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Self-Determination Theory

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Self-determination theory (SDT) is a broad theory of human personality and motivation concerned with how the individual interacts with and depends on the social environment. SDT defines intrinsic and several types of extrinsic motivation and outlines how these motivations influence sit-uational responses in different domains, as well as social and cognitive development and personality. SDT is centered on the basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness and their necessary role in self-determined motivation, well-being, and growth. Finally, SDT describes the critical impact of the social and cultural context in either facilitating or thwarting people's basic psychological needs, perceived sense of self-direction, performance, and well-being.
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Self-Determination Theory
Lisa Legault
Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY, USA
Definition
Self-determination theory (SDT) is a broad theory
of human personality and motivation concerned
with how the individual interacts with and
depends on the social environment. SDT denes
intrinsic and several types of extrinsic motivation
and outlines how these motivations inuence sit-
uational responses in different domains, as well as
social and cognitive development and personality.
SDT is centered on the basic psychological needs
of autonomy, competence, and relatedness and
their necessary role in self-determined motivation,
well-being, and growth. Finally, SDT describes
the critical impact of the social and cultural con-
text in either facilitating or thwarting peoples
basic psychological needs, perceived sense of
self-direction, performance, and well-being.
Introduction
Self-determination theory (SDT; Ryan and Deci
2000) is a metatheory of human motivation and
personality development. It is thought of as a
metatheory in the sense that it is made up of
several mini-theorieswhich fuse together to
offer a comprehensive understanding of human
motivation and functioning. SDT is based on the
fundamental humanistic assumption that individ-
uals naturally and actively orient themselves
toward growth and self-organization. In other
words, people strive to expand and understand
themselves by integrating new experiences; by
cultivating their needs, desires, and interests; and
by connecting with others and the outside world.
However, SDT also asserts that this natural
growth tendency should not be assumed and that
people can become controlled, fragmented, and
alienated if their basic psychological needs for
autonomy,competence, and relatedness are
undermined by a decient social environment. In
other words, SDT rests on the notion that the
individual is involved continuously in a dynamic
interaction with the social world at once striving
for need satisfaction and also responding to the
conditions of the environment that either support
or thwart needs. As a consequence of this person-
environment interplay, people become either
engaged, curious, connected, and whole, or
demotivated, ineffective, and detached.
The basic components of SDT namely, its six
mini-theories combine to provide an account of
human behavior across life domains, including
work (Fernet 2013), relationships (La Guardia
and Patrick 2008), education (Reeve and Lee
2014), religion (Soenens et al. 2012), health
(Russell and Bray 2010), sports (Pelletier et al.
2001), and even stereotyping and prejudice
(Legault et al. 2007). At the heart of each mini-
#Springer International Publishing AG 2017
V. Zeigler-Hill, T.K. Shackelford (eds.), Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_1162-1
theory is the idea of basic psychological needs; all
individuals strive for and need autonomy (the
need to feel free and self-directed), competence
(the need to feel effective), and relatedness (the
need to connect closely with others) in order to
ourish and grow. The rst mini-theory, cognitive
evaluation theory, centers on the factors that shape
intrinsic motivation by affecting perceived auton-
omy and competence. The second mini-theory is
organismic integration theory, and it concerns
extrinsic motivation and the manner in which it
may be internalized. Causality orientations theory
describes personality dispositions that is, are
individuals generally autonomous, controlled, or
impersonal? The fourth mini-theory, basic psy-
chological need theory, discusses the role of
basic psychological needs in health and well-
being and, importantly, outlines the manner in
which social environments can neglect, thwart,
or satisfy peoples basic psychological needs.
Goal content theory is concerned with how intrin-
sic and extrinsic goals inuence health and well-
ness. Finally, relationship motivation theory is
focused on the need to develop and maintain
close relationships and describes how optimal
relationships are those that help people satisfy
their basic psychological needs for autonomy,
competence, and relatedness.
Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET)
CET seeks to describe how both internal and
external events affect peoples intrinsic motiva-
tion. Intrinsic motivation refers to engagement in
activities out of enjoyment and interest rather than
for the consequence or incentive attached to the
behavior. Intrinsic motivation is noninstrumental
in nature; when intrinsically motivated, people are
not concerned with what outcome will be received
or avoided by engaging in the action. Rather, they
perform the behavior because it is inherently sat-
isfying in and of itself. In contrast, extrinsic moti-
vation is fundamentally instrumental. People are
extrinsically motivated when they are concerned
with performing an action because of the conse-
quence associated with it; behavior is contingent
upon receiving or avoiding an outcome that is
separable from the behavior in question.
According to CET, intrinsic motivation can be
enhanced or undermined, depending on the
degree to which external events (e.g., rewards,
punishers), interpersonal contexts (e.g., criticism
or praise from a relationship partner), and internal
proclivities (e.g., ones own trait-level tendency to
feel task-engaged) affect the individuals self-
perceptions of autonomy and competence. Auton-
omy is the innate need to feel self-direction and
self-endorsement in action, as opposed to feeling
controlled, coerced, or constrained, whereas com-
petence is the need to feel effective and masterful
as though ones actions are useful in achieving
desired outcomes. Competence underlies the
seeking out of optimal challenge and the
development of capacities. When external,
social/interpersonal, and internal conditions facil-
itate satisfaction of the individuals needs for
autonomy and competence, then intrinsic motiva-
tion increases. Conversely, when autonomy is
neglected or thwarted by the use of controlling
events (e.g., bribes, demands, pressuring
language) or when perceived competence is
undermined (e.g., through negative or
uninformative feedback), then intrinsic motiva-
tion declines. Early work in the spirit of CET
showed that, by undercutting perceived auton-
omy, extrinsic motivators such as money worked
to impede intrinsic motivation (e.g., Deci 1971).
Follow-up research demonstrated that other exter-
nal events perceived to be controlling, such as
deadlines (Amabile et al. 1976) and surveillance
(Plant and Ryan 1985) also diminish intrinsic
motivation. Similarly, interpersonal contexts can
inuence intrinsic motivation, depending on
whether they are perceived to be informational
or controlling. For instance, although positive
feedback is generally perceived as informational
(i.e., supporting competence), it can be perceived
as controlling (i.e., undermining of autonomy) if it
is administered in a pressuring way (Ryan 1982).
Finally, internal events that is, peoples own
perceptions, feelings, and cognitions can also
make behavior feel controlling or informational.
For example, people can come to feel obsessive or
ego-involved in an activity and the self-esteem
2 Self-Determination Theory
boost associated with it. When feelings of self-
worth or identity are attached to performance in a
way that it becomes necessary to perform the
behavior in order to feel worthy or valuable, then
the behavior will feel quite controlling (Mageau
et al. 2009; Plant and Ryan 1985).
In sum, CET asserts that the context includ-
ing external forces (e.g., deadlines), interpersonal
climates (e.g., praise, instruction), and internal
events (e.g., being ego-involved) affects intrin-
sic motivation as a function of the degree to which
they are informational vs. controlling.
Organismic Integration Theory (OIT)
Whereas CET addresses the manner in which
internal and environmental forces inuence intrin-
sic motivation, OIT addresses the process by
which individuals acquire the motivation to carry
out behaviors that are not intrinsically interesting
or enjoyable. Such activities are unlikely to be
executed unless there is some extrinsic reason
for doing them. Extrinsic motivation refers to a
broad category of motivations aimed at outcomes
that are extrinsic to the behavior itself. Unlike
other motivation theories and research, OIT pro-
poses a highly differentiated view of extrinsic
motivation, suggesting that it takes multiple
forms, including external regulation, introjection,
identication, and integration. These subtypes of
extrinsic motivation are seen as falling along a
continuum of internalization (see Fig. 1). Thus,
whereas some extrinsic motivators are completely
external and nonself-determined, others can
be highly internal and self-determined (i.e.,
autonomous).
To the extent the environment satises peoples
needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness,
OIT postulates that people will tend to integrate
their experiences by internalizing, reecting on,
and endorsing the values and behaviors that are
salient in their surroundings. This process of inter-
nalization is therefore spontaneous and adaptive,
allowing people to sanction and cohere with their
social environment. The more a behavior or reg-
ulation is internalized, the more it becomes inte-
grated with the self and serves as a foundation for
self-determined motivation. OIT suggests that
regulation of behavior can become increasingly
internalized to the extent that the individual feels
autonomous and competent in effecting
it. Relatedness plays an important role in internal-
ization. That is, individuals will tend to initially
internalize behaviors that are valued by close
others. For example, if a child learns that her
father, whom she admires, strongly values and
cares about brushing his teeth, then she may be
apt to internalize the same behavior. Ultimately,
however, full internalization requires the experi-
ence of autonomy in the activity (i.e., toothbrush-
ing must come to emanate from the self if it is truly
to be endorsed and sustained). To integrate the
regulation of a behavior, people must understand
its personal signicance and coordinate it with
their needs, values, and other behaviors.
The degree to which any given behavior is
internalized is critically important to successful
performance and persistence of that behavior.
For instance, autonomously motivated students
study harder, pay more attention in class, and get
better grades (Vansteenkiste et al. 2004). In the
health regulation domain, autonomous motivation
leads to superior self-regulation in weight loss and
weight loss maintenance (Teixeira et al. 2010), as
well as in smoking cessation (Williams et al.
2009). Autonomous forms of motivation also
play an important role in long-term persistence
in sports (Pelletier et al. 2001) and the self-control
of prejudiced responses (Legault et al. 2007).
Causality Orientation Theory (COT)
Whereas CET and OIT are generally focused on
how the social context inuences the individuals
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation by affecting
autonomy, competence, and relatedness, COT is
more concerned with the inner resources of the
individual. Causality orientations are thought to
develop over time and form the basis of motiva-
tion at the broad level of personality. According to
COT, a developmental and social history of
autonomy-congruent experiences is likely to
shape an autonomous causality orientation (Deci
and Ryan 1985) or a trait of autonomous
Self-Determination Theory 3
functioning (Weinstein et al. 2012), wherein the
individual generally tends to regulate behavior as
a function of personal interests and values, that is,
based on intrinsic motivation and autonomous
forms of extrinsic motivation. In contrast, those
with a controlled orientation have a dispositional
tendency to look toward controls and prompts in
the environment to regulate behavior and are pri-
marily concerned with how to behave in a way
that conforms to expectations, demands, and other
external consequences. The impersonal orienta-
tion describes those who feel a general sense of
helplessness and detachment and who lack inten-
tionality in action.
The autonomy orientation is associated posi-
tively with self-esteem and self-actualization
(Deci and Ryan 1985), as well as greater daily
well-being, satisfaction of basic psychological
needs, autonomous engagement in daily activi-
ties, and positive daily social interactions
(Weinstein et al. 2012). In contrast, having a con-
trolled orientation is associated with self-
consciousness and proneness to feeling outwardly
evaluated and pressured (Deci and Ryan 1985),
as well as greater interpersonal defensiveness
(Hodgins et al. 2006). The impersonal orientation
has been shown to be associated with self-
derogation, depression, and anxiety (Deci and
Ryan 1985), as well as self-handicapping, poor
performance (Hodgins et al. 2006), and a
fragmented identity (Soenens et al. 2005).
Basic Psychological Need Theory (BPNT)
Although the basic psychological needs of auton-
omy, competence, and relatedness play a focal
role in SDT in general, as well as in each of its
mini-theories, BPNT goes beyond these basic
assumptions to specify more precisely how basic
psychological needs are essential for health and
well-being (Ryan and Deci 2000). BPNT also
describes how contexts that support the satisfac-
tion of basic psychological needs contribute to
positive life outcomes and how contexts that
thwart these needs will exact tolling costs to func-
tioning and wellness. Moreover, BPNT argues
that the needs of autonomy, competence, and
relatedness are not just essential for health but
are also innate and universal that is, they exist
Non-self-determined Most self-determinedBehavior
Amotivation
Motivation Extrinsic
Motivation
Intrinsic
Motivation
Non-
Regulation
External
Regulation
Introjected
Regulation
Identified
Regulation
Integrated
Regulation
Intrinsic
Regulation
Regulatory
Style
Controlled (i.e., non-self-
determined) motivation Autonomous (i.e., self-determined) motivation
Locus of
Causality Impersonal External Somewhat
External
Somewhat
Internal Internal Internal
Relevant
Regulatory
Processes
Compliance,
External Rewards
and Punishers
Nonintentional,
Nonvaluing,
Incompetence,
Lack of Control
Self-Control,
Ego-Involvement,
Internal Rewards
and Punishers
Personal
Importance,
Conscious
Valuing
Congruence,
Awareness,
Synthesis with Self
Interest,
Enjoyment,
Inherent
Satisfaction
Self-Determination Theory, Fig. 1 The internalization continuum: types of motivation according to self-
determination theory
4 Self-Determination Theory
across individuals and cultures (e.g., Chen
et al. 2015).
Autonomy (the need to experience self-
direction and personal endorsement in action),
competence (the need to feel effective in interac-
tions with the environment), and relatedness (the
need to feel meaningfully connected to others) are
organismic needs. Organisms are inherently
bound to and dependent upon their environment
for survival. That is, the well-being of any organ-
ism depends on its environment because the envi-
ronment provides it with nutrients required to
thrive and develop. Just as organisms possess the
physiological needs of thirst, hunger, and sleep
which must be met by environments that provide
water, food, and shelter if the organism is to sur-
vive; so too do organisms have psychological
needs, which are required to adapt and function
in psychologically healthy ways. Research on
basic psychological needs has found a robust con-
nection between psychological need satisfaction
and indices of eudaimonic well-being, that is, the
degree to which a person experiences meaning,
self-realization, and optimal functioning (not sim-
ply hedonic happiness, i.e., the experience of
pleasure and avoidance of pain). For instance,
psychological need satisfaction has been linked
to openness (Hodgins et al. 2006), developmental
growth and maturity (Ryan and Deci 2000),
energy, vitality, positive affect, and the relative
daily absence of psychological and physical
symptomatology (Reis et al. 2000). In contrast,
when psychological needs are unmet, individuals
experience greater apathy, irresponsibility, psy-
chopathology, arrogance, and insecurity (Ryan
and Deci 2000).
The environment therefore has a profound
impact on the extent to which the basic needs for
autonomy, competence, and relatedness are satis-
ed. For instance, when external events, interper-
sonal relationships, and social contexts/cultures
nurture and target a persons need for autonomy,
then those contextual forces are said to be auton-
omy supportive. Autonomy-supportive environ-
ments and relationships nurture the individuals
inner motivational resources and intrinsic prefer-
ences by providing choice and decision-making
exibility. They also provide meaningful and
useful information to help individuals internalize
the motivation for their behavior. Competence
satisfaction is derived from contexts and relation-
ships that provide the individual with optimal
challenge (as opposed to being overwhelming or
boring), as well as structure and feedback that
allow skills and abilities to develop. Satisfaction
of the need for relatedness occurs when relation-
ships are nurturing and reciprocal and, impor-
tantly, when they involve acceptance of the
authentic self. Research on BPNT, and SDT in
general, shows that environments that are support-
ive of autonomy, competence, and relatedness
help to facilitate the individuals perceived sense
of autonomy, competence, and relatedness, which
then promotes deeper daily engagement and over-
all psychological health (Ryan and Deci 2000).
Goal Content Theory (GCT)
GCT relates goal contents, also referred to as
aspirations or values, to well-being. GCT inte-
grates self-determination theory with values
research to suggest that basic psychological
needs also drive or underlie value systems in
specic ways (Kasser and Ryan 1996). That is,
intrinsic values/aspirations emerge from the basic
psychological needs of autonomy, competence,
and relatedness and, in turn, the pursuit and attain-
ment of intrinsic values works to satisfy these
needs. Intrinsic aspirations include close relation-
ships, personal growth, and community contribu-
tions. In contrast, extrinsic aspirations are geared
toward obtaining external validation and proof of
self-worth and instead focus on the pursuit of
goals such as nancial success, popularity/fame,
and image/appearance. Extrinsic aspirations/
values tend to emerge from need substitutes;
when basic psychological needs are neglected
over time, it is theorized that socially salient
need substitutes can provide a placating alterna-
tive, and although the pursuit and attainment of
extrinsic goals can be quite motivating, they do
not provide direct nourishment of psychological
needs (Sheldon and Kasser 2008).
According to GCT, it is important to consider
the role of intrinsic and extrinsic values in
Self-Determination Theory 5
motivation because such values shape, guide, and
organize specic behaviors and experiences.
Values function to coordinate preferences, deci-
sions, and actions that are relevant to those values/
aspirations. For instance, a person who places
high value on nancial success will likely buy
products and select acquaintances, friends, and
romantic partners that help to meet, afrm, or
express the value of wealth. A person who
strongly values having close relationships, in con-
trast, will be motivated to nurture and explore
intimate and lasting connections with others
perhaps by choosing and spending signicant
amounts of time on a selective number of mean-
ingful relationships. Because intrinsic values/
aspirations are more conducive to need fulllment
than are extrinsic values/aspirations, it may not be
surprising that they are more likely to be associ-
ated with well-being. For instance, it has been
found that individuals who pursue intrinsic goals
experience greater personal fulllment, more
productivity, less anxiety, less narcissism, less
depression, and fewer physical symptoms com-
pared to those who pursue nancial success
(Kasser and Ryan 1996).
Relationship Motivation Theory (RMT)
Although the rst ve mini-theories of SDT are
centrally concerned with the role of the social
context in supporting the individuals need satis-
faction, intrinsic motivation, and well-being, most
of their focus is on nonreciprocal, one-way rela-
tionships, that is, on the manner in which impor-
tant signicant others (e.g., parents, teachers,
coaches, managers) tend to support or undermine
the individuals psychological needs. RMT lls a
gap by describing the dynamics between partners
in close relationships. While RMT notes that the
basic psychological need for relatedness drives
the initial desire to seek out and maintain close
and meaningful relationships, satisfaction of the
need for relatedness alone is not sufcient; ulti-
mately, optimal close relationships are ones in
which each partner supports the autonomy, com-
petence, and relatedness needs of the other.
According to SDT broadly and RMT in par-
ticular all human beings possess the fundamen-
tal need to feel cared for; people aim to cultivate
relationships with those who value them and who
are sensitive to their needs and wants. People also
want to feel authentic in relationships and to know
that their relationship partner understands and
values their core self. While RMT rests on this
need for relatedness, the rst major tenet of RMT
suggests that optimal satisfaction of relatedness
requires also that autonomy and competence be
fullled in the context of the relationship. For
instance, it has been found that each of the three
basic psychological needs contributes uniquely to
important relationship outcomes, including rela-
tionship quality, security of attachment, effective
conict management, and overall personal well-
being (Deci and Ryan 2014; Patrick et al. 2007;La
Guardia and Patrick 2008). Overall, the more need
satisfaction people experience in relationships,
the more satised they will be with that relation-
ship. When individuals feel as though their part-
ner values their true self and holds them in
unconditional positive regard, then relationships
are more likely to ourish.
A second major proposition within RMT refers
to the notion that the more people are autono-
mously motivated to be in relationships, the
more they will experience the relationship to be
fullling. Thus, when people enter and persist at
relationships for personal, autonomous reasons
(e.g., because they feel that the relationship is
important and meaningful) rather than controlled
reasons (e.g., because they feel like they should be
in the relationship), they show greater relationship
satisfaction, better daily relationship functioning,
and greater overall well-being (Deci and Ryan
2014). Interestingly, the important role of auton-
omous motivation extends to relationships with
social groups; when individuals feel autono-
mously motivated to be part of a group (e.g.,
being Black, being German, being Catholic,
being part of a team or organization), they expe-
rience more positive group identity (Amiot and
Sansfaçon 2011).
Anal key component to RMT is that people
desire mutuality in close relationships. Therefore,
not only do people benet from receiving need
6 Self-Determination Theory
support from their partners, but they also benet
by giving it (Deci et al. 2006). To feel truly related
to another person, not only do people want to feel
genuinely accepted and cared for, but they also
want their partners to feel the same way, that is,
they want others to want to form close connec-
tions with them, and they want to be able to offer
their partners unconditional support and regard in
return. RMT, in sum, suggests that optimal close
relationships between partners are complex and
require more than warmth and attachment.
Summary: Putting It All Together
Self-determination theory offers a broad frame-
work for understanding human motivation and
personality by dening the psychological nutri-
ents required for optimal motivation, engagement,
and well-being. SDT underscores the idea that
peoples relationships and social contexts must
involve and support their fundamental human
needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness.
Figure 2helps to summarize the role of contexts
and events in satisfying these basic psychological
needs and the subsequent effect on intrinsic and
autonomous forms of extrinsic motivation. When
people are exposed to and involved in
opportunities that allow for personal initiative
and self-direction, as well as optimal challenge
and positive social interactions, autonomous
motivation thrives, and they are likely to feel
interested and engaged.
Conclusion
Self-determination theory has been supported by
more than four decades of research. The success
of the theory can be attributed to its degree of
comprehensiveness and testability. That is, SDT
outlines very clear, detailed, dynamic, and veri-
able propositions that apply to needs and motiva-
tions across life spheres, including classrooms,
organizations, families, teams, clinics, and cul-
tures. SDT is therefore both broad and specic,
as it provides detailed accounts of how social and
cultural forces impact personality development
and global motivational orientation, as well as
behavioral responses within particular domains
and tasks. Recently, SDT has begun to receive
attention at the level of the brain as well, showing
that autonomous/intrinsic motivation and con-
trolled/extrinsic motivation map onto distinct neu-
rophysiological structures and functions (e.g.,
Legault and Inzlicht 2013; Marsden et al. 2014).
Autonomy Support
from Environment
and Relationships
Competence Support
from Environment
and Relationships
Relatedness from
Environment and
Relationships
Perceived
Autonomy
Perceived
Competence
Perceived
Relatedness
Satisfaction
of Basic
Psychological
Needs
Intrinsic
Motivation and
Self-Determined
Extrinsic
Motivation
Self-Determination Theory, Fig. 2 The role of need satisfaction in motivation according to self-determination theory
Self-Determination Theory 7
Arguably, the future of SDT will rest in its appli-
cability to the practice of motivating self and
others; by applying the basics of SDT, parents,
teachers, coaches, managers, romantic partners,
and peers can help individuals enhance their cre-
ativity, meaning, and enjoyment.
Cross-References
The Need for Autonomy
The Need for Competence, Intrinsic and Extrin-
sic Motivation
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Self-Determination Theory 9
... İhtiyaçlar, bireylerin fizyolojik ve psikolojik arzularından kaynaklanan yetersizlik durumlarını ifade etmektedir (13). Organizmalar, hayatta kalabilmek için su, yiyecek, uyku ve barınma gibi fizyolojik ihtiyaçlara sahip olduğu kadar, psikolojik olarak sağlıklı bir şekilde çevreye uyum göstermesi ve işlevsel olması için gerekli olan psikolojik ihtiyaçları da vardır (14). Öz-belirleme Kuramı (ÖBK), geçmişten günümüze insanoğlunun psikolojik ihtiyaçlarını çeşitli yönleriyle ele alan kuramlardan birisidir. ...
... Bu tür eylemler kendi başına ilginç ve keyiflidir. Ancak, özel bir itici güç veya ödüller kullanılarak bireyleri ilginç bir aktivite yapmaya yönlendirme, özellikle de bu amaçla parasal ödüller kullanmanın içsel motivasyonu azaltabildiğinin fark edilmesi ve yeterliliğe ilişkin pozitif geri bildirimin içsel motivasyonu sürdürebildiği veya artırabildiğinin belirlendiği ilk deneysel çalışmalar bilişsel değerlendirme kuramının temelini oluşturmuştur(18,101,144). Kuram, hem içsel hem de dışsal olayların içsel motivasyonu nasıl etkilediğini açıklamaya çalışır(14). Bir başka ifadeyle, bu mini teori, dışsal araçlarla içsel motivasyon kaynakları arasındaki dinamik etkileşim üzerine yapılan araştırmalar sonucu ortaya çıkmıştır(101,144).Teori, ilk olarak, eylem sırasında yeterlilik duygusuna yol açan sosyal bağlamsal olayların (örneğin, geri bildirim, iletişim, ödüller) o eylem için içsel motivasyonu artırabileceğini savunur. ...
... Dışsal, sosyal, kişilerarası ve içsel koşullar bireyin özerklik ve yeterlilik ihtiyaçlarının karşılanmasını kolaylaştırdığında içsel motivasyon artar. Tersine, özerklik, kontrol edici olayların kullanılmasıyla engellendiğinde ya da algılanan yeterlilik zayıfladığında (örneğin, olumsuz veya bilgilendirici olmayan geri bildirim yoluyla), içsel motivasyon azalır(14).Özetle, Bilişsel Değerlendirme Teorisi çerçevesinde sosyal bağlamların insanın doğuştan gelen psikolojik ihtiyaçlarını destekleyerek veya engelleyerek içsel motivasyonun artırabileceği veya azaltabileceğini öne sürmektedir(101). Teori, dışsal olayların, bireyin kendi içsel süreçlerinin veya kişilerarası iletişimin içsel motivasyonu bilgilendirme, kontrol etme derecelerine göre nasıl etkilediğini açıklamaya çalışmaktadır(14). ...
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Aim: In this research, it was aimed to examine the relationships between secondary school students' perceived need support from their physical education and sport course teachers and their basic psychological need satisfaction, motivation and happiness levels using structural equation modeling. Material and Method: The study was designed with the correlational survey model, one of the quantitative research methods. The sample of the research consists of 1266 public secondary school students. In the study, "Need Supportive Teaching Style Scale for Physical Education", "The Basic Psychological Needs Scale in Physical Education", "Physical Education Motivation Scale", "Physical Education Lesson Happiness Level Scale" and "Personal Information Form" were used as data collection tools. The data obtained was analyzed using SPSS 25 and SPSS Amos 22 programs. While kurtosis and skewness values were taken into account to determine whether the data were normally distributed, percentage and frequency analyses were used to show descriptive statistics of the data. In the research, structural equation modeling was used to determine the structural relationships between latent and observed variables. Results: While the path coefficient from need support to need satisfaction (β=0.66), intrinsic motivation (β=0.13), extrinsic motivation (β=0.16) and happiness (β=0.20) was determined to be positively significant, the path coefficient to amotivation (β=-0.23) was found to be negatively and statistically significant (p<.001). The coefficient of the path from need satisfaction to intrinsic motivation (β=0.61), extrinsic motivation (β=0.54) and happiness (β=0.58) was found to be positively significant. In contrast, the coefficient of the path to amotivation (β=-0.44) was found to be negative and statistically significant (p<.001). Conclusion: It was concluded that the need-supporting teaching style behaviors that students perceived from their teachers in the secondary school PES course positively predicted their basic psychological need satisfaction, intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation and happiness levels, and negatively predicted their amotivation.
... SDT tidak hanya menjelaskan motivasi dalam arti sempit, tetapi juga berfokus pada perkembangan sosial dan kognitif, serta pembentukan kepribadian seiring waktu. Teori ini memandang bahwa kualitas motivasi sangat dipengaruhi oleh pemenuhan kebutuhan psikologis dasar seseorang (Legault, 2017). ...
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Buku ini hadir sebagai panduan untuk memahami dan mewujudkan perilaku manajemen keuangan yang sehat. Secara keseluruhan terdapat tiga bagian dalam buku ini. Bagian pertama memuat penjelasan mengenai teori dan konsep dasar perilaku manajemen keuangan. Bagian pertama ini dibagi menjadi dua bab, yaitu Bab 1 yang berisi pengantar perilaku manajemen keuangan individu dan Bab 2 yang berisi teori dan model dalam perilaku manajemen keuangan. Sub bab dalam Bab 1 terdiri dari definisi dan ruang lingkup perilaku manajemen keuangan (definisi, konsep, dan perkembangan studi perilaku manajemen keuangan), faktor-faktor psikologis dan lingkungan yang memengaruhi perilaku maanjemen keuangan, serta implikasinya terhadap kesejahteraan hidup secara keseluruhan (hubungan antara perilaku manajemen keuangan dengan kualitas hidup, kesejahteraan psikologis, dan kesejahteraan emosional). Bab 2 mengeksplorasi landasan teoretis dan model-model yang relevan dalam perilaku manajemen keuangan, yang meliputi teori psikologi keuangan seperti Behavioral Finance, Prospect Theory, dan Self-Determination Theory; model-model seperti Theory of Planned Behavior, Life-Cycle Hypothesis, dan Dual-System Model. Bab ini juga membahas metode pengukuran perilaku manajemen keuangan, baik melalui instrumen dan skala penilaian maupun terkait dengan pendekatan kuantitatif dan kualitatif. Bagian Kedua buku ini berfokus pada implementasi perilaku manajemen keuangan yang sehat. Bab kedua ini dibagi menjadi dua bab, yaitu Bab 3 yang memuat penjelasan mengenai implementasi perilaku manajemen keuangan yang sehat dan Bab 4 yang menjelaskan mengenai pengelolaan investasi dan utang secara bijak. Sub bab dalam Bab 3 terdiri dari penyusunan anggaran keuangan yang efektif (prinsip dasar penyusunan anggaran keuangan, teknik zero-based budgeting, dan metode 50/30/20 rule), manajemen arus kas dan kebiasaan keuangan sehari-hari (mengelola pemasukan dan pengeluaran, kebiasaan konsumsi dan strategi mengurangi pengeluaran yang tidak perlu, dan praktik mindful dan conscious consumption), serta membangun dana darurat dan proteksi finansial (pentingnya memiliki dana darurat dan jenis asuransi yang diperlukan untuk perlindungan finansial). Bab 4 membahas pengelolaan investasi dan utang secara bijak yang dibagi menjadi dua sub bab, yaitu strategi berinvestasi yang efektif dan perilaku individu dalam berutang. Bagian Ketiga dalam buku ini berfokus pada tantangan dan strategi menuju perilaku manajemen keuangan yang sehat. Bagian ini dibagi menjadi dua bab, yaitu Bab 5 yang membahas hambatan dalam membangun perilaku manajemen keuangan yang sehat, dan Bab 6 yang berisi pembahasan mengenai strategi membangun perilaku manajemen keuangan yang sehat. Secara lebih rinci, Bab 5 berisi sub bab bias kognitif dalam pengambilan keputusan keuangan, dampak media sosial dan lingkungan terhadap perilaku keuangan, serta tantangan struktural dalam keuangan seperti ketimpangan akses dan peran regulasi. Terakhir, Bab 6 berisi sub bab peran pendidikan keuangan dalam meningkatkan perilaku manajemen keuangan dan intervensi dan teknik perubahan perilaku manajemen keuangan.
... Secara spesifik, teori ini mengidentifikasi adanya tiga kebutuhan psikologis dasar yang harus dipenuhi untuk memfasilitasi motivasi dan kesehatan mental yang optimal, yaitu: kompetensi (merasa mampu dan efektif dalam berinteraksi dengan lingkungan), autonomi (merasakan kebebasan dalam mengatur perilaku sendiri), dan keterhubungan (merasa terhubung secara sosial dengan orang lain) (Ryan & Deci, 2000b). Self-Determination Theory (SDT) merupakan teori luas tentang kepribadian dan motivasi manusia yang berfokus pada bagaimana individu berinteraksi dengan dan bergantung pada lingkungan sosialnya (Legault, 2017). ...
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Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk meningkatkan motivasi akademik siswa melalui penerapan bimbingan klasikal berbasis permainan "Kartu Kejutan Masa Depan" dan "Jembatan Impian". Metode penelitian yang digunakan adalah Penelitian Tindakan Kelas (PTK) model Kemmis dan McTaggart, yang dilaksanakan dalam dua siklus. Subjek penelitian berjumlah 45 siswa dengan kecenderungan motivasi belajar rendah, yang dipilih melalui teknik purposive sampling. Data dikumpulkan melalui kuesioner motivasi belajar dan lembar observasi keterlibatan siswa. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan adanya peningkatan skor motivasi belajar dari rata-rata 63,89 pada Siklus I menjadi 68,69 pada Siklus II. Setiap tindakan berhasil meningkatkan keterlibatan dan kesadaran diri siswa dalam proses belajar. Pendekatan gamifikasi berbasis Self-Determination Theory (SDT) ini efektif memenuhi kebutuhan psikologis siswa terhadap otonomi, kompetensi, dan keterhubungan, sehingga meningkatkan motivasi intrinsik. Penelitian ini merekomendasikan penggunaan pendekatan gamifikasi dalam layanan bimbingan klasikal untuk meningkatkan motivasi akademik siswa.
... ChatGPT, developed by OpenAI, is an advanced language model that is being explored as a potential tool for enhancing student motivation in educational contexts. According to Self-Determination Theory (SDT), three basic psychological needs-autonomy, competence, and relatedness-play a crucial role in influencing individuals' motivation to learn (Legault, 2017). ...
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Artificial intelligence has rapidly entered contemporary society, influencing individuals across all age groups and integrated into various fields, including language teaching. However, this rapid adoption has raised concerns among both educators and researchers. This study was designed to address these concerns by providing empirical evidence. The primary objective was to examine the impact of ChatGPT on student motivation in foreign language learning and to identify its advantages and disadvantages in classroom settings. A mixed-method approach was employed, incorporating both quantitative and qualitative data collection. The study aimed to answer the following questions: “What is the effect of ChatGPT on student motivation in foreign language teaching?” and “How are students’ experiences and perceptions regarding the advantages and disadvantages of ChatGPT in language learning?” The findings indicate that ChatGPT-based classroom activities positively influenced student motivation, with its benefits outweighing its limitations. The most frequently cited advantages included grammatical error correction, vocabulary learning, translation assistance, fast performance, and providing accurate and consistent responses. However, drawbacks, such as occasional repetition, internet dependency, incorrect responses, and the lack of human-like interaction, were also identified. While internet dependency remains a challenge, proper guidance from educators can mitigate other limitations. The recent emergence of ChatGPT has prompted extensive discussions across disciplines. As research on its advantages and drawbacks expands, this study contributes to the discourse on the comprehension and pedagogical application of artificial intelligence in language education.
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Purpose: This study sought to investigate the feasibility and acceptability of "AKBAY," a self-help mobile application for young people with moderate symptoms of depression and anxiety. Design/methodology/approach: A pilot study was conducted, recruiting 31 university students aged 18-25 from their classes. The primary outcomes (depressive symptoms and anxiety) were measured through PHQ-9 and GAD-7, respectively, at pre-intervention and post-intervention (eight weeks after the pre-intervention). The feasibility of the mobile app was assessed through Wilcoxon signed-rank tests. Findings: The results demonstrate a significant reduction in both depressive symptoms and symptoms of anxiety following the use of the AKBAY self-help mobile app. Also, qualitative feedback and through MARS indicated a high level of acceptability for the app and reported increased personal and emotional insights. This pilot study provides preliminary evidence supporting the feasibility and acceptability of the AKBAY mobile app as an intervention for university students experiencing moderate symptoms of depression and anxiety. Originality/value: This study provided mental health resources and support in an innovative method of addressing mental health concerns of Filipino university students, mainly where access to traditional mental health services is limited.
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This study explores the factors influencing the motivation of Indian students in professional courses regarding skill acquisition and personal growth, using a predictive analytics framework with artificial neural networks (ANNs). It examines the relationship between student motivation and the significance of skill acquisition, focusing on career aspirations, societal pressures, personal interests, and educational goals. Through both descriptive and inferential statistical methods, such as correlation analysis and regression modeling, the study identifies key predictors of student satisfaction. The Multilayer Perceptron (MLP) neural network model, powered by TensorFlow, demonstrates its effectiveness in predicting motivation for skill acquisition and personal growth. The findings highlight the critical role of intrinsic motivation, self-confidence, career relevance, and institutional support in enhancing student satisfaction and success. The results have practical implications for educational practices and policies.
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The crisis in value education in sport is increasingly evident, with many athletes prioritizing winning over the application of Olympic values. The paradigm shift from merely pursuing “sporting results” to “growing social impact” is the basis for understanding the importance of sport as a means of social development and improving the quality of life of the community. This research offers a new approach by integrating an Olympic Movement-based pencak silat training model, so that fighters/athletes gain a more comprehensive understanding of Olympic Movement values. This study used an experimental method with 45 participants divided into three groups: 15 participants in the Olympic Movement-based pencak silat training block method group, 15 participants in the random method group, and 15 participants in the control group. The instrument used was the Olympic Movement Instrument (OMI). The results showed a difference in the effect on the understanding of Olympic Movement values in each group. The group that practiced using the Olympic Movement-based model with block and random methods showed better results than the group that did not use the model. In conclusion, the Olympic Movement based pencak silat model that emphasizes the values of respect, friendship, and excellence with a deliberate structure has proven effective in improving understanding of Olympic Movement values and shaping the character of fighters. This model is considered feasible to use in athlete development
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Purpose Despite the prevalence of tobacco use, Egypt lacked smoking cessation treatments to combat the nation’s rising smoking population and studies on smoking cessation were limited in the majority of low- and middle-income countries. This study aims to examine the impact of Cultural Capital and Self-determination Theory on smoking cessation behaviour. Design/methodology/approach This study adopted a quantitative research approach to test the conceptual framework. Data were collected using two sampling methods: a random sample in the first phase followed by a snowball strategy. A total of 569 ex-smokers who had successfully stopped smoking completed self-administered questionnaires. Structural equation modelling was adopted for the data analysis. Findings The findings of this study indicate that the accumulation of Cultural Capital could serve as an independent cause for successful smoking cessation behaviour in Egypt. Practical implications Egypt should invest in cultural activities and educational establishments, which not only help its smoking population acquire new skills but also contribute to successful and sustained smoking cessation. Originality/value To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study to expand Self-determination Theory and combine Cultural Capital to understand successful smoking cessation behaviour. While most studies focused on current smokers and intentions to quit, this study assessed ex-smokers who had successfully ceased smoking. It confirmed that Cultural Capital alone could contribute to behavioural and sustained behavioural change.
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The rise of social media has led to a substantial change in the tourism industry. Nowadays, the inputs presented by social media influencers play an integral part in the consumer behavior of tourists around the world. This study uses self-determination theory, along with emotional perceptions and utilitarian perceptions, to account for changes in consumer behavior. Data from 261 Chinese tourists was collected to understand the impact of engagement between social media influencers and overseas tourists on travel decision-making. Furthermore, a structural equation modeling was used to reach conclusions, whereas the snowball sampling technique was used to determine the sample population. Research shows that emotional perceptions and utilitarian perceptions influence interactions with travel influencers, this association also has a significant positive effect on the behavioral intentions of tourists from China. Overall, the findings provide very useful implications for travel companies to leverage the power of travel influencers in recommending new destinations.
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The present study investigated whether satisfaction and frustration of the psychological needs for autonomy, relatedness, and competence, as identified within Basic Psychological Need Theory (BPNT; Deci and Ryan, Psychol Inquiry 11:227-268, 2000; Ryan and Deci, Psychol Inquiry 11:319-338, 2000), contributes to participants' well-being and ill-being, regardless of their cultural background and interpersonal differences in need strength, as indexed by either need valuation (i.e., the stated importance of the need to the person) or need desire (i.e., the desire to get a need met). In Study 1, involving late adolescents from Belgium and China (total N = 685; Mean age = 17 years), autonomy and competence satisfaction had unique associations with well-being and individual differences in need valuation did not moderate these associations. Study 2 involved participants from four culturally diverse nations (Belgium, China, USA, and Peru; total N = 1,051; Mean age = 20 years). Results provided evidence for the measurement equivalence of an adapted scale tapping into both need satisfaction and need frustration. Satisfaction of each of the three needs was found to contribute uniquely to the prediction of well-being, whereas frustration of each of the three needs contributed uniquely to the prediction of ill-being. Consistent with Study 1, the effects of need satisfaction and need frustration were found to be equivalent across the four countries and were not moderated by individual differences in the desire for need satisfaction. These findings underscore BPNT's universality claim, which states that the satisfaction of basic needs for autonomy, relatedness, and competence represent essential nutrients for optimal functioning across cultures and across individual differences in need strength.
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Changes in motivation anticipate changes in engagement, but the present study tested the reciprocal relation that changes in students’ classroom engagement lead to corresponding longitudinal changes in their classroom motivation. Achievement scores and multiple measures of students’ course-specific motivation (psychological need satisfaction, self-efficacy, and mastery goals) and engagement (behavioral, emotional, cognitive, and agentic aspects) were collected from 313 (213 females, 100 males) Korean high school students using a 3-wave longitudinal research design. Two key findings emerged from a multilevel structural equation modeling analysis: (a) Students’ initial classroom engagement predicted corresponding longitudinal changes in all 3 midsemester motivations, and (b) early semester changes in engagement predicted corresponding longitudinal changes in end-of-semester psychological need satisfaction and self-efficacy, but not mastery goals. Changes in engagement also predicted course achievement. These findings reveal the underappreciated benefits that high-quality classroom engagement contributes to the understanding, prediction, and potential facilitation of constructive changes in students’ in-course motivation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved)
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Il revient aux organisations de trouver des moyens de soutenir leurs employés et de les aider à réaliser leur plein potentiel; elles doivent leur fournir les conditions qui favoriseront leur santé psychologique. Fondé sur une série d'études réalisées par Claude Fernet (Ph. D.), lauréat en 2012 du Prix du nouveau chercheur de la SCP, cet article explique le rôle de motivation au travail dans la santé psychologique des employés en vue d'améliorer la compréhension des facteurs en jeu. Plus précisément, ces études décrivent en quoi les multiples dimensions et fonctions de la motivation au travail peuvent expliquer l'adaptation des employés à leur environnement de travail ainsi que leur santé psychologique. Des pistes pour les recherches à venir sont aussi proposées.
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Using self-determination theory as a guiding framework, this study examined whether perceptions of God as autonomy supportive and controlling were related to individuals' belief in a transcendent reality and to their social-cognitive style of approaching religious contents (i.e., literal and rigid vs. symbolic and flexible). Further, we examined whether individuals' motives for religious behavior (i.e., autonomous vs. controlled) would mediate these associations. In a sample of 267 religiously active participants, we found that the two types of perceptions of God were positively related to belief in transcendence but were differentially related to a symbolic approach. Specifically, a perception of God as autonomy supportive related positively and a perception of God as controlling related negatively to a symbolic approach. Some evidence was obtained for a mediating role of motives for religious behavior in these associations. Discussion focuses on how self-determination theory can contribute to research on the psychology of religion.
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The importance of autonomous motivation in improving self-regulation has been a focal topic of motivation research for almost 3 decades. Despite this extensive research, however, there has not yet been a mechanistic account of how autonomous motivation works to boost self-regulatory functioning. To address this issue, we examined the role of autonomy in 2 basic self-regulation tasks while recording a neural signal of self-regulation failure (i.e., the error-related negativity; ERN). Based on the notion that autonomy improves self-regulation, we anticipated that autonomous motivation would enhance neuroaffective responsiveness to self-regulatory failure and thus improve performance relative to controlled motivation. In Study 1 (N = 43), we found that trait autonomy was positively associated with self-regulatory performance and that this effect was mediated by increased brain-based sensitivity to self-regulation failure, as demonstrated by a larger ERN. Study 2 (N = 55) replicated and extended this pattern using an experimental manipulation of autonomy; when autonomous motivation was contextually supported, task performance increased relative to those for whom autonomy was undermined and those in a neutral condition. In addition, this effect was mediated by both increased perceptions of autonomy and larger ERN amplitudes. These findings offer deeper insight into the links among motivational orientation, brain-based performance monitoring, and self-regulation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).
Chapter
Establishing and maintaining close relationships are among the most important and autonomously pursued aspects of people’s lives. This chapter reviews the motivational dynamics of close relationships using Relationships Motivation Theory (RMT), a mini-theory within Self-Determination Theory. RMT posits a basic psychological need for relatedness that mobilizes people to pursue relationships, yet not all relationships are of high quality and satisfy the relatedness need. Even among warm relationships only those in which both partners experience autonomy and provide autonomy support to the other are deeply satisfying of the need for relatedness and are experienced as being of high quality. In contrast, control, objectification, and contingent regard thwart not only the autonomy need but also the relatedness need resulting in poor quality relationships. Need supports predict better dyadic functioning, more trust and volitional reliance, and greater wellness, and mutuality of need supports yields the most positive relationship outcomes.
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The duration and quality of human performance depend on both intrinsic motivation and external incentives. However, little is known about the neuroscientific basis of this interplay between internal and external motivators. Here, we used functional magnetic resonance imaging to examine the neural substrates of intrinsic motivation, operationalized as the free-choice time spent on a task when this was not required, and tested the neural and behavioral effects of external reward on intrinsic motivation. We found that increased duration of free-choice time was predicted by generally diminished neural responses in regions associated with cognitive and affective regulation. By comparison, the possibility of additional reward improved task accuracy, and specifically increased neural and behavioral responses following errors. Those individuals with the smallest neural responses associated with intrinsic motivation exhibited the greatest error-related neural enhancement under the external contingency of possible reward. Together, these data suggest that human performance is guided by a “tonic” and “phasic” relationship between the neural substrates of intrinsic motivation (tonic) and the impact of external incentives (phasic). Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.3758/s13415-014-0324-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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A growing interest in the functional importance of dispositional autonomy led to the development and validation of the Index of Autonomous Functioning (IAF) across seven studies. The IAF provides a measure of trait autonomy based on three theoretically derived subscales assessing authorship/self-congruence, interest-taking, and low susceptibility to control. Results showed consistency within and across subscales, and appropriate placement within a nomological network of constructs. Diary studies demonstrated IAF relations with higher well-being, greater daily satisfaction of basic psychological needs, and more autonomous engagement in daily activities. Using an experimental approach, the IAF was shown to predict more positive interactions among dyads. The studies provided a systematic development and validation of a measure of autonomy that is brief and reliable.
Article
Empirical research and organismic theories suggest that lower well-being is associated with having extrinsic goals focused on rewards or praise relatively central to one's personality in comparison to intrinsic goals congruent with inherent growth tendencies. In a sample of adult subjects (Study 1), the relative importance and efficacy of extrinsic aspirations for financial success, an appealing appearance, and social recognition were associated with lower vitality and self-actualization and more physical symptoms. Conversely, the relative importance and efficacy of intrinsic aspirations for self-acceptance, affiliation, community feeling, and physical health were associated with higher well-being and less distress. Study 2 replicated these findings in a college sample and extended them to measures of narcissism and daily affect. Three reasons are discussed as to why extrinsic aspirations relate negatively to well-being, and future research directions are suggested.