Fenugreek: Productivity, nutritional value and uses

Abstract

This paper reviews the available literature about the botanical aspects and productivity, properties and applications of fenugreek. The source of this species are seeds and leaves. The high yield of fenugreek is influenced on the environmental and agricultural factors. The unique properties of this species are determined by variety, agricultural technology and habitat conditions, too. One of this species is a crop fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.). Fenugreek belongs to the legume plants and is an environmentally friendly plant. The yields of plants depend on the genotype, climate, environmental conditions, cultivation practices, use of fertilizers, irrigation. The seeds are rich in biogenic element such as phosphorus, sulfur, magnesium, calcium but were less abundant in zinc, manganese and copper. Fenugreek seeds and leaves contain biologically active substances (protein, amino acids, biogenic elements, lipids and fatty acids), and they are used in traditional medicine, as functional food and in the cosmetics industry. In traditional medicine, fenugreek is used to prepare infusions, water and alcohol extracts, tinctures, meads, tonics with antidepressant and psychotonic properties, and muscle growth supplements. Fenugreek constitutes high-quality feed for dairy cattle which improves the health status of livestock. The findings presented in this review paper will be useful for consumers hoping to improve their health by incorporating healthy biogenic elements and fatty acids into their diets. © 2017, Polish Society Magnesium Research. All rights reserved.

Full text

Żuk-Gołaszewska K., Wierzbowska J. 2017. Fenugreek: productivity, nutritional
value and uses. J. Elem., 22(3): 1067-1080. DOI: 10.5601/jelem.2017.22.1.1396
Journal of Elementology ISSN 1644-2296
REVIEW PAPER
FENUGREEK: PRODUCTIVITY, NUTRITIONAL
VALUE AND USES*
Krystyna Żuk-Gołaszewska1, Jadwiga Wierzbowska2
1Department of Agrotechnology, Crop Management and Agribusiness
2Department of Agricultural Chemistry and Environmental Protection
University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Poland
AbstrAct
This paper reviews the available literature about the botanical aspects and productivity, proper-
ties and applications of fenugreek. The source of this species are seeds and leaves. The high
yield of fenugreek is inuenced on the environmental and agricultural factors. The unique
properties of this species are determined by variety, agricultural technology and habitat con-
ditions, too. One of this species is a crop fenugreek (Trigonella foenum – graecum L.). Fenugreek
belongs to the legume plants and is an environmentally friendly plant. The yields of plants
depend on the genotype, climate, environmental conditions, cultivation practices, use of fertili-
zers, irrigation. The seeds are rich in biogenic element such as phosphorus, sulfur, magnesium,
calcium but were less abundant in zinc, manganese and copper. Fenugreek seeds and leaves
contain biologically active substances (protein, amino acids, biogenic elements, lipids and fatty
acids), and they are used in traditional medicine, as functional food and in the cosmetics indu-
stry. In traditional medicine, fenugreek is used to prepare infusions, water and alcohol extracts,
tinctures, meads, tonics with antidepressant and psychotonic properties, and muscle growth
supplements. Fenugreek constitutes high-quality feed for dairy cattle which improves the health
status of livestock. The ndings presented in this review paper will be useful for consumers
hoping to improve their health by incorporating healthy biogenic elements and fatty acids into
their diets.
Keywords: Trigonella foenum-graecum, chemical compounds, benets.
Krystyna Żuk-Gołaszewska, e-mail: kzg@uwm.edu.pl
* This research was supported by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of Poland as
part of statutory activities.

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INTRODUCTION
Legume plants, including fenugreek (Trigonella foenum – graecum L.),
constitute high-quality foods that deliver nutritional and functional advanta-
ges at a low price. Fenugreek is grown mainly in China, India, Turkey,
Canada, Australia, northern and southern Africa, and southern Europe
(Moyer et al. 2002, AhMAd et al. 2016). Fenugreek is one of India’s main
exports. Fenugreek has been long known as a potent herb in traditional me-
dicine. Its seeds contain protein with a desirable amino acid prole, lipids
and biogenic elements. Fenugreek seeds are also a rich source of saponins,
avonoids, choline, carotene, essential oils containing trigonelline and other
functional elements (SrinivASAn 2006, MeghwAl, goSwAMi 2012). The protein
content of fenugreek seeds was determined in the range of 235.0 g kg-1
(iSSA et al. 2014) to 246.0 g kg-1 (MAhfouz et al. 2012), and lipid content – in
the range of 40 to 100 g kg-1 (SulieMAn et al. 2008a). Fenugreek seeds contain
signicant amounts of Fe, P, Ca, Zn and Mn, and they are abundant in vita-
mins A, B1, C and nicotinic acid (MorAdi kor, MorAdi 2013). Due to their
unique anti-diabetic, blood glucose-lowering, cholesterol-lowering, anticarci-
nogenic and antimicrobial properties, both leaves and seeds are consumed as
a remedy for various health conditions. Both seeds and leaves are also used
in food preparation, including in stews in Iran, cheese avoring in Switzer-
land, syrup and bitter rum in Germany, mixed seed powder for baking at
bread in Egypt, curries, dyes, roasted seeds as coffee substitute in Africa,
whereas young seedlings are consumed as vegetables (MorAdi kor, MorAdi
2013). Fenugreek is an ecofriendly plant that xes atmospheric nitrogen
(PietrzAk 2011). Therefore, the aim of this paper was to present the existing
knowledge on the nutritive properties and practical applications of fenugreek.
BOTANICAL ASPECTS AND PRODUCTIVITY
Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graceum L.) is an annual diploid plant
(2n = 16) of the family Leguminosae, which is known under various names
around the world. The species has a long taproot and a weakly branched
main stem which reaches the height of 30 to 60 cm. Leaves consist of three
-lobed inversely ovate leaets with short petioles, serrated edges and oval
stipules. Fenugreek is a honey plant that blossoms in June and July. Papi-
lionaceous owers have a boat-shaped structure with short wings and keel
petals, and they vary in color from white or cream, to yellow and light pur-
ple. Flowers emerge individually or in pairs in leaf nodes. The seeds mature
at the turn of August and September. Fenugreek plants have a distinctive
and long-lasting spicy aroma (Bieńkowski et al. 2016).
Fenugreek plants produce horn-shaped pods with a length of up to 11 cm,

1069
which are straight or curved in shape, narrow, with a sharply pointed tip.
Each pod contains 10 to 20 cuboid seeds divided by a ridge into two unequal
parts. Green-brown seeds are lobulated and very hard. They retain their
germination capacity for 2 years. According to zAPotoczny et al. (2016), appli-
cation of herbicides and fungicides inuence the color of fenugreek seeds.
Trigonella foenum-graecum seeds are small, angular and attened, 4-5 mm
in length, 2.35-2.60 mm in width, with a characteristic oblong rhomboidal
outline (AltuntAS et al. 2005, MorAdi kor, MorAdi 2013). Thousand seed we-
ight is 14-15 g (Bieńkowski et al. 2016). A seed holds a central hard yellow
embryo bound by large, corneous white and semi-transparent endosperm
(Betty 2008). According to AltuntAS et al. (2005), the bulk density of fenu-
greek seeds with a moisture content of 8.9-20.1% ranges from 1165.25 to
1240.36 kg m-3
The yield and quality of fenugreek is inuenced by genotype, climate,
environmental conditions, cultivation practices, use of fertilizers, irrigation
and the methods of processing seeds into local spices (Al JASASS, Al JASSer
2012, PAvliStA, SAntrA 2016). Fenugreek yields were higher in years with
higher precipitation during the growing season (BASu et al. 2008). In the
work of PetroPouloS (2002), fenugreek yields were higher in years characte-
rized by annual precipitation of 300-1500 mm and annual mean temperature
of 7.8-27.5°C. Żuk-Gołaszewska et al. (2015) demonstrated that soil water
decit decreased plant height by 15.5%, the number of pods – by 18.3%, the
number of seeds per pod – by 20%, seed weight – by 28%, the weight of
the plant’s aerial parts – by 18.0%, and the harvest index by – 13.2%.
Drought also signicantly decreased the chlorophyll content of fenugreek
leaves. Fenugreek is particularly sensitive to delayed sowing and competition
from weeds. In a study by Bieńkowski et al. (2016), the average yield from all
cultivation variants was 759 kg ha-1. A 20-day sowing delay reduced seed
yield by 3-10% when medical weed control techniques were applied and by
3-13% when herbicide was used. PAridA et al. (2003) demonstrated that the
Fe content of plants increased and Cu and Zn concentrations decreased with
a rise in the Ni dose (max - 300 mg kg-1 soil).
NUTRITIONAL VALUE
Protein and amino acids
Fenugreek seeds contain 260.3 to 295.0 g kg-1 of protein, whose quality is
determined by the composition of different protein fractions and amino acids.
In a study by leelA and ShAfeekh (2008), fenugreek seeds had the following
amino acid prole: albumins (438.00 g kg−1), globulins (272.00 g kg−1), glute-
lins (172.00 g kg−1) and prolamins (74.00 g kg−1). The differences in the amino
acid proles of fenugreek, white lupine and durum wheat are responsible for
variations in their functional properties (Table 1).

1070
MAhfouz et al. (2012) compared the quality of protein in fenugreek and
other legumes, such as white lupine, and demonstrated that white lupine
had a higher protein content than fenugreek. The content of essential amino
acids was determined at 268.50 g kg-1 in white lupine, whereas fenugreek seeds
contained the highest amounts of both essential amino acids (304.80 g kg-1
protein) and total amino acids (576.00 g kg-1 protein). In fenugreek, the con-
tent of methionine and cysteine was higher than in white lupine by approxi-
mately 128% and 49%, respectively. iSikli and kArABABA (2005) noted that
fenugreek has a high content of free amino-acids, in particular isoleucine and
histidine, which may stimulate insulin secretion. JAMeS and heAther (2011)
demonstrated that protein-rich legumes, such as lupine, are as potent as
soybeans in lowering serum cholesterol levels. Fenugreek is also abundant in
lysine, whose quality is comparable to soybean lysine, which is why fenugreek
Table 1
Total protein content and amino acid composition of fenugreek seeds compare
in other agricultural crops
Total protein/
amino acids Fenugreek
(MAhfouz et al. 2012)
White lupine
(MAhfouz et. al. 2012)
Durum wheat
(AcquiStucci et al. 1995)
Protein (g kg-1) 246.00 364.00 134.20
Essential amino acids – EAA (g kg-1 of protein)
Isoleucine (Ile) 41.00 36.50 36.50
Leucine (Leu) 62.60 66.40 67.00
Lysine (Lys) 57.70 40.30 28.50
Methionine (Met) 13.00 5.70 18.90
Phenylalanine (Phe) 37.80 31.00 47.50
Threonine (Thr) 33.00 32.90 29.10
Valine (Val) 38.20 36.50 44.50
Histidine (His) 21.50 19.20 23.00
EAA total 304.80 268.50 295.00
Nonessential amino acids – NAE (g kg-1 of protein)
Alanine (Ala) 36.90 30.20 35.30
Glycine (Gly) 47.50 34.80 36.10
Proline (Pro) 39.40 34.80 115.00
Arginine (Arg) 91.00 101.90 47.00
Serine (Ser) 47.10 41.20 44.10
Cysteine (Cys) 22.00 14.80 29.90*
Tyrosine (Tyr) 29.60 41.20 30.20
Aspartic acid (Asp) 102.00 97.80 49.20
Glutamic acid (Glu) 160.50 196.90 287.00
Non EAA total 576.00 593.6 673.80
* total content cysteine and cystine

1071
seeds are consumed as a dietary supplement (MAndAl, deB MAndAl 2016).
feyzi et al. (2015) found signicant concentrations of Glu, Asp, Lue, Thr and
Arg in fenugreek seeds and concluded that fenugreek protein isolate is a source
of protein with remarkable functional properties. Among the analyzed spe-
cies, the grain of durum wheat was richer in leucine, phenyloalanine and
valine (AcquiStucci et al. 1995) – Table 1. Unlike cereal grain proteins, fenu-
greek proteins are rich in Lys and low in His and Met, therefore, they could
be used to enhance the nutritional value of cereals and snack foods such as
bread, biscuits and cakes (feyzi et al. 2015).
In a study by hoodA and Jood (2007), germinated fenugreek seeds had a
signicantly higher content of total protein (29%) and total lysine (64.80 g kg-1
of protein) than unprocessed seeds. Germination decreased the content of
dietary ber and starch, thus increasing sugar levels in seeds. Additionally,
in vitro digestibility of starch and protein and the availability of Ca, Fe and
Zn also increased considerably due to a reduction in the content of anti-
nutrients (phytic acid and polyphenols). MeghwAl and goSwAMi (2012) found
that fenugreek protein is more soluble at alkaline pH. Fenugreek has a be-
necial inuence on digestion and it can modify food properties.
Biogenic elements
Fenugreek is grown for both its seeds and leaves. According to aBou-
-shleel (2014), wierzBowSkA and Żuk-Gołaszewska (2014), the concentrations
of biogenic elements in fenugreek seeds are determined by the genotype,
cultivation practices and environmental factors. The mineral content of diffe-
rent seeds is presented in Table 2.
Table 2
Mineral content of fenugreek seeds
Elements ABBAS Ali
et al. (2012)
khorShidiAn
et al. (2016)
wierzBowSkA,
Żuk-Gołaszewska
(2014)
al-Jasass,
Al JASSer
(2012)
Recommended
daily allowance
per 100 g seeds
(%)
K (g kg-1) 10.80 nd 17.50 6.03 13-37
Na (g kg-1) 0.29 nd 0.47 nd 2-3
P (g kg-1) 2.00 2.96 8.28 nd 28-118
Mg (g kg-1) 0.78 1.91 2.24 0.42 10-53
Ca (g kg-1) 2.26 1.76 1.50 0.75 7-23
Fe (mg kg-)1116.0 335.0 nd 258.00 116-335
Zn (mg kg-1) 44.0 25.0 nd 24.00 22-40
Cu (mg kg-1)54.0 nd nd 9.00 100-600
Mn (mg kg-1) 16.0 1.22 nd 9.00 nd
Se (µg kg-1) nd 6.30 nd nd 1.10
nd – not detected

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Fenugreek seeds are characterized by varied mineral content, and some
minerals, such as phosphorus and sulfur, are found in signicant concentra-
tions (el nASri, el tinAy 2007). wierzBowSkA and Żuk-Gołaszewska (2014)
demonstrated that inoculation signicantly increased phosphorus, calcium
and sodium concentrations in seeds. In fenugreek seeds cultivated in Poland,
potassium and phosphorus were the major minerals. The seeds examined by
Al JASASS and Al JASSer (2012) were rich in potassium, calcium, magnesium
and iron (6.03, 0.75, 0.42 and 0.25 g kg-1 DM, respectively), but were less
abundant in zinc, manganese and copper. JAni et al. (2009) reported that
curry containing fenugreek seeds was a rich source of calcium, iron and zinc.
Mineral elements play a host of important roles in the human body. Potas-
sium is a component of cellular and bodily uids which regulate the heart
rate and blood pressure by countering the effects of sodium. Magnesium is
important for energy production and transport, it is involved in glycolysis
and oxidative phosphorylation and is required for maintaining normal heart
rhythm. This element participates in muscular activity and is required by
more than 300 enzymes to catalyze various functions in the body, including
protein synthesis, muscle and nerve function (SoetAn et al. 2010). The recom-
mended daily intake of this bioelement is 300-380 mg for adults, and diets
decient in this mineral may lead to osteoporosis (BArzegAr et al. 2007). In
turn, iron is essential for the production of red blood cells (AkBAri et al.
2012). Selenium is also an essential element which has antioxidant and an-
ticarcinogenic properties and regulates thyroid function (güngör et al. 2014).
The mineral content of fenugreek seeds has also been investigated by other
authors. ShAkuntAlA et al. (2011) reported high levels of Ca, K and Mg in
all seed fractions. In a study by SrinivASAn (2006), fenugreek seeds were
characterized by a high content of K at 5.30, P at 3.70, Ca at 1.60 and Mg at
1.60 g kg-1 DM.
In 7 fenugreek genotypes native to Iran, calcium content was determined
at 2.00 to 4.55 g kg-1 on a fresh weight basis, and 100 g of leaves supplied
200.66-455.25 mg kg-1 of calcium (20-45% of the recommended daily allowan-
ce for this mineral). Phosphorus content was determined at 182-205 g kg-1
and potassium content – at 26.13- 36.40 g kg-1 on a fresh weight basis (Table 3).
The Ca:P ratio, which is very important for human growth, ranged from 0.8
to 2.0 in the examined leaves. This value is almost ideal (1:2) from the
nutritional point of view. The discussed minerals are essential for plant
growth, and most of the phosphorus in plant cells is associated with calcium.
The Mg content of the analyzed fenugreek genotypes ranged from 1.30 to
3.70 g kg-1 on a fresh weight basis, and 100 g of leaves supplied 34-97% RDA
of magnesium. Sodium concentrations in the examined Iranian genotypes
ranged from 0.28 to 0.59 g kg-1 on a fresh weight basis (ghArneh, dAvodAl
-hosseini 2015). The analyzed varieties were also a rich source of Zn.

1073
Lipid content and fatty acid prole
The lipid content of fenugreek seeds is estimated at 100.0 g kg-1 DM.
Fenugreek lipids contain mostly neutral fats, including diglycerides (6.3%),
triglycerides (86.1%), glycolipids (5.4%) and phospholipids (10.5%). Fenugreek
seeds also contain small amounts of monoglycerides, free fatty acids and
sterols (heMAvAthy, PrABhAkAr 1989). In the different study the content of
linoleic acid C18:2 was determined in the range of 34.85 to 42.2%, α-linolenic
acid C18:3 at 22.0-30.8%, myristic acid C14:0 at 0.10-1.38%, palmitic acid C16:0
at 3.85-13.10%, oleic acid C18:1 at 13.30-19.05%, and stearic acid C18:0 at
1.78-4.50% (Table 4).
In the work of SrinivASAn (2006), the fatty acid prole of fenugreek seeds
included oleic acid C18:1 at 35.1%, linoleic acid C18:2 at 33.7%, α-linolenic acid
C18:3 at 13.8%, palmitic acid C16:0 at 9.6%, stearic acid C18:0 at 4.9%, and ara-
chidic acid C20:0 at 2.0%. In another study, the content of linoleic acid was
estimated at 34.85% and the content of total unsaturated fatty acids at
92.99% (Al JASASS, Al JASSer 2012). Fenugreek oil is a potent antimicrobial
agent against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhi-
murium and Aspergillus niger. Fenugreek seeds and oil can be effectively
used as food preservatives or in the pharmaceutical industry (SulieMAn et al.
2008b).
Table 3
Mineral content of fenugreek leaves
Elements SrinivASAn
(2006)
ghArneh,
dAvodAlhoSSeini
(2015)
K (g kg-1)0.31 0.26-0.36
Na (g kg-1) 0.76 0.28 -0.59
P (g kg-1)0.51 1.82-2.50
Mg (g kg-1) 0.67 1.30-3.70
Ca (g kg-1)3.95 2.00-4.55
Fe (mg kg-1)165.0 56.3.-302.30
Zn (mg kg-1) nd 10.40-41.30
Cu (mg kg-1) 2.60 5.00-25.40
Mn (mg kg-1) nd 1.00-8.70
Ca/P ratio 7.74 0.80-2.00
nd – not detected

1074
Table 4
Lipid content and fatty acid proles of fenugreek oil in different studies
Specication ciftci et al.
(2011)
Bieńkowski
et al. (2017)
Unpublished
data
SulieMAn et al.
(2008a)
al-Jasass,
Al JASSer
(2012)
Lipid content (g kg-1)93.20 47.70 84.00 nd
Saturated fatty acids – SFAs (%)
Lauric (C 12:0) nd 0.025 nd nd
Myristic (C 14:0) 0.10 0.18 0.20 1.38
Pentadecanoic (C 15:0) 0.10 0.19 nd nd
Palmitic (C 16:0) 10.50 13.10 11.00 3.85
Margaric (C 17:0) 0.30 0.43 nd nd
Stearic (C 18:0) 4.00 3.78 4.50 1.78
Arachidic (C 20:0) nd nd 1.50 nd
Heneicosanoic (C 21:0) 0.10 1.40 nd nd
Behenic (C 22:0) nd 0.08 0.50 nd
Lignoceric (C 24:0) 0.20 nd 0.10 nd
Total SFAs 16.14 20.00 17.80 7.01
Monounsaturated fatty acids – MUFAs (%)
Palmitoleic (C 16:1) 0.10 0.07 0.20 8.29
Heptadecenoic (C 17:1) 0.20 0.15 nd nd
Erucic (22:1) 0.10 nd nd nd
Oleic (C 18:1) 15.60 13.30 16.70 19.05
Eicosenoic (C 20:1) 0.30 0.27 0.10 nd
Total MUFAs 15.98 13.80 17.0 27.34
Polyunsaturated fatty acids – PUFAs (%)
Linoleic (18:2) 41.30 37.90 43.20 34.85
Linolenic (C 18:3) nd nd 22.00 30.80
Linolenic (C 18: 3n-6) 1.20 nd nd nd
Linolenic (C 18: 3n-3) 46.50 nd nd nd
Eicosadienoic (C 20:2) 0.10 0.08 nd nd
Total PUFAs 67.95 66.20 65.20 65.65
n-6/n-3 9.32 nd nd nd
nd – not detected

1075
MEDICINAL USES
Fenugreek seeds have been valued for their medicinal properties. Micro-
biological analyses revealed that fenugreek extracts exhibit antimicrobial
activity against numerous bacteria (Aqil, AhMAd 2003, wAgh et al. 2007).
Aqueous extracts of fenugreek roots, seeds and shoots have antifungal
properties (hAouAlA et al. 2008). Fenugreek seed preparations are used in
the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders. Aqueous solutions and macerated
fenugreek oils exert protective effects on the mucosa in ulcer disease
(PAndiAn et al. 2002) and prevent colon cancer (rAJu et al. 2004). The hepato-
protective effects of fenugreek are comparable to those of silymarin (kAviArASAn
et al. 2008, PriBAc et al. 2009). In Iran, fenugreek leaves are used in the
treatment of eye diseases (MirAldi et al. 2001) and gynecological disorders
(BAShtiAn et al. 2013). Fenugreek seeds contain the neuroprotective alkaloid
trigonelline (tohdA et al. 2005), which can be effectively used in the preven-
tion and treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. Fenugreek seeds also have
anti-inammatory, antipyretic and analgesic properties (MAlviyA et al. 2010).
Active ingredients with hypoglycemic effects include coumarin, trigonelline
and nicotinic acid (aBdel-naBey, damir 1990). AMin et al. (2005) demonstra-
ted that fenugreek extracts effectively prevent and inhibit the progression of
breast cancer. Flavonoids could also signicantly contribute to fenugreek’s
anticarcinogenic properties. Fenugreek constitutes valuable raw material for
the pharmaceutical industry that has long searched for effective cures for
cancer. Fenugreek extracts have estrogenic properties, which makes them
suitable for use in the treatment of impotence and the alleviation of meno-
pausal syndromes. Pharmaceutical companies show a growing interest in
fenugreek research due to the presence of diosgenin in the discussed species.
Diosgenin signicantly lowers cholesterol levels, and it can also be used in
the production of oral hormones and steroids (oncinA et al. 2000). Fenugreek
seed extracts lower blood glucose levels (BAShtiAn et al. 2013). In traditional
medicine, fenugreek is used to prepare infusions, water and alcohol extracts,
tinctures, meads, tonics with antidepressant and psychotonic properties, and
muscle growth supplements. Fenugreek is used in the treatment of sebor-
rhea, acne and dermatitis. The plant is widely used in cosmetology (wiJAyA
et al. 2013).
FENUGREEK AS FOOD
In addition to its medicinal properties, fenugreek is also recognized for
its culinary value. The plant is widely used as a spice that not only improves
the taste of food, but also contributes to metabolic functions and overall
health. Biscuits supplemented with 10% germinated fenugreek had the highest

1076
polyphenol content and were characterized by high nutritional value. Supple-
mentation of wheat our with 5% and 10% of fenugreek our increased vita-
min B2 and carotene concentrations in biscuits (MAhMoud et al. 2012). Accor-
ding to the cited study, fenugreek products have restorative properties and
may be benecial for patients suffering from iron-deciency anemia. Howe-
ver, according to folwArcznA et al. (2014), low dietary intake of fenugreek
seeds could exert favorable skeletal effects, whereas high doses could damage
the skeletal system.
Fenugreek seeds are used as spice for avoring selected types of cheese,
mainly parmesan. Powdered or crushed seeds are added to salads and cottage
cheese spreads. Fenugreek seeds enhance the avor and aroma of dishes.
They are added to curry sauce and are a traditional ingredient of the Bulga-
rian spice chubritza. Fenugreek seeds are also used to avor coffee and va-
nilla extracts (SzczyglewSkA 2000). Fenugreek seeds and extracts aid dige-
stion and enhance nutrient absorption, in particular amino acids. They
contribute to muscle and body mass growth and have nourishing and streng-
thening properties. Food supplements containing fenugreek have hypoglyce-
mic properties and are recommended for diabetic patients. Fenugreek seeds
are roasted for direct consumption and are added to broth and tea. Fenugreek
leaves are fried in butter, added to salads and used as spice in the powdered
form. A study comparing the quality of honey with various pollen content
revealed that the most nutritious types of honey were heterooral, and sam-
ples with the highest antibacterial activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa,
Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus were characterized by a predomi-
nance of fenugreek pollen (MercAn et al. 2007). The examined honey was
more effective in eliminating the said bacteria than antibiotics. Fenugreek
does not have adverse effects on the human body, even if consumed in large
amounts (MurAlidhArA et al. 1999). In India, normal consumption of fenugreek
seeds by adults is estimated at 0.3 to 0.6 g per day. In both humans and
animals, diets where the above intake levels were exceeded 50- to 100-fold
delivered health benets. Such diets include dishes with liberal amounts of
fenugreek seeds, which are very popular in southern India (SrinivASAn 2006).
Fenugreek hay contains more soluble protein than alfalfa hay, and there is a
growing interest in Canada in fenugreek as an alternative feed crop for dairy
cows (AleMu, doePel 2011). The addition of fenugreek to cattle diets impro-
ved milk quality parameters and animal metabolism (rJAt, tAPAriA 1990).
Ground fenugreek seeds and fenugreek oil are also used in the production of
sh bait in the form of protein balls.
CONCLUSIONS
Fenugreek is a unique spice crop whose properties are being discovered
with the renewed interest in traditional medicine. As rich sources of protein,

1077
lipids, fatty acids and minerals, fenugreek seeds and leaves cater to the bo-
dy’s needs for essential nutrients and deliver numerous health benets. This
ecofriendly plant has a high number of potential applications in the produc-
tion of food and feed, medicine, cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries due
to its nutrient and nutraceutical content. The ndings presented in this re-
view paper will be useful for consumers hoping to improve their health by
incorporating healthy biogenic elements and fatty acids into their diets.
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