively low level of oral proficiency. Through in-depth thematic analysis, the factors contributing to this low oral proficiency were found to be mainly in the areas of linguistic elements, psychological factors, language exposure, and language pedagogy, among others. These intricately interrelated factors have a significant and collective impact on the students’ oral English proficiency. This research contributes to the existing body of knowledge on EFL learning in the context of Chinese vocational education, offering insights that can potentially inform teaching strategies and curriculum design to enhance students’ oral English skills.
Acquiring English vocabulary is essential for university students, particularly in areas like Sanghar, where people do not often communicate in English. Mastery of vocabulary has a direct impact on students' academic success, language competency, and communication skills in professional as well as academic life. There is a lack of quantitative research focusing on students in rural Pakistani institutions, even though techniques for vocabulary acquisition (VLS) have been extensively studied in both urban and global contexts. There is particularly limited knowledge available on how Sanghar students use and benefit from various VLS in organized academic contexts. This study aims to explore the effective strategies for developing the English vocabulary of University Students of Sanghar. A quantitative study design was used. In addition, a standardized questionnaire was provided to 200 students to collect information on the different kinds and amounts of strategies used. Social, Meta-cognitive, contextual, cognitive, and memory strategies were all studied. The quantitative data were evaluated using SPSS software version 25 to find patterns, quantify improvement, and assess approach efficacy among participants. The findings revealed that students used many kinds of strategies, with contextual and meta-cognitive strategies among the most successful. While students eventually transitioned to greater autonomy and contextualized methods, social and repetitious strategies remained popular in classrooms. The study highlights the significance of implementing vocabulary-learning strategies into instruction in the English language, and teachers have an important role in helping students select strategies that align with their preferred learning styles. The findings support the implementation of strategy-based teaching into the design of curriculum and encourage further Long-term and mixed-method studies to evaluate the persistent effect of vocabulary acquisition strategies on the acquisition of second languages.
This chapter examines alternative approaches to vocabulary acquisition in second language learning, emphasizing the integration of vocabulary journaling, multimedia tools, and pop culture elements. Traditional rote memorization methods often prove ineffective for long-term retention, failing to establish meaningful cognitive connections. Grounded in Depth of Processing Theory (Craik & Lockhart, 1972) and Dual Coding Theory (Paivio, 1971), this study investigates how reflective journaling practices combined with multimedia resources facilitate enhanced semantic and emotional associations. The research explores the utilization of contemporary media content as cognitive anchors, demonstrating their value in promoting deeper lexical engagement. Findings indicate that these methodologies effectively bridge the gap between short-term memorization and sustained retention, providing evidence-based strategies for EFL practitioners and learners.
Considering the difficulty of acquiring lexical forms, it is important to offer effective vocabulary instruction especially in low-input contexts like Türkiye. Since studies exploring the role of Form-Focused Instruction (FFI) in vocabulary learning are rare, we explore the effects of Meaning-Focused Instruction (MFI) and FFI on L2 collocation learning. Ninety-three students with A2 level proficiency participated in the study in MFI, FFI and Control groups. Experimental groups were given reading comprehension tasks embedding twenty collocations. These collocations were enhanced through bold-facing, and dictionary use was allowed in FFI group. MFI group did the same task with no bold-facing and dictionary use. Control group only completed the tests. Findings revealed that experimental groups performed significantly better with no significant improvement in control group’s performance. A significant advantage of FFI over MFI was observed in form recognition and form recall tests highlighting the pedagogical importance of attention to form to acquire collocations.
The advantage of Chinese-as-a-heritage-language (CHL) learners in acquiring Chinese has been widely recognized. However, it is still unclear whether the effect of CHL background on Chinese receptive vocabulary breadth varies across different countries. To address this gap, the present study recruited 232 Chinese language learners (half were CHL learners) from Indonesia and Thailand and administered a Chinese vocabulary proficiency test. The results of regression analysis revealed an interaction effect between country and CHL background on vocabulary breadth, with contribution of CHL background to vocabulary breadth more robust in the Indonesian group than that in the Thai group. Interviews were then conducted to explore the factors that might influence such an interaction effect. Analysis of the interview data found that the influencing factors could be categorized into four themes, including individual differences, family background, Chinese language education and socio-cultural factors. The overall results were discussed within the framework of ecological system theory, and pedagogical implications for CHL learners were proposed.
Keywords
Chinese as a heritage language, Chinese as a second/foreign language, vocabulary breadth, vocabulary size, Thailand, Indonesia
Annotation: This article is dedicated to teaching vocabulary memorization to non-standard learners. In this article we will explore the main causes behind the need for vocabulary memorization techniques for non-standard learners. The aim of this article is to investigate the usage and assessment of vocabulary memorization strategies as a second language to non-standard students. INTRODUCTION In our cutting-edge of era, more and more students with different cultural and linguistic backgrounds have been required to learn English as a second language in addition to their first language to integrate themselves into English schools and additionally in English society. When teaching students a foreign language, every teacher pays more attention to vocabulary than grammar. As long as everyone communicate through words wherever and whenever due to exchange ideas with people in certain fields. It is a fact that teaching vocabulary memorization to any English learners is important, because by teaching vocabulary memorization, language learners can expand their word bank, enabling them to improve their speaking and writing abilities. This can lead to better communication and more successful interactions in various contexts, such as school, work, and daily life. The definition of vocabulary is that all the words known and used by a particular person do not constitute all the words a person is exposed to. The learning of vocabulary within a relevant cultural context is a much enlightening and interesting experience for the student than learning vocabulary in isolation. The aims of this research are to highlight the memorization strategies that teachers usually adopt to teach vocabulary to non-standard learners. It also attempts to identify from a number of memorization strategies, according to some scientists' typology, the most appropriate ones for teaching vocabulary according to teachers' opinions. MAIN PART English has become the most important foreign language in the world. At present, English is the language for international communication such as; science, health, economic, commerce, advertising, diplomacy and transmitting advanced technology. Some scholars express that in the age of globalism we live nowadays, the interdependence of nations and countries creates a need for a global language and no language qualifies for this better than English. Speaking is the most essential part in human communication. We need ability to speak each other to share our ideas, feeling, thoughts, and opinion, to give information and message to others. It is a means through which learners can communicate with others to achieve certain goals or to express their opinions, intentions, hopes and viewpoints. Vocabulary learning plays a crucial role in this effort. However, for years the importance of teaching vocabulary was underestimated, while too much emphasis was placed mainly on grammar. According to Wilkins, we can convey very little without grammar, but we cannot convey anything without vocabulary. We know that no matter how good our knowledge on grammar is, if our vocabulary is poor, we cannot completely reveal our language skills such as speaking, reading, writing and also listening. Teaching language cannot be separated with teaching vocabulary. Vocabulary is considered as an important component in English language teaching. Furthermore, five categories of vocabulary, such as ESP, active/productive, passive/receptive, function/structure and content vocabulary have to be distinguished in teaching vocabulary. ESP vocabulary helps the learners to enlarge their use of the content words. This vocabulary is learned in the classroom situation that students have to learn the forms and to understand the concepts behind the words away from a real situation. In everyday speech we utilize active (or productive) vocabulary that is learned for performance in any communication act. Teachers should teach active vocabulary through focusing on the pronunciation, correct form, appropriate collocation and meaning so that learners can easily remember them. Among these categories passive vocabulary has not significant side for production in speaking and writing. This category is meant for recognition and understanding that it is needed for comprehension. Teachers do not ask to use it in everyday speech but recognize it when occurring in context. Function vocabulary is the part of the grammatical system of the language since its main function is grammatical. This category is limited in number unlike content vocabulary. Content words are open-ended in the sense that new nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs are often coined to name new things or processes which are closely related to one's experience.
This project aims to enhance English vocabulary acquisition among technical university students, particularly those enrolled in the five-year junior college programs within the Department of Tourism and the Department of Hospitality at Meiho University. The study employs a researcher-designed English Vocabulary Learning GHOST Questionnaire alongside five types of vocabulary assessment tests, including English-Chinese matching, dictation, translation (both directions), and cloze tests. The GHOST learning strategy integrates various techniques to actively engage students and connect learning to real-life experiences. These techniques include group activities, games, highlighting, contextual hints, observation, online resources, songs, stories, critical thinking, and self-regulated time management. By fostering positive learning experiences, the project seeks to boost students' confidence and satisfaction with their progress. Data for the study was gathered through questionnaires and analyzed using SPSS. The results indicate that students prefer diverse vocabulary learning methods, with songs and group activities being the most favored. Other commonly used strategies include games, contextual hints, online resources, and self-regulated time management. In terms of vocabulary assessment, students showed a preference for Chinese-English matching and dictation, suggesting that bilingual testing offers a sense of security while auditory reinforcement aids retention.The study also highlights key challenges in vocabulary learning, such as a lack of effort and limited practice, with many students relying heavily on rote memorization. To address these issues, the researcher recommends adopting a variety of learning strategies, including incorporating music and group activities, utilizing games, contextual cues, and digital resources, and increasing practice and exposure.Recognizing vocabulary as essential for communication, skill development, and career advancement, the researcher concludes with practical teaching recommendations to optimize vocabulary instruction and support student learning effectively.
Word meaning is generally presented to learners via their L1 or the target language. The choice of meaning presentation code may impact the difficulty with which novel vocabulary is learned and how well it is retained over time, yet few studies have considered the effect of meaning presentation code on the learning burden and decay of L2 vocabulary knowledge. Moreover, it is generally assumed that words that are harder to learn are also more easily forgotten. However, there has been minimal investigation of this claim. Addressing these gaps, this paper explores the effect of meaning presentation code on the learning burden and decay of lexical knowledge, and also considers the relationship between burden and decay. Chinese adult learners of English used flashcard software to study vocabulary with meaning presented via L1 equivalents or L2 definitions. Learning burden was operationalised as the frequency of exposure needed to learn target items, and decay was measured by comparing knowledge (form recall and recognition) on immediate and delayed tests. Mixed-effects modelling showed that code did not impact learning burden but did affect decay, with L1 use associated with less decay. Additionally, increased learning burden was associated with greater loss. Pedagogical implications are discussed.
Vocabulary acquisition is crucial for language learning, yet learners face substantial challenges in memorizing extensive vocabulary. Numerous studies suggest Artificial Intelligence (AI)-based technologies could significantly improve vocabulary acquisition among K-12 learners. Therefore, instructors or teachers must be fully informed of the advantages and disadvantages when integrating different AI apps or programs. The present study provided a systematic review of 30 empirical studies focusing on the use of AI for vocabulary acquisition. Some key findings include: (1) AI-supported L2 vocabulary acquisition (AISVA) research has gained rapid growth over the last decade, with a clear upward trend; (2) Despite AISVA’s broad interest across 28 journals, the field shows fragmentation and lacks a unified theoretical framework; (3) The top three most cited in AISVA predominantly employed quantitative methods, concentrate on cognitive learning dimensions with rather innovative theoretical frameworks, and unique research topics; (4) Research methods primarily integrated both qualitative and quantitative approaches, leaning towards a preference for quantitative methodologies, and mainly involved primary and college students; (5) A substantial portion of AISVA applications manifests their roles as “Intelligent Tutors” while the category of “Data-driven Optimizer” has received relatively less attention in research endeavors; (6) Studies emphasize cognitive and affective aspects, with AR and VR emerging as prevalent technologies that are frequently enhanced by AI integration to support vocabulary acquisition. Suggestions and implications for teaching practitioners, language learners, and software engineers were discussed.
It is known that children may recover from stuttering without formal treatment during the first years after onset. Consequently, the timing of professional, early stuttering intervention is a pressing issue in speech-language pathology. This report presents data pertinent to this issue for 261 preschool-age children who received the Lidcombe Program of early stuttering intervention. Of these children, 250 completed the program and were considered by their clinicians to have been treated successfully. For the children who were treated successfully, logistical regression analyses were used to determine whether age, gender, period from onset to treatment, and stuttering severity related systematically to the time required for treatment. The present data confirmed previous reports that a median of 11 clinic visits was required to achieve zero or near-zero stuttering with the Lidcombe Program. Results were also consistent with a preliminary report of 14 children (C. W. Starkweather & S. R. Gottwald, 1993) showing a significant relation between stuttering severity and the time needed for treatment, with children with more severe stuttering requiring longer treatment times than children with less severe stuttering. However, results did not associate either increasing age or increased onset-to-treatment intervals with longer treatment times. This finding is not consistent with the Starkweather and Gottwald report, which linked advancing age with longer treatment time. In fact, the present data suggest that, for a short period after stuttering onset in the preschool years, a short delay in treatment does not appear to increase treatment time. An important caveat to these data is that they cannot be generalized to late childhood or early adolescence. The present findings are discussed in relation to natural recovery from stuttering.