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Abstract

Code-switching in situations of language contact has been studied largely from the point of view of its social determinants. This paper will propose formal means for describing the syntax of code-switching with examples from Puerto Rican Spanish and English
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... 2.5.1.1. Poplack's (1980Poplack's ( , 1981 Constraints Poplack (1980Poplack ( , 1981 and Sankoff and Poplack (1981) advanced a theory which introduces two constraints known as the Equivalence Constraint and the Free Morpheme Constraint. The former predicts that codes will tend to be switched at points where the surface structures of the languages map onto each other. ...
... 2.5.1.1. Poplack's (1980Poplack's ( , 1981 Constraints Poplack (1980Poplack ( , 1981 and Sankoff and Poplack (1981) advanced a theory which introduces two constraints known as the Equivalence Constraint and the Free Morpheme Constraint. The former predicts that codes will tend to be switched at points where the surface structures of the languages map onto each other. ...
... 2.5.1.1. Poplack's (1980Poplack's ( , 1981 Constraints Poplack (1980Poplack ( , 1981 and Sankoff and Poplack (1981) advanced a theory which introduces two constraints known as the Equivalence Constraint and the Free Morpheme Constraint. The former predicts that codes will tend to be switched at points where the surface structures of the languages map onto each other. ...
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This study investigates whether grammatical models of code-switching grounded in informal, linguist-generated judgments hold up when tested against formal acceptability ratings from bilingual speakers with varying second language (L2) proficiencies. Specifically, it evaluates the Functional Parameter Constraint (FPC), a syntactic model that predicts code-switching must preserve the hierarchical structure of functional heads. To test the FPC’s generalizability beyond fluent bilinguals, 36 Moroccan Arabic–French bilinguals ( split into high and low L2 proficiency groups—rated the acceptability of 23 constructed sentences, some adhering to the FPC and others violating it. Ratings were collected using a three-point scale, then analyzed quantitatively through match-rate comparisons and two-proportion z-tests, followed by a qualitative interpretation of the results. The results reveal that high-proficiency speakers aligned more closely with FPC predictions than low-proficiency speakers, but that neither group fully conformed to the model. In several cases, low-proficiency speakers produced acceptability patterns that contradicted the FPC, and even high-proficiency ratings diverged from those recorded in previous naturalistic corpora. These discrepancies suggest that grammatical judgments are influenced not only by linguistic structure but also by speaker proficiency and the elicitation method used. These findings challenge the assumption that code-switching constraints derived from fluent speakers can be applied universally. They underscore the importance of formal, experimentally controlled methods in bilingual syntax research and support the adoption of gradient models that account for speaker variability. The study contributes to refining grammatical theories of code-switching and highlights the need to incorporate L2 proficiency and methodological rigor into their formulation.
... In Poplack's (1980), Sankoff and Poplack's (1981) seminal works on code-switching, two important constraints on mixed combinations are formulated: the Free Morpheme constraint, which assumes that the switch may not occur below word level, and the Equivalence constraint, which states that the order of sentence constituents on both sides of the switch point must be grammatical with respect to both languages involved. ...
... As for the first, as stated in the Introduction, compounds are treated by morphology as complex words, hence mixed compounds would represent a peculiar case of CS below word level, a possibility which is generally disallowed by the theory. Actually, Sankoff and Poplack's (1981) Free Morpheme Constraint mainly rules out the switching between two bound morphemes, or between a free root and a bound inflectional morpheme. Compounds, thus, would represent a different case of switching below word level, as they are generally formed out of the combination of two free roots. ...
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This pilot work analyses the acceptability of mixed compound words in code-switching contexts. In particular, we will discuss mixed Italian-German and Italian-English compounds, i.e. cases of mixing among languages where the process of compounding follows different rules for what concerns the position of the head, as well as inflection issues. An Acceptability Judgment Task featuring different types of mixed compounds has been administered to two groups of participants, who are either bilingual or highly fluent in the two languages involved (Italian-German or Italian-English). Our conclusion is that it is overall possible to have mixed compounds. However, the two groups provide different judgments. For the Italian-German language pair, the possibility of mixed compounds is severely constrained, especially because of the different head-modifier parameters exhibited by the two languages and the interference of gender inflection. Though the English language patterns with German with regard to the head-modifier parameter, Italian-English participants accept a much higher number of combinations; indeed the fact that both Italian and English exhibit exocentric compounds, and that gender features do not interfere with judgments, might favour acceptability.
... Many of the researchers, such as Poplack, Sankoff, Halmari whose work was connected with the notion of "code switching" were interested in syntactic or morphosyntactic aspects of this linguistic phenomenon (Poplack, 1980;Sankoff, & Poplack, 1981;. Alternatively, studies of language acquisition in young children, second language acquisition widely operate the term code-switching in the context of language usage analysis in bilingual individuals, mostly referencing to cognitive linguistic abilities are as a description learning practices centered around using more than one language in the classroom environment (Salzmann, Cenoz & Genesee, 2000) One of the most prominent linguistic research in the sphere of code-switching was conducted by Zhluktenko Yu. (Zhluktenko, 1966). ...
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... Evidence for the prominent role of syntax in bilingual language control comes from analyses of bilingual spontaneous speech (Deuchar, 2005;Guzzardo Tamargo et al., 2016;Muysken, 2000;Myers-Scotton, 1992, 2002Poplack, 1980Poplack, , 1981Sankoff & Poplack, 1981;Treffers-Daller, 1999). Patterns of bilingual mixed speech suggest that bilinguals show some systematicity in when and where they choose to switch languages. ...
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This study of Spanish English language contact primarily refers to Myers-Scotton’s models (Markedness model, Matrix Language-Frame model, 4-Morpheme model) with additional reference to other language models and language contact research (Poplack, Sankoff, Pfaff, Lipski, Muysken, and others). In the Markedness model the “unmarked” language is associated with the social norm or the status quo in a given conversation. Choosing to speak a “marked” language marks a shift away from the social norm or the status quo. Code-switching languages in a conversation constitutes different social statements between interlocutors, depending on the markedness of each language in the context of the conversation and in relation to the interlocutors. The Matrix Language-Frame model states that code-switching within a sentence is asymmetrical, that in each sentence using two languages there is a matrix or main language and a subordinate or embedded language. The 4-Morpheme model claims that every language has four basic types of morphemes; content or lexical morphemes such as root words carry the informational content of a sentence and three different types of grammatical or system morphemes accompany content morphemes in order to either add more information to content morphemes such as plural affixes on nouns or verb inflections which link for example subjects and predicates. In a code-switched sentence content morphemes and one type of system morphemes are those embedded from one language into a matrix language sentence of another language. These three models can together help to explain the patterns of code-switching and other forms of language mixing within sentences and conversations.
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