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vuln erab ility faultlines r iots race a nd reli gi on mer itocr acy third wo rld to first th e sin gapor e story apathy activ ism cr iti cal thi nki ng cit izens hip nation-b uild in g
welfare poverty poli tical r eform m ulticu lturalis m cmi o heri tage cosm opoli tanism mig rant wo rkers vu lnera bili ty faultlines ri ots race an d reli gio n meri tocracy
thi rd world to fi rst the singa pore story apathy acti vism cri tical th inkin g citiz enship n ati on-bui lding w elfar e poverty political r eform mu ltic ultu ralism cm io
heri tag e cosm opoli ta nism m igr ant wor kers vuln erabi lity faultli nes ri ots race a nd reli gion m erito cracy thir d world to fi rst the si ngapo re story apat hy activ ism
crit ical thi nki ng citi zensh ip natio n-bui lding w elfa re poverty polit ical refor m multicu ltu ralism c mio h eritage cos mopoli ta nism m igra nt work ers vulnera bility
fau ltlin es riots race an d religi on merito cracy third wor ld to first the sin gapore sto ry a pathy activis m critical t hinki ng citiz enship n ati on-build ing welfare
poverty politi cal refor m multicultura lism cm io her itag e cosmo politani sm mig rant wo rkers vuln erabi lity fau ltli nes riots r ace and r eligio n merito cracy thir d
world to fi rst the si ngapo re story apathy activ ism cr itical t hin kin g citi zensh ip nation-bu ildi ng welfare pov erty political r eform m ulticu ltu ralis m cmio h eritage
cosm opoli ta nism m igr ant wor kers vuln erabi lity faultli nes ri ots race an d relig ion m eritoc racy third wo rld to first th e sin gapore story apath y activis m crit ical
thi nki ng ci tizen shi p natio n-bui ldi ng welfare pov erty politi cal refor m mu lti cultura lism c mio h eritage cosmo politanism mi gra nt wor kers vuln erab ility faultlines
riots race an d religion m eritocracy thi rd world to first th e singapor e story apathy acti vism crit ical thin king citi zenship nation-b uildin g welfar e poverty
politi cal refor m multicultura lism cm io heri tage cosmo politanis m mig rant wor kers vulner abili ty faultlin es riots race a nd reli gion m eritoc racy third wo rld to
first the singa pore story apathy activism criti cal think ing citizensh ip nation-bui lding welfare poverty political reform mu lticultura lism cmio h eritage
cosm opoli ta nism m igr ant wor kers vuln erabi lity faultli nes ri ots race an d relig ion m eritoc racy third wo rld to first th e sin gapore story apath y activis m crit ical
thi nki ng ci tizen shi p natio n-bui ldi ng welfare pov erty politi cal refor m mu lti cultura lism c mio h eritage cosmo politanism mi gra nt wor kers vuln erab ility faultlines
riots race an d religion m eritocracy thi rd world to first th e singapor e story apathy acti vism crit ical thin king citi zenship nation-b uildin g welfar e poverty
politi cal refor m multicultura lism cm io heri tage cosmo politanis m mig rant wor kers vulner abili ty faultlin es riots race a nd reli gion m eritoc racy third wo rld to
first the singa pore story apathy activism criti cal think ing citizensh ip nation-bui lding welfare poverty political reform mu lticultura lism cmio h eritage
cosm opoli ta nism m igr ant wor kers vuln erabi lity faultli nes ri ots race an d relig ion m eritoc racy third wo rld to first th e sin gapore story apath y activis m crit ical
thi nki ng ci tizen shi p natio n-bui ldi ng welfare poverty politi cal refor m mu lti cultura lism c mio h eritage cosmo politanism m igr ant wor kers vuln erab ility faultlin es
riots race an d religion m eritocracy thi rd world to first th e singapor e story apathy acti vism crit ical thin king citi zenship nation-b uildin g welfar e poverty
politi cal refor m multicultura lism cm io heri tage cosmo politanis m mig rant wor kers vulner abili ty faultlin es riots race a nd reli gion m eritoc racy third wo rld to
first the singa pore story apathy activism criti cal think ing citizensh ip nation-bui lding welfare poverty political reform mu lticultura lism cmio h eritage
cosm opoli ta nism m igr ant wor kers vuln erabi lity faultli nes ri ots race an d relig ion m eritoc racy third wo rld to first th e sin gapore story apath y activis m crit ical
thi nki ng ci tizen shi p natio n-bui ldi ng welfare pov erty politi cal refor m mu lti cultura lism c mio h eritage cosmo politanism mi gra nt wor kers vuln erab ility faultlines
riots race an d religion m eritocracy thi rd world to first th e singapor e story apathy acti vism crit ical thin king citi zenship nation-b uildin g welfar e poverty
politi cal refor m multicultura lism cm io heri tage cosmo politanis m mig rant wor kers vulner abili ty faultlin es riots race a nd reli gion m eritoc racy third wo rld to
first the singa pore story apathy activism criti cal think ing citizensh ip nation-bui lding welfare poverty political reform mu lticultura lism cmio h eritage
cosm opoli ta nism m igr ant wor kers vuln erabi lity faultli nes ri ots race an d relig ion m eritoc racy third wo rld to first th e sin gapore story apath y activis m crit ical
thi nki ng ci tizen shi p natio n-bui ldi ng welfare pov erty politi cal refor m mu lti cultura lism c mio h eritage cosmo politanism mi gra nt wor kers vuln erab ility faultlines
riots race an d religion m eritocracy thi rd world to first th e singapor e story apathy acti vism crit ical thin king citi zenship nation-b uildin g welfar e poverty
politi cal refor m multicultura lism cm io heri tage cosmo politanis m mig rant wor kers vulner abili ty faultlin es riots race a nd reli gion m eritoc racy third wo rld to
first the singa pore story apathy activism criti cal think ing citizensh ip nation-bui lding welfare poverty political reform mu lticultura lism cmio h eritage
cosm opoli ta nism m igr ant wor kers vuln erabi lity faultli nes ri ots race an d relig ion m eritoc racy third wo rld to first th e sin gapore story apath y activis m crit ical
thi nki ng ci tizen shi p natio n-bui ldi ng welfare pov erty politi cal refor m mu lti cultura lism c mio h eritage cosmo politanism mi gra nt wor kers vuln erab ility faultlines
riots race an d religion m eritocracy thi rd world to first th e singapor e story apathy acti vism crit ical thin king citi zenship nation-b uildin g welfar e poverty
politi cal refor m multicultura lism cm io heri tage cosmo politanis m mig rant wor kers vulner abili ty faultlin es riots race a nd reli gion m eritoc racy third wo rld to
first the singa pore story apathy activism criti cal think ing citizensh ip nation-bui lding welfare poverty political reform mu lticultura lism cmio h eritage
cosm opoli ta nism m igr ant wor kers vuln erabi lity faultli nes ri ots race an d relig ion m erito cracy thir d world to fi rst the sin gapor e story apat hy activi sm cri tical
thi nki ng ci tizen shi p natio n-bui ldi ng welfare pov erty politi cal refor m mu lti cultura lism c mio h eritage cosmo politanism mi gra nt wor kers vuln erab ility faultlines
riots race an d religion m eritocracy thi rd world to first th e singapor e story apathy acti vism crit ical thin king citi zenship nation-b uildin g welfar e poverty
LIVING WITH
MYTHS IN
SINGAPORE
edited by
Loh Kah Seng, Thum PING TJIN
and Jack MENG-TAT Chia
Living with Myths
in Singapore
edited by
Loh Kah Seng, Thum Ping Tjin
and Jack Meng-Tat Chia
xi
Foreword
is is an exciting book, which I took great pleasure in reading, both as an aca-
demic social scientist, and as a Singaporean who lived through or remembers
much of the empirical terrain it explores.
From the perspective of academic social science, the book is exciting because
it, perhaps belatedly, locates scholarship on Singapore society (on which most
of the chapters are based) rmly within the disciplinary, multidisciplinary and
thematic concerns of global socia l science literatures, thereby contributing to the
‘mainstreaming’ of Singapore studies within academia, enabling its inclusion in
global comparative analyses.
Here one nds rigorous analy tical engagement with themes such as colonial-
ism and post-colonialism; the intersection of race, religion, gender, class, and
migration with public policy; and the agency of otherwise ignored or forgotten
groups in social activism past and present. Each of the essays subtends a mostly
local literature documenting and interpreting historical and current events
from multiple perspectives, providing the diversity and pluralism of thought
that characterises a vibrant and mature scholarly eld.
e book’s publication alone will counter prevailing stereotypes of scholar-
ship on Singapore society as being one-dimensional, hewing only to ocially
sanctioned narratives, and thus reecting a ‘sterile’ or limited intellectual
environment. It is heartening to learn from it that there are so many commit-
ted scholars, researchers, artists, intellectuals, and activists working to produce
a holistic picture of the Singapore ‘national’ experience from the colonial to
contemporary eras – all communicated in relatively brief, but well-argued and
substantiated, essays that are generally free of academic jargon and thus acces-
sible to the general reader.
As a Singaporean who grew up in the late-colonial and early-independence
years, and has studied the country’s economic development ever since, I particu-
larly appreciate the opportunity to revisit and re-examine faintly-remembered
historical incidents and discourses on public policies as they were being made.
While the framing of these essays as a challenge to national myths gives them
a collective coherence, there is no attempt to impose a uniform “alternative”
interpretation on these events, and one does not have to accept every myth-
deconstruction presented here to appreciate the depth that diversity brings to our
collective history and current struggles with national and subnational identities
in a rapidly changing territorial space.
xii Living with My ths in Singapore
Indeed, the interrogation of national myths in this volume enhances the
potentially atomised or homogenised individual’s sense of belonging to an
otherwise fragmented place, while the challenging of authorised versions of his-
tory and policy determinism encourages the dierent-thinking and risk-taking
that are essential for our economic survival going forward. It is reassuring to
know that segments of our citizenry have always exhibited such courage and
innovation, and still do.
Linda Y.C. Lim, PhD
Professor of Strategy
Stephen M. Ross School of Business
e University of Michigan
xiii
Preface
is book started o as a critique that evolved into a conversation. It originated
in a series of 10 seminar talks, also called ‘Living with Myths’, held in Singapore
between July 2014 and August 2015.1 Part of the motivation for the talks lay in
two of the editors – Loh Kah Seng and um Ping Tjin (PJ) – taking issue with
the one-sided and factually inaccurate depiction of the 1955 Hock Lee Bus riots
in an episode of the Channel NewsAsia (CNA) documentary series, Days of Rage,
which aired in January 2014 as part of the early celebrations for SG50.2
e theme of rage – the mindless and dangerous anger of workers and
students allegedly manipulated by the communists – is an o-cited example
of the vulnerability of Singapore, and one of the central myths tackled in the
seminar series and in this book. Historians Kah Seng, who was interviewed
for the CNA documentary, and PJ responded with an op-ed. on the Hock Lee
Bus strike, published in e Online Citizen. ey argued that instead of being a
time of political subversion and disorder, the 1950s ought to be seen as a period
of hope, which was expressed in organised labour’s struggle for liveable wages
and improved working conditions, as well as in Singapore’s optimism about its
political future as an independent, multicultural and socially just nation, as
part of Malaya.3 is was an upliing story of the hopeful activism of People’s
Action Party (PAP) and the people of Singapore, a history that has been buried
beneath the myth of communist subversion.
Kah Seng and PJ also roped in another historian, Jack Chia, to organise a
series of talks to examine myths of Singapore history and society like the Hock
Lee riots. Jack saw the project as a way to broaden perspectives of Singapore his-
tory beyond political and economic narratives. We then got in touch with Tan
Dan Feng, who has been interested in interrogating the ‘conventional wisdoms’
in Singapore, such as it being a ‘shing village’ before the advent of PAP rule.
As the editors were oen based overseas in their work and studies, Dan helped
to organise the talks.
e volume is thus a culmination of these things – part critique of the myths
of history and policy, and part optimism about the future of Singapore. e
book, like the talks, would contain relatively short think pieces. ey would be
free of academic jargon and would be accessible to the general reader. e book
was also from the start a collaboration between academics, the arts community,
civil society, public intellectuals, and the general public. e academics have
had to think about speaking and writing for a wider, non-academic audience,
xiv Living with Myths in Singapore
who would also have to look for relevance and resonance in academic research
and scholarship.
e Living with Myths talks were almost always fully attended, warmly
appreciated and yet sometimes ercely contended. A few participants asked,
were there really ‘myths’ – or outright ctions – of Singapore, or by talking
about them, were the speakers in eect creating their own myths? ese ques-
tions helped us to dene the shape of this book as we worked with the speakers
to turn their talks into chapters.
On the note of collaboration, the editors are deeply thankful to venue pro-
viders from the arts community which hosted the Living with Myths talks at
no charge, namely, S. Prashant and Artistry; Jennifer Teo, Woon Tien Wei and
Post-PopUp; Tay Tong and eatreWorks; Teo Eng Seng and Muse House; and
Ute Meta Bauer, Magdalena Magiera and the NTU Centre for Contemporary
Arts. We are also proud to have been aliated with and supported by Project
50/100 which, in the 50th year of Singapore’s independence, also sought to
uncover alternative perspectives and stories.
We also wish to express our gratitude to the moderators of the talks, namely,
Kwok Kian Woon, Constance Singam, Braema Mathi, Nazry Bahrawi, Yu-mei
Balasingamchow, Kevin Y.L. Tan, Kenneth Paul Tan, Ong Chang Woei, and
Sangeetha anapal. In working on the seminars and book, we are grateful
for the assistance of various individuals, such as Stephanie Chok, Lee Min
Lin, Isrizal Mohamed Isa, Sudhir omas Vadaketh, Jason Soo, and Terry Xu
and e Online Citizen. We would like to thank speakers for the seminars who
unfortunately could not contribute to the book, namely, Hong Lysa, Imran
Tajudeen, Jason Lim, Koh Keng We, Chua Beng Huat, C.J. Wee Wan-ling, Sonny
Liew, and Huang Jianli.
Finally, we are indebted to Dan, Wong Zi Jia and Martina Yeo for helping
to organise the talks, to Bayu Nugroho for preparing the manuscript, and to
Fong Hoe Fang and Ethos Books for editing and publishing the volume. May
conversations on Singapore continue.
e editors
October 2016
e Merlion and Me
Mya Gosling
Foreword
Preface
Introduction: Singapore as a Mythic Nation
Loh Kah Seng, um Ping Tjin & Jack Meng-Tat Chia
e Singapore Story
Justifying Colonial Rule in Post-Colonial Singapore: e Myths
of Vulnerability, Development, and Meritocracy
um Ping Tjin
e Myth that a Singular Historical Narrative Moulds Good
Citizens
Mark Baildon & Suhaimi Afandi
e ‘Myth’ of Singaporeanness: Values and Identity in Citizenship
Education
Christine Han
Demythologising Singaporean Literature
Gwee Li Sui
e Myth of Singapore as a Global Media Hub
Terence Lee
ird World to First
Questioning ‘From ird World to First’
Philip Holden
Table of Contents
vi
xi
xiii
1
15
29
41
53
61
75
Social Welfare in Singapore: Myth and History
Ho Chi Tim
‘How I wished that it could have worked’: James Puthucheary’s
Political-Economic Thought and the Myth of Singapore’s
Developmental Model
Seng Guo-Quan
Have we always said ‘no’ to the casino? Rethinking the Myth of
Progress in Singapore
Lee Kah-Wee
Myths of Innovation and Technology: From Intelligent Island to
Smart Nation
Arthur Chia
Vulnerability and Faultlines
Trade Unions, Decolonisation and the Myth of ‘Anti-Nationalism’
Gareth Curless
Clampdown of the Law Society of Singapore in the 1980s: Myth
& Reality
Teo Soh Lung
Liberalisation in the Face of Existential reat: Contemplating
Political Change in Singapore from Taiwan and South Korea
Ja Ian Chong
Rethinking Race: Beyond the CMIO Categorisations
Laavanya Kathiravelu
Maze and Mineeld: Reections on Multiculturalism in Singapore
Lai Ah Eng
Myths of Heritage in Multicultural Singapore
Wong Chee Meng
85
95
105
115
125
135
147
159
169
181
Cosmopolitanism Disposition: Cultivating Anity Ties
Elaine Lynn-Ee Ho
A Decient People
Myths of Civil Society and its Culture Wars
Liew Kai Khiun
Apathy, or How History is Written by Elites
Loh Kah Seng
Active or Apathetic? e Absence(?) of Student Activism in the
University of Malaya in Singapore
Edgar Liao
Toward a History of Engaged Buddhism in Singapore
Jack Meng-Tat Chia
Poor people don’t like oats either: How Myths about Poverty and
Wealth Matter
Teo You Yenn
Myths About Temporary Migrant Workers and the Depoliticisation
of Migrant Worker Struggles
Charanpal S. Bal
Notes
Contributors
Appendix: Living with Myths Seminar Series
Index
193
203
213
221
229
239
249
263
305
313
319
Introduction
Singapore as a Mythic Nation
Loh Kah Seng, Thum Ping Tjin and Jack Meng-Tat Chia
S
ingapore is a mythic nation. It is mythic in the sense that what Singaporeans
take to be ‘reality’ and ‘common sense’ are in fact shaped by a group of
myths. e popular idea that good, robust government policies are the
main reason for Singapore’s success – and thus should remain mandatory – is
an example of such a myth. is myth astutely combines fact (Singapore is suc-
cessful) and claim (the success is due mostly to government policies) to make a
strong case for the country’s future orientation (the policies should continue).
Myths are compelling in underlining the need for ‘hard truths’ in govern-
ing Singapore, to use the well-known phrase coined by the late former prime
minister Lee Kuan Yew.1 But myths should also be scrutinised within a spirit
of constructive critique and debate, as ambassador-at-large Tommy Koh did in
response to the notion of hard truths in 2011. Koh marshalled facts to argue
that contrary to two of Lee’s claims, Singapore has made substantial progress
in nation-building and that interracial marriages are viable.2 Koh thus revealed
purported hard truths to be myths – truth claims that have a powerful, subtle
inuence, but when unpacked, broaden Singaporeans’ worldviews to more
grounded perspectives and superior possibilities in the future.
As such, while it is tempting to do so, this book is not all about myth-busting.
It is more interested in the role that myths play in everyday life. e word ‘myth’
is commonly used to refer to a falsehood that is widely believed. Part of the
book does discuss the truth claims that myths make, but more importantly
it explores the deeper sense of the term. It is not so much that myths are half-
truths – although they oen are – but rather that they are widely held. On this
point, the volume addresses three questions:
What are myths?
Why talk about myths?
Does Singapore need (new) myths?
2Living with Myths in Singapore
is book examines why and how myths in Singapore have the mysterious abil-
ity to explain dicult issues and allay anxieties about the future. It considers
the social implications of myths, and also dierent ways of interpreting history
and society.
What are Myths?
To better understand Singapore as a mythic nation, the book turns to literary
critic Roland Barthes’ classic work, Mythologies, as a starting point. e dening
quality of myths, Barthes writes, is ‘the “naturalness” which common sense, the
press, and the arts continually invoke to dress up a reality which, through the
one we live in, is nevertheless quite historical’.3 Barthes distinguishes between
history and nature: myths ‘dress up’ and render what is historical (that is, man-
made) into something that appears natural.
e importance of talking about myths and hard truths is to take away their
naturalness and reveal them to be man-made. Myths are social artefacts, con-
structed by institutions such as state agencies and the mass media. Unpacking
myths thus tells us why they were created and their social eects. e book
aims to destabilise the accepted sense of Singapore’s history; instead it looks
for histories based on rigorous research, which are oen messy, lled with gray
areas and open to diering interpretations. Common sense is revealed to be
complex and multi-layered, which jolts us out of the comfort zone to which
myths have taken us.
e basis of the mythic nation is the version of history Singaporeans are
commonly told, called ‘e Singapore Story’. e term, as most people know, is
also the title of Lee Kuan Yew’s memoirs.4 A year before the rst volume of the
memoirs was published in 1998, Deputy Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong used
the term to highlight the dierence between history and myth at the launch of
the National Education programme in schools:
The Singapore Stor y is based on historical f acts. We are not talking abo ut an idealised
legendary account or a founding myth [but rather] objective history, seen from a
Singaporean standpoint.5
But although Lee sought to distinguish between history and myth – one is factual,
the other is not – e Singapore Story is plainly mythical. It contains a heroic
arc which conjoins the past, present and future, while also conating the nation
3Living with Myths in Singapore
with its political leaders. In his chapter in this volume, Philip Holden terms such
a story a ‘romance’ – a story of a hero on an epic quest that he can never quite
complete. e Singapore Story may be likened to a romance.
As a romantic narrative, e Singapore Story emphasises how dicult and
tumultuous the nation’s recent history was. is point is underpinned by the
monumental crises the country faced: from the trauma of the Japanese occu-
pation, political struggles with dangerous communists and racial chauvinists
in the 1950s and 1960s to Singapore’s ejection from Malaysia to become an
imperilled infant nation in 1965.6 e narrative is also closely written around a
few remarkable ‘men in white’,7 namely, the founding members of the People’s
Action Party (PAP) who led the country out of the crises to become the global
city-state it is today – the heroes on the epic quest. Yet, the leaders’ success is
never complete and their struggles to build the nation continue.
e Singapore Story thus possesses the mythic quality of being able to
explain Singaporeans’ history and identity. Echoing the sentiments of numerous
Singaporeans who mourned Lee Kuan Yew’s passing in 2015, a Facebook user
utilised the narrative template of e Singapore Story:
Indeed we owe much of what we have and enjoy today to this great man for his
conviction to bui ld a nation against all odds and for his f oresight which has helped
Singapore progress from a third world to a rst world island nation.8
‘From ird World to First’ is the title of the second volume of Lee’s memoirs.9
As a self-arming catchphrase for Singapore’s post-1965 history, it is another
of the nation’s mythologies.
Both e Singapore Story and ‘ird World to First’ are myths because they
do not merely narrate the nation’s history, but are also signposts to the future.
Both myths underline Singapore’s hard truths, the dicult but necessary policies
to maintain the success: good governance by far-sighted men and zero tolerance
for disruptive forces that can come from anywhere. In this sense, e Singapore
Story and ‘ird World to First’ are also ideological in the sense of shaping the
values, decisions and actions of Singaporeans.
e Singapore Story is a myth not because it is false – some of the claims are
debatable though evidence also exists to support it – but because it is a compel-
ling story that has become common sense. Historians may oer other plausible
perspectives or interpretations of the past based on research: that experiences of
Japanese rule diered by racial group, that the communist threat is overstated,
4Living with Myths in Singapore
and that Singapore’s leaders had decided to leave Malaysia.10 Yet e Singapore
Story endures: it is reinforced by the iconic image of Lee Kuan Yew’s visible
pain shown on television on 9 August 1965, a day relived nation-wide every
year. Similarly, the National Education programme has school students com-
memorate Racial Harmony Day on 21 July, the rst day of the Malay-Chinese
riots in 1964 when Singapore was part of Malaysia, so that young Singaporeans
will be mindful of the spectre of racial strife.
Why Talk about Myths?
e Singapore Story and ‘ird World to First’ are national myths, and it may be
argued that they both provide a vital basis for the nation. e story of war and
foreign subjugation warns Singaporeans not to take their security lightly, just as
the precedent of racial conict highlights the need to maintain a multicultural
society. Myths strengthen the sense of identity that binds strangers to the nation.
It may also be argued that all nations have myths: the United States for example
celebrates the Fourth of July – the declaration of independence in 1776, which
held that ‘all men are created equal’. Singapore’s myths are not exceptional.
However, while myths nurture the national identity at a general level, specic
myths may be selective and political. As Lee Kah-Wee’s chapter notes, there is
an important dierence between a historical account of the nation and a mythic
narrative that forties the moral authority of the state. History can provide
inconvenient evidence against the myth. Howard Zinn’s bestselling work of
history from below, A People’s History of the United States, makes a devastating
critique of the American mythology by revealing how the immigrant settlers
from Europe had colonised, pillaged and destroyed indigenous communities.11
In this view, the idea of the United States being a bastion of freedom and liberal
democracy is a myth. For Zinn, the myth is harmful: it is not a mere academic
issue but one that continues to legitimate American imperialism against other
nations in the present day.
Singapore’s myths, while not so impactful on a global scale, also have social
shortcomings and ramications. With regard to Racial Harmony Day, the
apparent eort to understand other communities does not usually go beyond
traditional dress and customs, and students are not encouraged to explore the
political, economic and historical aspects of interracial relations. e 1964 riots
are in fact used as evidence that issues of race and religion are too sensitive to
be publicly discussed.12 But because it is based on a negative reading of racial
5Living with Myths in Singapore
relations, Singapore’s multiculturalism is ultimately shallow and weak. At best,
state-sanctioned rituals like Racial Harmony Day promote racial tolerance, rather
than empathy or understanding. At worst, the ocial policy is problematic,
contradictory and outdated. Classifying people into races is not ‘natural’ but a
continuation of British colonia l policy to divide and rule disparate communities.
Singapore’s rigid system of racial categories (Chinese, Malays, Indians, Others)
may weaken the sense of a nation, which as Benedict Anderson aptly surmised,
is an ‘imagined community’ of strangers.13
e volume looks critically at Singapore’s myths in order to explore missing
yet much needed sides of the national community and identity. Singapore is a
development-slanted state, led by an authoritarian government xated with
material progress and social consensus. Success is thus narrowly dened. As
the myths have contributed to the Singaporean national character, the book
attempts to uncover facets of history, politics, society, and culture that have
been neglected or excluded from the dominant narrative. It seeks diverse narra-
tives in addition to e Singapore Story, which is only one of many. By focusing
on myths, the book aims to commence a conversation on how Singapore may
become a more open and inclusive nation – the sort of community and identity
that Singaporeans should aspire to.
Do We Need (New) Myths?
While Barthes was chiey interested in how myths are made, this book goes
further to discuss what we should do with them. Can myths be useful? Would
replacing e Singapore Story with Singapore stories remove the mythologies,
or simply produce new ones? At a general level, myths do play a useful role in
providing a basis for the national identity, so it may be a matter of critiquing
the existing myths and nding superior ones. But it is also possible that it is in
the nature of myths to misinform and mislead. Myths, it may be argued, lull
the mind, instead of being curious and self-reexive, into accepting easy, self-
arming perspectives. As long as myths exist, we put ourselves at risk of being
seduced and manipulated by them. e solution, in this reasoning, is total
nihilism and iconoclasm.
A related criticism is that the act of talking about myths is potentially self-
defeating, as it will inevitably produce new myths. In a recent essay on the Liv ing
with Myths seminar talks, political scientist Kenneth Paul Tan warned that ‘any
eort to rewrite history, even if solidly based on factual evidence and academic
6Living with Myths in Singapore
protocols, will nd it hard not to be itself part of a myth-(re)making exercise’. Tan
concluded that ‘“Living With Myths” succeeded in bringing together a healthy
diversity of perspectives’ by including arguments for and against mythology.14
Tan makes a good point about diversity, and this book continues to present vari-
ous approaches to myths from the seminar series. But he does not delve deeper
into whether ‘myth remaking’ will be inevitable or problematic; he assumes it
will be. His view that myths come into existence simply by talking about them
diers from Barthes’ theory of myths, which are purposefully manufactured
and imposed onto society.
e book does not oer a simple answer to this question. e impetus behind
the Living with Myths project was to raise questions about myths rst and
grapple with them as deeply as possible. At the same time, the organisers were
not satised with merely deconstructing the myths and then vacating the eld.
ey wanted to nd, if possible, some common ground for new ideas that can
form the basis for a more inclusive and democratic Singapore. us, the editors,
when reworking the talks into book chapters, have asked the authors to consider
alternatives to the myths – if not always ‘alternative myths’ – and most of them
have done so with interesting result.
In a real sense, part of the answer also lies in the methodology of the Living
with Myths project: to ask dicult questions and not to accept ‘common sense’
answers. is method is far removed from the processes of myth making. e
Living with Myths seminar series and book, while helmed mostly by academics,
had in mind a general audience and readership. e project’s aim is to promote a
culture of critical thinking and research, where people would debate widely held
beliefs and conduct sound historical work. What is as crucial is that the endeavour
ought not be le to the ‘experts’ (academics) alone, but that Singaporeans have the
capacity, and social obligation, to comment on the myths. e onus is on people
to discuss and reect on social issues, to nd ways to engage productively with
views that dier from their own. e manner of these debates will help decide
if Singapore needs myths, and if so, what these myths would be.
e chapters in this volume have thus not unearthed another big myth to
replace e Singapore Story. Rather, by critiquing various myths, what they do
is to open up multiple imaginaries of the nation, some of which may themselves
become mythologies. Some chapters in the book demonstrate that the present
state of aairs is not the only possible one; viable alternatives existed in the past,
which makes it useful to turn to history as a guide. Other chapters reveal the
7Living with Myths in Singapore
aws, oversimplications and blind spots in prevailing myths, while suggesting
other ways of conceiving and interpreting Singapore.
The Myths in the Book
e book is organised around four major myths. e rst section, ‘e Singapore
Story’, explores various aspects of the idea of Singapore as a mythic nation. e
rst chapter, by um Ping Tjin, traces t he historicity of the idea: it uncovers three
big myths – of vulnerability, meritocracy and development – in contemporary
Singapore, which he argues were inherited from the British colonial government.
e myths, um’s research highlights, demonstrate a fundamental continuity
in Singapore’s governance from the postwar colonial state to the present: that
Singapore is still governed in a colonial manner.
Two chapters in the section examine an important place where e Singapore
Story is constantly naturalised: schools. Reecting on history education, Mark
Baildon and Suhaimi Afandi emphasise the need for students to look beyond
a singular version of history and learn to reconcile with competing narra-
tives. Similarly, Christine Han traces how citizenship education to nurture a
Singaporean identity since independence has focussed on substantive values,
which simply tell students what to do. She suggests, however, that procedural
values can better teach them to grapple rationally with controversial issues and
to agree to disagree.
Related to education is literature and media. Gwee Li Sui uncovers ve com-
monly held myths about Singaporean literature. Most crucial of these is the
nation-building my th, which structures Singapore’s literary history to mirror the
national narrative. Gwee argues that curators and educators must energetically
debate these myths in order to bring clarity to Singaporean literature. Terence
Lee tackles the myth of Singapore as a global media hub. e myth, as the state
narrowly denes it, is based on the economics-driven view of the media as a
lucrative industry, rather than as a community of informed creators and users.
Lee’s discussion asks us to ponder if Singapore can become a global hub if the
media is tightly controlled by the state.
e second section, ‘ird World to First’ – a major narrative arc within e
Singapore Story – unpacks big claims about Singapore’s development. Philip
Holden reveals that the ‘ird World’ was originally not the stigmatised term
used in Lee Kuan Yew’s memoirs, but a hopeful idea key to the global history of
8Living with Myths in Singapore
decolonisation aer the Second World War, of which Singapore was a part. As
Holden points out, the phrase refers to older ideals of socialist redistribution
and equality held by many ird World leaders, including the rst generation
of PAP leaders who were Fabian socialists, like Lee. us the original meaning
of the ‘ird World’ has resonance with critiques of neoliberal economics today,
which express many Singaporeans’ wish to return to some form of the welfare
state prior to the 1980s. at the Singapore government is anti-welfare is a myth
is tackled by Ho Chi Tim, whose chapter charts the history of social welfare aer
the war. Ho’s work may usefully free us to relook the government’s role in social
policy in more open and innovative ways.
e importance of history for understanding Singapore’s development is
highlighted in three other chapters. e rst, by Seng Guo-quan, examines a
remarkable alternative to the PAP model of authoritarian-capitalist development.
Seng excavates the political economic thought of James Puthucheary, a leist
and economist whose arguments for a democratic-socialist form of development
in the early 1960s have been forgotten. In the second of the chapters, Lee Kah-
Wee analyses the government’s contentious decision to build casinos in 2005 by
referring to a similar but unsuccessful proposal in the 1960s. He nds not only
much opposition to the earlier proposal, but also familiar arguments: namely,
that the casino is useful for Singapore’s development, and that the social prob-
lems of gambling can be successfully managed. In the third chapter, concerned
with recent economic history from the 1980s, Arthur Chia looks beyond ashy
slogans of ambitious state mega-projects of innovation and smart technology.
He underlines the need to pay attention to important social and nancial issues,
particularly governance, transparency and public accountability.
Where ‘ird World to First’ concerns economic prowess, the book’s third
section on ‘Vulnerability and Faultlines’ examines the romantic myths that are
inextricably tied to e Singapore Story. e section deals with the myths about
national frailty which warn Singaporeans that success is impermanent, not to
be taken for granted. PAP leaders have frequently highlighted how Singapore is
vulnerable as a small nation without natural resources and susceptible to externa l
threats such as subversion and terrorism. In 1984, Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew
underlined the importance of an authoritarian government by admonishing ‘a
younger generation of Singaporeans who, not having experienced the conicts in
this House in the ‘50s and ‘60s, harbour myths about the role of the opposition’.
15
In this volume, Gareth Curless and Teo Soh Lung narrate the histories of
lewing trade unions in the 1950s and 1960s and the Law Society in the 1980s
9Living with Myths in Singapore
respectively – two elements that have been cast as injurious to national interests.
Curless contends that the labour movement, rather than communist-controlled,
was part of the anti-colonial struggle to improve workers’ well-being, while
the Law Society, Teo argues, was similarly an autonomous organisation that
was committed to social issues. In another chapter, Ian Chong takes a broader
approach to the myth of vulnerability by comparing Singapore with two other
Asian states t hat face existential security threats: South Korea and Taiwan. Chong
nds that these countries had successfully undergone democratisation without
any discernibly adverse eects on their security or economic performance.
Other than political issues, the most frequently cited instances of vulner-
ability are alleged racial and religious faultlines. Despite the ocial policy of
multiculturalism, traumatic memories of the 1950 Maria Hertogh riots and
the 1964 race riots continue to cast a shadow over the management of race and
religion in Singapore. In his 2009 National Day Rally speech, Prime Minister
Lee Hsien Loong recounted in detail a dispute over the use of the void deck
between a Chinese and a Malay family. e matter was satisfactorily resolved
but although he lauded ‘the maturity of Singaporeans who would consider the
greater good’, Lee repeated the injunction that ‘we must appreciate and treasure
our racial and religious harmony. We should not take it for granted’.16 us the
state acquires t he moral mandate, and sole authority, to manage race and religion,
and the ethnic groups continue to exist in a state of separation and latent tension.
Four chapters in the section oer critiques of and alternatives to this ocial
policy. Showing the system that classies Singaporeans into Chinese, Malays,
Indians, and ‘Others’ to be rigid and increasingly dated, Laavanya Kathiravelu
suggests a bottom-up approach, where Singaporeans can freely choose how they
wish to identify themselves. From her ethnographic observations of everyday
life, Lai Ah Eng conceives multiculturalism as both a maze and a mineeld –
complex and dicult to navigate but at the same time, dynamic and an essential
part of being Singaporean. Like Laavanya, Lai shows how multiculturalism on
the ground transcends the state’s narrow policy.
Similarly, Wong Chee Meng unpacks how seven major myths in Singapore’s
multicultural heritage are closely linked to e Singapore Story. He reveals
instead diverse narratives of heritage, including those of rich interactions
between the ethnic groups in the past, while also calling for deeper research to
unearth hidden histories. e notion of organic intercultural ties and networks
is also germane to Elaine Lynn-Ee Ho’s chapter. Ho discusses how the ocial
discourse of Singapore as a cosmopolitan city is inadequate. She proposes that
10 Living with Myths in Singapore
cosmopolitanism should be grounded in the views and aections of the migrants
to Singapore, including both professionals and low-wage workers.
e nal section, ‘A Decient People’, explores how Singapore’s vulnerability
is ultimately deemed to rest on Singaporeans. It is because, in the ocial view, of
the innate nature of Singaporeans – a young people who remain immature and
irrational – that the dangers exist and why the government must take a pater-
nalistic role to discipline the people. In 1980, Lee Kuan Yew declared that what
Malaysian politics in the 1960s taught him was ‘the terrif ying hate and irrational
fears generated by blind prejudices over race, religion, and language’, as manifest
in the race riots. To him, these experiences privileged his interpretation of the
past over academic historians.
17
A generation later, in 2001, Prime Minister Goh
Chok Tong also deemed young Singaporeans as bere of historical knowledge
of the struggles Singapore had surmounted in the past. He lamented that they
were self-interested, lacking the idealism of the older generation to think of the
well-being of the society and nation.18
Various contributors to the book scrutinise these limiting and largely inaccu-
rate characterisations of Singapore society by turning to history. Liew Kai Khiun
ventures into the British colonial period to uncover a vibrant history of social
activism over a wide range of issues – an activism that mirrors the emerging
civil society today. Edgar Liao’s account of student activism at the University of
Malaya in the 1950s and 1960s also highlights how not only were some English-
educated undergraduates involved in national and international politics, they
were able to bridge the language divide and support Chinese student activists.
Moving downwards from civil and intellectual society, Loh Kah Seng traces
the social and political activism of allegedly ‘inert’ kampong dwellers aer the
Second World War, while Jack Chia charts the eorts of socially engaged Buddhist
activists in the 1970s and 1980s. Both Loh and Chia’s research provides further
empirical evidence that, far from being apathetic, ignorant or irrational, two
large groups of Singaporeans in the past were actively aware of, and involved in,
national and social issues, albeit in dierent ways. eir work oers suggestions
for how Singaporeans can move away from the prevailing culture of elitism to
form communities of mutual interest and self-help.
e book closes with a pair of chapters that scrutinise social deciency in
contemporary Singapore. Teo You Yenn questions the myth that underpins the
state’s long-standing policy towards poverty: that Singapore has no real poverty
and inequality is an inevitable ‘externality’ of development. Similarly looking at
the lower strata of society, Charanpal Bal critiques widely held misconceptions
11Living with Myths in Singapore
about low-wage migrant workers, who form the essential but little-protected
labour force for the political economy of ‘rst world’ Singapore. Ba l demonstrates
how state policy and legislation (or lack of) have led to a systemic culture of
exploitation of the workers. As both Teo and Bal argue, these myths need to be
critiqued so that Singapore can deal more adequately with problems relating to
poverty and the abuse of migrant workers.
vuln erab ility fault lines riots rac e and r eligi on m eritoc racy thir d world to fi rst the si ngapo re story apathy acti vis m crit ical th ink ing c itiz ensh ip nation-bui ldi ng
welfare poverty poli tical r eform m ulticu ltu rali sm cm io her itage cos mopo litani sm mi gran t work ers vulner abi lity fault lines r iots rac e and r eligi on m erito cracy
thi rd world to fi rst the singa pore story apathy acti vism cri tical th inkin g citiz enship n ati on-bui lding w elfar e poverty political r eform mu ltic ultu ralism cm io
heri tag e cosm opoli ta nism m igr ant wor kers vuln erabi lity faultli nes ri ots race a nd relig ion m erito cracy thir d world to fi rst the si ngapo re story apat hy activ ism
crit ical thi nki ng citi zensh ip natio n-bui lding w elfa re poverty polit ical refor m multicu ltu ralism c mio h eritage cos mopoli ta nism m igra nt work ers vulnera bility
fau ltlin es riots race an d religi on merito cracy third wor ld to first the sin gapore sto ry a pathy activis m critical t hinki ng citiz enship n ati on-build ing welfare
poverty politi cal refor m multicultura lism cm io her itag e cosmo politani sm mig rant wo rkers vuln erabi lity fau ltli nes riots r ace and r eligio n merito cracy thir d
world to fi rst the si ngapo re story apathy activ ism cr itical t hin kin g citi zensh ip nation-bu ildi ng welfare pov erty political r eform m ulticu ltu ralis m cmio h eritage
cosm opoli ta nism m igr ant wor kers vuln erabi lity faultli nes ri ots race an d relig ion m eritoc racy third wo rld to first th e sin gapore story apath y activis m crit ical
thi nki ng ci tizen shi p natio n-bui ldi ng welfare pov erty politi cal refor m mu lti cultura lism c mio h eritage cosmo politanism mi gra nt wor kers vuln erab ility faultlines
riots race an d religion m eritocracy thi rd world to first th e singapor e story apathy acti vism crit ical thin king citi zenship nation-b uildin g welfar e poverty
politi cal refor m multicultura lism cm io heri tage cosmo politanis m mig rant wor kers vulner abili ty faultlin es riots race a nd reli gion m eritoc racy third wo rld to
first the singa pore story apathy activism criti cal think ing citizensh ip nation-bui lding welfare poverty political reform mu lticultura lism cmio h eritage
cosm opoli ta nism m igr ant wor kers vuln erabi lity faultli nes ri ots race an d relig ion m eritoc racy third wo rld to first th e sin gapore story apath y activis m crit ical
thi nki ng ci tizen shi p natio n-bui ldi ng welfare pov erty politi cal refor m mu lti cultura lism c mio h eritage cosmo politanism mi gra nt wor kers vuln erab ility faultlines
riots race an d religion m eritocracy thi rd world to first th e singapor e story apathy acti vism crit ical thin king citi zenship nation-b uildin g welfar e poverty
politi cal refor m multicultura lism cm io heri tage cosmo politanis m mig rant wor kers vulner abili ty faultlin es riots race a nd reli gion m eritoc racy third wo rld to
first the singa pore story apathy activism criti cal think ing citizensh ip nation-bui lding welfare poverty political reform mu lticultura lism cmio h eritage
cosm opoli ta nism m igr ant wor kers vuln erabi lity faultli nes ri ots race an d relig ion m eritoc racy third wo rld to first th e sin gapore story apath y activis m crit ical
thi nki ng ci tizen shi p natio n-bui ldi ng welfare poverty politi cal refor m mu lti cultura lism c mio h eritage cosmo politanism m igr ant wor kers vuln erab ility faultlin es
riots race an d religion m eritocracy thi rd world to first th e singapor e story apathy acti vism crit ical thin king citi zenship nation-b uildin g welfar e poverty
politi cal refor m multicultura lism cm io heri tage cosmo politanis m mig rant wor kers vulner abili ty faultlin es riots race a nd reli gion m eritoc racy third wo rld to
first the singa pore story apathy activism criti cal think ing citizensh ip nation-bui lding welfare poverty political reform mu lticultura lism cmio h eritage
cosm opoli ta nism m igr ant wor kers vuln erabi lity faultli nes ri ots race an d relig ion m eritoc racy third wo rld to first th e sin gapore story apath y activis m crit ical
thi nki ng ci tizen shi p natio n-bui ldi ng welfare pov erty politi cal refor m mu lti cultura lism c mio h eritage cosmo politanism mi gra nt wor kers vuln erab ility faultlines
riots race an d religion m eritocracy thi rd world to first th e singapor e story apathy acti vism crit ical thin king citi zenship nation-b uildin g welfar e poverty
politi cal refor m multicultura lism cm io heri tage cosmo politanis m mig rant wor kers vulner abili ty faultlin es riots race a nd reli gion m eritoc racy third wo rld to
first the singa pore story apathy activism criti cal think ing citizensh ip nation-bui lding welfare poverty political reform mu lticultura lism cmio h eritage
cosm opoli ta nism m igr ant wor kers vuln erabi lity faultli nes ri ots race an d relig ion m eritoc racy third wo rld to first th e sin gapore story apath y activis m crit ical
thi nki ng ci tizen shi p natio n-bui ldi ng welfare pov erty politi cal refor m mu lti cultura lism c mio h eritage cosmo politanism mi gra nt wor kers vuln erab ility faultlines
riots race an d religion m eritocracy thi rd world to first th e singapor e story apathy acti vism crit ical thin king citi zenship nation-b uildin g welfar e poverty
politi cal refor m multicultura lism cm io heri tage cosmo politanis m mig rant wor kers vulner abili ty faultlin es riots race a nd reli gion m eritoc racy third wo rld to
first the singa pore story apathy activism criti cal think ing citizensh ip nation-bui lding welfare poverty political reform mu lticultura lism cmio h eritage
cosm opoli ta nism m igr ant wor kers vuln erabi lity faultli nes ri ots race an d relig ion m eritoc racy third wo rld to first th e sin gapore story apath y activis m crit ical
thi nki ng ci tizen shi p natio n-bui ldi ng welfare pov erty politi cal refor m mu lti cultura lism c mio h eritage cosmo politanism mi gra nt wor kers vuln erab ility faultlines
riots race an d religion m eritocracy thi rd world to first th e singapor e story apathy acti vism crit ical thin king citi zenship nation-b uildin g welfar e poverty
politi cal refor m multicultura lism cm io heri tage cosmo politanis m mig rant wor kers vulner abili ty faultlin es riots race a nd reli gion m eritoc racy third wo rld to
first the singa pore story apathy activism criti cal think ing citizensh ip nation-bui lding welfare poverty political reform mu lticultura lism cmio h eritage
cosm opoli ta nism m igr ant wor kers vuln erabi lity faultli nes ri ots race an d relig ion m erito cracy thir d world to fi rst the sin gapor e story apat hy activi sm cri tical
thi nki ng ci tizen shi p natio n-bui ldi ng welfare pov erty politi cal refor m mu lti cultura lism c mio h eritage cosmo politanism mi gra nt wor kers vuln erab ility faultlines
riots race an d religion m eritocracy thi rd world to first th e singapor e story apathy acti vism crit ical thin king citi zenship nation-b uildin g welfar e poverty
With contributions from:
Loh Kah Seng • um Ping Tjin • Jack Meng-Tat Chia • Mark Baildon •
Suhaimi Afandi • Christine Han • Gwee Li Sui • Terence Lee • Philip Holden •
Ho Chi Tim • Seng Guo-Quan • Lee Kah-Wee • Arthur Chia • Gareth Curless •
Teo Soh Lung • Chong Ja Ian • Laavanya Kathiravelu • Lai Ah Eng • Wong Chee Meng•
Elaine Ho Lynn-Ee • Liew Kai Khiun • Edgar Liao • Teo You Yenn• Charanpal S. Bal
National myths can both empower and disempower. ey have the potential to stir our
spirit and imagination. Myths can elevate us towards a higher level of intellectual con-
sciousness based on our lived (rather than manufac tured) realities. Myths that empower
can inspire us to boldly ‘run with the lions’. By contrast, myths that disempower engen-
der fear and division whilst stiing the spirit of progressive imagination required to
address social and political injustice. is refreshing book empowers us to question the
veracity of deep-seated myths that obfuscate. It oers us the intellectual tools to boldly
leap beyond the boundaries of ‘manufactured realities’ – in the spirit and tradition of
the political lions of Singapura, past and present.
— Associate Professor Lily Rahim Zubaidah, e University of Sydney
is is an exciting book which strengthens a trend in Singapore’s intellectual life to
critique the self-serving my thology of the country’s authoritarian state. e authors,
almost all Singaporeans, challenge the series of portraits that have been constructed to
formulate Singapore’s identity, and oer a refreshing analysis that seeks to broaden and
diversify our understanding of the city-state within the context of global social science
disciplines.
— Carl A. Trocki, Professor of Asian Studies (Ret)
As Singapore moves into the next phase, it will be necessar y to clear away the cobwebs in
the mind which make ‘hard truths’ easy. e current narrative produced among Singa-
poreans the ‘common sense’ support for the paternalistic governance of the ruling elite.
is book is thus much needed for a new ‘culture of critical thinking’ to emerge, most
importantly the citizens’ initiative and creativity and the emancipation of their minds.
e current simplistic narrative has to be replaced by many new perspectives and inter-
pretations. is is what this book begins to do. It is a must read!
— Tay Kheng Soon, Akitek Tenggara
www.ethosbooks.com.sg
1328107898119
ISBN 9789811132810
