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The potential of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) to reduce crop damages by Asian Elephants ( Elephas maximus )
Abstract
In all 13 Asian range countries of the wild Asian elephant (Elephas maximus L.), farmers suffer from crop damages caused by this endangered and highly protected species. As elephants are lured by highly nutritional crop types into agricultural lands, measures to deter or repel them from the high attraction will always be costly and labour intensive. The cultivation of crops, which are less attractive to elephants, yet economically viable for local farmers could lead to a new direction of land-use and income generation in human-elephant conflict areas. In this study, seven medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) containing higher amounts of specific plant secondary compounds were explored for their attractiveness to wild Asian elephants against a control of rice (Oryza sativa L.) and maize (Zea mays L.). The results show that chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.), coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.), mint (Mentha arvensis L.), basil (Ocimum basilicum L.), turmeric (Curcuma longa L.), lemon grass (Cymbopogon flexuosus (Nees ex Steud.) W. Watson) and citronella (Cymbopogon winterianus Jowitt.) were less attractive and were not consumed by elephants compared to rice. Damages to the MAPs occurred only through trampling, with mint being most prone to being trampled. Other wildlife species, however, were observed to feed on lemon-grass. Long-term learning effects and the eventual palatability of crops with less efficient antifeedants need to be further explored. This study, however, gives first evidence that MAPs bear a high potential for a secure income generation in and close to Asian elephant habitats. Furthermore, the strategic plantation of crops unattractive and attractive to elephants could lead to new land-use strategies and improve functionality of elephant corridors.
... Elephants' avoidance of antifeedants such as capsaicin found in chillies is well-documented [71]. Their avoidance of medicinal or aromatic plants may be due to it being energetically costly to detoxify the secondary compounds [17,18], despite having well-developed salivary glands with proteins efficient at neutralizing tannins [72]. As most crop raiding occurs at night [73], it would follow that the elephants have a short window in which they need to optimize their foraging to obtain as much protein and micro-minerals as possible to make up for deficits elsewhere [9]. ...
... We found that lemon grass and sunflowers, presented as whole fresh plants to the elephants, were highly sought after by the elephants. The results require further investigation as both these plant types have been described as unpalatable to both Asian and African elephants alike [17,18]. As lemon grass needs high rainfall and soil nutrients, as well as being drought intolerant, we rated it as the second-least-suitable plant to propagate in corridor regions linking GLTFCA and LTFCA. ...
Pathfinding elephants are moving through human dominated landscapes, often across international boundaries, thereby playing a vital role in connecting protected areas. Their movements are a call to action to not only understand their spatial requirements but to urgently work towards innovative ways to make people’s livelihoods compatible with conservation outcomes so that coexistence and connected landscapes can prevail. We discuss the first three phases of a long-term strategy to conserve elephant corridors whilst incorporating the socio-economic needs of the people that share the landscape with them. We present a comprehensive satellite-tracking history of elephants across two transfrontier conservation areas (TFCA), represented by Great Limpopo- and Lubombo TFCAs and involving four countries (South Africa, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and Eswatini) to flag where linking corridors exist. We use innovative cafeteria-style experiments to understand which elephant-unpalatable plants would offer lucrative alternative income streams to farmers living in human–elephant-conflict hotspots. The most suitable unpalatable plants are chosen based not only on whether they are unpalatable to elephants, but also on their life history traits and growth prerequisites. We consider a combination of potential economic values (food, essential oil, medicinal and bee fodder value) to ensure that selected plants would accommodate changing economic markets. Lastly, we highlight the importance of combining food security measures with ensuring people’s safety by means of deploying rapid-response units. By implementing these three phases as part of a longer-term strategy, we draw closer to ensuring the protection of bioregions to achieve biodiversity objectives at a landscape scale.
... Furthermore, high costs for application and maintenance make this technique economically prohibitive for many communities ( Baishya et al., 2012). Another agriculture- based deterrent involves the spatial strategy of interspersing commonly raided crops with crops that are less attractive or palatable to elephants Gross et al., 2016Gross et al., , 2017. In addition to serving as repellents, these alternative crops including chamomile, coriander, mint, ginger, onion, garlic, lemongrass, and citrus trees can economically benefit farmers by compensating for reduced cultivation of main crops. ...
... Regardless of scale of the cultivation of alternative crops, they are yet highly likely to be trampled during the growing stage. In general, economic losses from crop-raiding deserve greater consideration, since proper and timely compensation could contribute to an increased tolerance toward elephants and acceptance of agriculture-based deterrents ( Gross et al., 2017). ...
Human-elephant conflict is a major conservation concern in elephant range countries. A variety of management strategies have been developed and are practiced at different scales for preventing and mitigating human-elephant conflict. However, human-elephant conflict remains pervasive as the majority of existing prevention strategies are driven by site-specific factors that only offer short-term solutions, while mitigation strategies frequently transfer conflict risk from one place to another. Here, we review current human-elephant conflict management strategies and describe an interdisciplinary conceptual approach to manage species coexistence over the long-term. Our proposed model identifies shared resource use between humans and elephants at different spatial and temporal scales for development of long-term solutions. The model also highlights the importance of including anthropological and geographical knowledge to find sustainable solutions to managing human-elephant conflict.
... Through the comparison of the proportions of crops that have been consumed (and thereby may, to some extent, have also been trampled) to crops that have been trampled only, without any signs of consumption, we inferred that various crop types are less or more attractive to wildlife species. A similar approach to determine the attractiveness of crop types to wild elephants, was used in an experimental design in Zambia (Gross et al. 2016) and Nepal (Gross et al. 2017a). In those studies significant differences between the attractiveness of staple crops, such as maize (Zambia) and rice (Nepal) compared to crops containing antifeedants (e.g., lemon grass, ginger, mint or basil), were determined. ...
... Choosing crops with a lower nutritional value than wild forage could disable the trigger for crop damaging behavior. Accordingly, the replacement of staple crops by alternate cash crops less attractive to wildlife species (Gross et al. 2016(Gross et al. , 2017aRode et al. 2006), should be incorporated more strictly into management strategies and land use planning of protected areas in which people and wildlife coexist. For a sustainable implementation of effective buffer zones more research is needed on their placement and dimensions as well as long-term effects on different species. ...
Wildlife species damaging crops can cause substantial losses to farmers and at the same time create negative attitudes against wildlife and conservation efforts that may result in negative interactions against wildlife and lead to human-wildlife conflicts (HWCs). For the analysis of negative interactions between humans and terrestrial wildlife species, a globally applicable scheme for monitoring was developed and applied over 6 years in study areas of two Asian (Nepal and India) and two African (Zambia and Tanzania) countries. Factors influencing crop consumption by eight different groups of herbivores were monitored and analyzed using generalized linear models. Seasonality, crop availability, type and the phenological stage of the crop seem to play an important role in the crop damaging behavior of herbivores. Crop consumers such as elephants (Loxodonta africana and Elephas maximus), zebra (Equus quagga spp.) and boars/hogs (Sus scrofa, Potamocherus larvatus and Phacochoerus africanus) show preferences for harvested and/or maturing crops. Rhinos (Rhinoceros unicornis) and antelopes/deer (Taurotragus oryx, Aepyceros melampus, Boselaphus tragocamelus and Axis axis) damage the highest numbers of fields with crops at an intermediate growth stage. The findings of this study can inform management of HWCs in areas where people and wildlife coexist. Furthermore, this study demonstrates the benefits of standardized HWC assessments in order to compare data from different continents and between different species to be able to draw generalized conclusions for the management of HWC.
... Alternative or buffer crops being unassociated with crop damage offer a viable preventive countermeasure. Based on our findings and previous studies (e.g., Gross et al., 2016Gross et al., , 2017, continued promotion of unpalatable and less attractive crops under sustainable agricultural practices, such as conservation farming (Lewis et al., 2011) could help reduce crop damage. Furthermore, current management practices (e.g., dominant use of traditional methods, choice of crop type, and location of farms) confirmed by farmers' perceptions are supported by the findings of the network analysis. ...
... Aversive conditioning is commonly used for HWC mitigation, where animals learn to associate unpleasant stimuli with a behaviour and subsequently modify it (Greggor et al., 2014;Snijders et al., 2019). Aversive stimuli used to mitigate HEC include (1) visual stimuli such as bonfires and flashlights (Thaufeek et al., 2014), (2) olfactory stimuli such as chilli smoke (Davies et al., 2011), (3) acoustic stimuli such as shouting, fire crackers and shot guns (Nath et al., 2009;Nyhus et al., 2000), (4) taste stimuli such as growing unpalatable plants (Gross et al., 2017), and (5) tactile stimuli such as pricks from thorny plants (Perera, 2009), the sting of honeybees (Water et al., 2020) or shocks from an electric fence (Liefting et al., 2018). Elephants sometimes habituate to these methods or act aggressively in response to them (Davies et al., 2011;. ...
Aversive Geofencing Devices (AGDs) are designed to emit audible warning signals followed by electric shocks when animals reach virtual fences (VFs) with the intent that animals will learn to turn away at audio warnings and thereby avoid receiving shocks. AGDs are a potentially useful tool for mitigating human-elephant conflict, but a greater understanding of captive elephant responses to AGDs is required before they might be confidently used on wild elephants. We conducted experiments with eight, female captive Asian elephants using a modified dog-training collar to deliver mild electric shocks (4 kV) of varying strength (pulse frequencies) to determine the ideal location on the neck to deliver the stimuli and the optimum strength of the shock required to generate desired aversive responses. Ten shocks (<1 s duration) of different strengths were delivered during a 10 min session (i.e., one shock per minute) at two positions on one side of the elephant’s neck. Results indicated that elephants were more likely to display desirable aversive behaviours at the upper position tested on the neck (odds ratio=0.47, 95% CI 0.25–0.87, P = 0.018) and at higher stimuli strengths (odds ratio=1.03, 95% CI 1.01–1.04, P ≤ 0.001). A conditioning experiment was then conducted several months later with five of the same elephants. These were individually trained to walk along a ~100 m path to a food reward on three consecutive days, wearing a dummy collar. On the next three days and on one other day few months later, the elephants were fitted with a similar shock collar (positioned at the upper neck location, and with the highest strength tested earlier) to determine if the AGD could prevent the elephants from accessing the food reward. Three VFs were established at ~30 m, ~50 m and ~60 m points along the path. As the elephant approached the food, a mild audio warning, a more aggressive audio warning, and an electric shock was administered at the first, second and third VFs respectively. Warnings and shocks were not delivered if elephants heeded earlier warnings. A maximum of five such trials were attempted. The VFs successfully kept elephants from reaching the food 77.8% of the time, with elephants responding to the audio warnings and avoiding electric stimulation 47.2% of the trials. These findings suggest that AGDs are a promising method to manage elephant movement, but further research is needed to develop a reliable approach for wild elephants.
... Human encroachment over the forest stands has destroyed the natural habitat of the wildlife in the State of West Bengal. The forest land, converted into the agricultural lands, are occupied by the people, and the people earned the legal status of those lands with the influence of the political parties (Gross et al., 2017;Pant et al., 2016). Thus, the owner of the land gained the right of the land avoiding the natural right of the wildlife (Sitati et al., 2003;Webber et al., 2011). ...
Forest stands of Lodhashuli is situated at the
outskirts of Mayurjharna Elephant Reserve in the district
of Jhargram of the south-west part of West Bengal, India
where the elephants are generally migratory in nature.
They migrate from the Dalma Range of Jharkhand
during July-August every year having 20 to 60 members
in each herd. On their way to Mayurjharna Elephant
Reserve from the Dalma Range, they first change their
taste of different food items at Dhalbhumgarh of
Jharkhand where they take a rest for 3-4 days after
constant walk (Sukumar, 2006; Santiapillai et al., 2010).
And the herd returns to their natural habitat of Dalma
Range as usual during December-January when the
trees of the forests of Mayurjharna Elephant Reserve
under Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests types shed their
leaves in the ensuing winter.
... There is anecdotal evidence that farmers smeared (unknown) substances onto the leaves of crops favoured by raiding hippos (Post, 2017) and that this method works. There is potential for aromatic plants to be mixed with crops to deter hippo grazing (for example Gross et al., 2017), and this requires further investigation. ...
The common hippopotamus is an extant African megaherbivore that is relatively understudied by scientists and underfunded by conservation organisations. Conflict with people, however, is a major concern given the danger that hippos pose to human life. Moreover, very little is known about human–hippo conflict (HHC), and experimental fieldwork on mitigation methods has hardly been conducted. Here we conduct an exhaustive review of the primary and grey literature outlining how the conflict between people and hippos arises, the impacts of conflict on both human communities and hippo populations, and all known intervention measures. Our review highlights the effectiveness of barriers around crops, riparian buffer zones (that exclude cattle and crop planting), and payments for environmental services as tools to mitigate HHC. This study also highlights the knowledge gaps in HHC research, particularly the spatial scale of HHC, the lack of field experimental research on deterrents, and a paucity of knowledge on outcomes of projected climate change and HHC.
... Adapting land-use planning to allow access to space and resources by both people and wildlife, and making agricultural choices that are conscious to wildlife behaviour can be a strategy to address crop consumption issues more sustainably (Gunaryadi, Sugiyo, & Hedges, 2017;Hockings & Humley, 2009;Parker et al., 2007;Songhurst, McCulloch, & Coulson, 2015). Examples of these wildlife conscious farming methods are buffer regions around fields (Sitati et al., 2005), cleared vegetation (Osborn & Parker, 2002) and the use of alternative or buffer-crops that are unattractive to consume or move through (Gross et al., 2016(Gross et al., , 2017Hockings & Humley, 2009). But also land-use planning strategies that consider critical wildlife habitat, such as setting aside specific regions or corridors for elephants to roam Jachowski et al., 2013;Songhurst, McCulloch, & Coulson, 2015). ...
Abstract Coexistence between wildlife and farmers can be challenging and can endanger the lives of both, prompting the provisioning of mitigation methods by governments and non‐governmental organizations (NGOs). However, provision of materials, demonstration of the effectiveness of methods or willingness to uptake a method do not predict uptake of methods. We used ethnographic decision models to understand how farmers' work through the decisions of uptake or non‐uptake of methods to mitigate crop consumption by elephants, and how the government and NGOs can either enable or impede the ability of farmers to protect themselves and their crops. While farmers were motivated to use methods if they received or could afford to buy materials and they believed in the effectiveness of the methods, they still did not use them if they considered a method to be dangerous, or issues with elephants not to be severe enough, or when the supply of materials or income was not sufficient. Methods were not even considered by farmers if they lacked awareness or knowledge of the method. Government departments and NGOs enabled farmers to mitigate elephant crop consumption by providing opportunities for cash income, and providing materials and knowledge. Yet, there was disparity between the materials farmers received and methods they wished to adopt. One‐off inputs of materials did not result in sustainable use of mitigation methods. We see an opportunity for governmental departments or NGOs to stimulate logistics (e.g. roads and retail) to increase availability of mitigation materials since this promoted farmer autonomy. We also highlight the importance of empowering farmers by facilitating within community sharing of mitigation ideas and increasing knowledge about the effectiveness of promising wildlife conscious farming, as despite promising farmer testimonies, only a few farmers used these techniques. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.
... At finer scales, odor is also used as a management tool. Unpalatable compounds are exploited as repellents and deterrents against herbivorous feeding damage (Gross et al. 2017, Miller et al. 2011, Oniba and Robertson 2019, Sullivan et al. 1988), livestock predation (Smith et al. 2000), and in attempts keep wildlife away from roads and railways (Bíl et al. 2018). Odorous baits are used as lures in attracting problem animals to traps. ...
Odor is everywhere, emitted across the landscape from predators, prey, decaying carcasses, conspecifics, vegetation, surface water, and smoke. Many animals exploit odor to find food, avoid threats, and attract or judge potential mates. Here, we focus on odor in terrestrial ecosystems to introduce the concept of an olfactory landscape: real-time dynamic olfactory contours reflecting the patchy distribution of resources and risks, providing a key source of information used by many animals in their movement and decision-making. Incorporating the olfactory landscape into current frameworks of movement ecology and animal behavior will provide a mechanistic link to help answer significant questions about where, why, and when many animals move, and how they do so efficiently in both space and time. By understanding how animals use the olfactory landscape to make crucial decisions affecting their fitness, we can then manipulate the landscape to modify ecological interactions and, ultimately, ecosystem consequences of these interactions.
... Decreasing the attractiveness of farms and villages to elephants, is another strategy to decrease the presence of elephants in human-dominated areas. This includes the farming and marketing of crops which contain essential oils or other antifeedants and, thus, are avoided by elephants [113,195]. Furthermore, the attractiveness of villages to elephants can be reduced by storing edible products in elephantsafe containers, dumping garbage in safe pits, and securing water points. ...
Creating a future for elephants and people is a highly complex and dynamic challenge, involving social, behavioral, and ecological dimensions as well as multiple actors with various interests. To foster learning from human–elephant conflict (HEC) management projects and share best practices, a study was conducted to review the management of conflicts between elephants and humans in 12 African countries by qualitative expert interviews. Based on this information, a HEC management framework was developed in a two-tiered process. In the first phase, the theory of the framework was developed. In a second phase, the theoretical framework was validated and adjusted through stakeholder participation in two southern African projects (in Mozambique and Malawi). This holistic approach considers environmental as well as social, political, cultural, and economic factors directly or indirectly affecting interactions between people and wildlife. The framework integrates six interlinked strategies to guide managers and conservation practitioners to address HWC drivers and mitigate their impact. A legal environment and spatial planning form the basis of the framework. Social strategies, including meaningful stakeholder engagement and design of appropriate institutional structures and processes are considered the heart of the framework. Technical and financial strategies represent its arms and hands. At the top, monitoring steers all processes, provides feedback for adjustment, and informs decisions. The integration and coordination of these six strategies has great potential as a guiding route to human–wildlife coexistence in Africa and elsewhere.
... For instance, when local communities call for legal hunting or culling of elephants to mitigate conflicts, whilst international animal welfare and conservation groups discourage the killing of threatened species, as uncovered by the scaling dimension of the TUSKER framework. The balancing dimension of TUSKER inspires managers to develop solutions that contribute to integrity of nature and social cohesion simultaneously, such as creating corridors of tolerance (Zimmermann et al., 2009), fencing farmland instead of conservation land (Fernando et al., 2019), applying natural elephant deterrents (e.g., bees and chilli, King et al., 2017), and developing elephant-friendly livelihoods (e.g., community-based ecotourism, fair trade, changing to crops disliked by elephants, Gross et al., 2017). The moderating dimension of the TUSKER framework filters conservation actions through social compacts relevant to the specific situation. ...
Nature’s contributions to people diminish when people are alienated from nature. We developed a framework to help support more sustainable people-nature interactions in the context of the conservation of African elephants (Loxodonta africana and L. cyclotis). Elephants are iconic, and ecologically, culturally, and socio-economically important, but are also competing and in conflict with people who still benefit little from elephant conservation. We demonstrate how this framework can be used to address challenges over elephant conservation and management, and help achieve human-elephant coexistence, by (i) balancing integrity of nature with social cohesion and human wellbeing, and (ii) moderating the use of nature through widely accepted values, aspirations, and rights. The framework provides mechanisms for policymakers and managers to improve existing community-based conservation initiatives, promotes equitable policies for elephant conservation, and can be applied to the conservation of other iconic species that pose management challenges.
... In addition to bee pheromones, other odors have been used to deter elephants from human habitations and crops. One avenue is to grow aromatic plants that elephants avoid [173,174]. A problem so far with this approach is that aromatic plants often have medicinal or spice uses but do not provide sustenance. ...
Chemical signals are the oldest and most ubiquitous means of mediating intra- and interspecific interactions. The three extant species of elephants, the Asian elephant and the two African species, savanna and forest share sociobiological patterns in which chemical signals play a vital role. Elephants emit secretions and excretions and display behaviors that reveal the importance of odors in their interactions. In this review, we begin with a brief introduction of research in elephant chemical ecology leading up to the 21st century, and then we summarize the body of work that has built upon it and occurred in the last c. 20 years. The 21st century has expanded our understanding on elephant chemical ecology, revealing their use of odors to detect potential threats and make dietary choices. Furthermore, complementary in situ and ex situ studies have allowed the careful observations of captive elephants to be extended to fieldwork involving their wild counterparts. While important advances have been made in the 21st century, further work should investigate the roles of chemical signaling in elephants and how these signals interact with other sensory modalities. All three elephant species are threatened with extinction, and we suggest that chemical ecology can be applied for targeted conservation efforts.
... Because of the high nutrition content of many crops, scientists have found that elephants feeding regularly on farmland are growing faster, are more dominant, and have higher reproductive success243 . Changing cropping patterns from crops attractive to elephants to spices or herbs containing essential oils and developing conflict-free income sources, such as honey production, in areas of high risk of elephant crop damage are strategies that can pave the way to coexistence244,245 . Such new cropping and income generation patterns need to suit the ecological conditions of an area and must be economically viable for local farmers. ...
The WWF/UNEP report features the global need for holistic and integrated human-wildlife conflict managment and the development of sustainable human-wildlife coexistence strategies. More than 150 experts from 40 organisations in 27 countries were interviewed and their contributions integrated into the report. The report, A future for all - the need for human-wildlife coexistence, highlights that HWC is as much a development and humanitarian issue as a conservation concern and risks derailing the Sustainable Development Goals. The call to action emphasizes that if the world is to have a chance of meeting the SDGs by the 2030 deadline, HWC must be explicitly included in SDG implementation plans, as well as at the heart of the Convention on Biodiversity’s new framework. Managing HWC in this way can lead to opportunities and benefits not only for biodiversity and impacted communities, but for society, sustainable development, production, and the global economy at large.
... Later, changes in crop regimes that are unattractive and unpalatable to elephants should be attempted in accordance with local growing conditions. For example, Gross et al. (2017) suggest that attempts to grow plants for medicine and aroma, such as lemongrass, mint species, and citronella, would increase income for local farmers and reduce damage from elephant attacks in HEC hotspot areas. The crop damage was more likely to be severe in elephant habitats with a higher rate of deforestation (Kushwaha and Hazarika, 2004) and degradation of elephant habitat (Sukumar, 1992(Sukumar, , 2003. ...
Human-elephant conflicts (HEC) are detrimental for both humans and elephants. A better understanding of HEC enhances effective mitigation strategies and promotes the well-being of humans and wild elephants. This study assesses the pattern and distribution of HEC in three different HEC hotspots in Myanmar and identifies local factors that contribute to HEC. A face-to-face questionnaire survey was performed in three HEC landscapes in 30 villages. Our study showed that larger croplands were more vulnerable to crop attacks. Crop damage was found more frequent and was more severe in the more deforested landscapes. The landscapes with higher human density and where local people frequently encountered elephants, were at higher risk to elephant attack. Our results indicate that distance to the forest reserves influenced the incidents of HEC most. We suggest the implementation of land-use plans in the potential elephant migration areas to mitigate HEC and improve the local resilience to economic vulnerability due to HEC.
... It is generally recognized that there is no "stand-alone solution" to HEC, which also counts for beehive fences King et al. 2011). To improve its effectiveness, beehive fences could be implemented with other mitigation methods, such as growing crops that are not attractive to elephants (Gross, Drouet-Hoguet, Subedi, & Gross, 2017). For instance, after the study, the farm-owner started growing chili and lemongrass along the beehive fence as an extra barrier and source of income. ...
As human‐elephant conflict (HEC) increases, a better understanding of the human dimensions of these conflicts and non‐violent mitigation methods are needed to foster long‐term coexistence. In this study, we conducted household questionnaires (n = 296) to assess the prevalence of HEC and attitudes towards elephants in four rural villages in Thailand. In addition, we evaluated a pilot beehive fence as a sustainable solution for HEC. The majority of the households reported seeing or hearing elephants near their property at least once a week (84.9%) and experienced negative impacts from elephants in the last 5 years, (81.0%). The beehive fence deterred 88.4% of individual elephants (n = 155) and 64.3% of elephant groups (n = 28) that approached the fence. Most elephants (70.7%) exhibited behaviors suggesting heightened attentiveness or alarm. The farm owner reported economic and social benefits of the beehive fence. By contributing to farmer income and reducing crop damage caused by wild elephants, beehive fencing may provide an important locally‐managed complement to regional HEC mitigation methods.
... The development of skills and alternative livelihoods is critical for achieving overall sustainability (Suksawang, 2018). This includes planting crops that are less attractive to elephants on nearby agricultural land (Gross et al., 2017) and implementing extensive habitat restoration programs (Sitompul et al., 2011) as well as other sustainable human-elephant conflict measures. ...
Removal from natural habitat and commodification as private property compromise elephants' broader societal value. Although we support Baker & Winkler's (2020) plea for a new community-based rewilding conservation model focused on mahout culture, we recommend an expanded co-management approach to complement and enhance the regional elephant conservation strategy with additional local community stakeholders and the potential to extend across international borders into suitable elephant habitat. Holistic co-management approaches improve human wellbeing and social cohesion, as well as elephant wellbeing, thereby better securing long-term survival of Asian elephants, environmental justice, and overall sustainability.
... However, there are some crops, which are defended against feeding by herbivores through plant secondary metabolites. Field experiments have shown that elephants would not consume crops containing antifeedants like capsaicin (Parker and Osborn 2006) or so-called medicinal and aromatic plants (Gross et al. 2016, Gross et al. 2017. Although elephants are able to neutralize tannins with their salivary proteins (Clauss et al. 2005, other plant secondary metabolites seem to be avoided as detoxification is energetically expensive (Table 25). ...
My review and analysis of the current situation of human-elephant conflicts is now available online. The study commissioned by the German International Development Corporation (GIZ) describes pros and cons of different mitigation strategies used, including HEC monitoring, technical and financial strategies as well as cultural, social and political dimensions.
... Another strategy to decrease crop damage by elephants which should be investigated in future studies, is on the choice of crops which are less attractive to elephants than staple crops. Given the marketability, the specific plantation of crops containing so called antifeedants (Gross, McRobb, & Gross, 2016) bears the potential for a safe income generation in areas prone to crop damage by elephants (Gross, Drouet-Hoguet, Subedi, & Gross, 2017). ...
Crop damage caused by herbivorous wildlife species on farms located within conservation landscapes, is a driver of human-wildlife conflict (HWC). Guarding of farms, whereby farmers spend the night out in the fields, in areas adjacent to protected areas is, therefore, very common in many African and Asian countries. Furthermore, guarding is often combined with other crop protection measures, but little is known about the efficacy of these measures.
We examined the effect that different traditional and advanced crop protection measures (active and passive guarding strategies, barriers and combinations of measures) had on the magnitude of damaged crops. For this, we examined the cost of crop damage caused by a total of 20 wildlife species in two African and two Asian study areas, where different protection types were applied. Data was compared with the cost of crop damage on unprotected fields. We continuously used a standardised HWC assessment scheme over six years (2009–2014), based on site observations and measurements in addition to interviews with victims.
The analysis of crop damage costs revealed substantial losses, especially from that caused by elephants (Loxodonta africana and Elephas maximus) and other large herbivores, such as zebra (Equus quagga) and common eland (Taurotragus oryx). Once wildlife had entered the farms, it was found that crop protection measures by
farmers were only able to reduce damage costs when applied as a communal, strategic guarding system. Surprisingly, all other traditional crop protection strategies have proven ineffective in reducing crop damage costs. Electrical fences actually increased the risk of crop damage when combined with guarding and the chasing of wildlife strategies. Therefore, we recommend reviewing the practice of traditional guarding strategies and the effectiveness of fences. Furthermore, we emphasise the need for objective evaluation of HWC mitigation strategies in the long-term.
Human-wildlife conflict (HWC) negatively impacts both humans and wildlife. Attitudes of local residents have been critical in promoting wildlife conservation. It is therefore necessary to understand the characteristics of HWC and identify influential factors on attitudes towards conservation to implement conservation strategies efficiently. This research focused on features of human-elephant interactions, while attitudes and values regarding the small population of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in Nangunhe National Nature Reserve (NNR), Yunnan, China. The total of 327 valid questionnaires were gathered around the area where Asian elephants were distributed. Logistic regression models were employed to analyze the correlations among five predictor variables (‘Area’, ‘Family size’, ‘Annual income’, ‘Quantity of family members in non-primary industries’ and ‘Experiencing loss or not’) and three response variables (‘Attitude towards elephants’, ‘Perception of the values of elephants’ and ‘Attitude towards tourism development’). The study area was densely forested with tea plants, rubber trees, corns and sugarcane. There, 25.99% of respondents reported the experience of human-elephant conflict (HEC), with crop raiding and cash crop damages being the major conflict types. To demonstrate respect for elephants and to mitigate HEC, a unique custom called ‘Giving tribute to elephants’ was developed long ago. Respondents’ township with an official annual festival of ‘Giving Tribute to Elephants’ (odds ratio (OR) = 2.75, P = 1.73 × 10−6) and higher annual income (OR = 2.09, P = 5.45 × 10−5) significantly contributed to forming a more positive attitude towards elephants, whereas HEC itself have contributed to a more negative attitude (OR = 0.50, P = 3.29 × 10−3). Therefore, we propose that: 1) reducing human-elephant conflict by testing multiple mitigation measures and adopting the most effective one of them; 2) enhancing local livelihoods through the development of ecological products and ecotourism; and 3) preserving and developing the Wa culture in this region. The study area deserves more attention and further research to explore and obtain endorsement from the public to achieve coexistence between human and wildlife.
Asian elephants are a principal cause of human-wildlife conflict. This results in the death/injury of elephants and humans and large-scale crop and property damage. Most current human-elephant conflict (HEC) mitigation tools lack the flexibility to accommodate the ecological needs of elephants and are ineffective at reducing HEC in the long-term. Here we review common HEC mitigation tools used in Asia and the potential of Aversive Geofencing Devices (AGDs) to manage problem elephants. AGDs can be configured to monitor animal movements in real-time and deliver auditory warnings followed by electric stimuli whenever animals attempt to move across user-specified virtual boundaries. Thus, AGDs are expected to condition elephants to avoid receiving shocks and keep them away from virtually fenced areas, while providing alternative routes that can be modified if required. Studies conducted using AGDs with other species provide an overview of their potential in conditioning wild animals. We recommend that the efficacy and welfare impact of AGDs be evaluated using captive elephants along with public perception of using AGDs on elephants as a means of addressing the inherent deficiencies of common HEC mitigation tools. If elephants could be successfully conditioned to avoid virtual fences, then AGDs could resolve many HEC incidents throughout Asia.
Man-wildlife conflict is common where forests exist in the vicinity of human habitation. Such conflicts like man-tiger conflict in the Sunderbans and man-elephant conflict in the forests of Dooars and Jungle Mahal are considered in this study. Human-elephant conflict is an incidental occurrence of the Jungle Mahal which is seasonally disturbed by the intrusion of the herd of elephants in the agricultural lands adjacent to the forest areas. Incidentally, elephants of the Jungle Mahal and Dooars enter the paddy field or in the farms of vegetables and greens only when they are filling half the stomach. The members of the herd have become violent when they are barred or restricted from their feast in the farms of vegetables and greens by the local inhabitants. Consequently, people are sometimes injured by the violent elephants and thus people particularly of adventurous types are attacked by the elephants. A list of such attacked persons is prepared by a rapid sampling method, but there might be vagueness in the number of attacks per person by the elephants. Determination of variance by means of standard error on the number of elephant-attacks on the attacked persons and encountered by the same persons to the elephants is the objective of this study applying statistical methods of random sampling with replacement. In such sampling, things get more complicated when the true value in a population is estimated with a sample of persons. Like elephants of Dooars and Jungle Mahal, tigers attacked and killed the fishermen, woodcutters, and the honey collectors in the mangrove forest of the Sunderbans. Further, tiger straying incidents in the villages and that of tiger attacks upon the human being has become a serious problem causing man-tiger conflict. Such incidents of man-animal conflicts are somehow correlated and that correlation is estimated to establish the relationships of incidents applying the statistical measures on the average month-wise data of tiger straying incidents and average number of persons killed by the tiger attacks.
Both African elephants ( Loxodonta spp.) and the Asian elephant ( Elephas maximus ) across their range come into conflict with people because of their crop-raiding behavior, which presents profound impediments to farmer livelihoods. In response, a series of interventions, designed to reduce elephant crop raiding have been applied. Based on an extensive review of elephant crop-raiding studies published over a 31-year period, we identified four primary categories of interventions including: (i) detection efforts; (ii) preemptive measures; (iii) fencing and trenches; and (iv) deterrent techniques. The interventions reported to be most effective involved chili peppers (i.e., fences, spray, and briquettes) and crop guarding coupled with deterrents. The extent to which these interventions can be applied more widely is unclear as only two studies examined efficacy across sites in more than one country. Thus, future inquiry should evaluate the ability of effective interventions, or indeed a combination of interventions, to be applied across the range of elephants to reduce crop raiding at scale.
Loss of forest cover, rise in human populations and fragmentation of habitats leads to decline in biodiversity and extinction of large mammals globally. Elephants, being the largest of terrestrial mammals, symbolize global conservation programs and co-occur with humans within multiple-use landscapes of Asia and Africa. Within such shared landscapes, poaching, habitat loss and extent of human-elephant conflicts (HEC) affect survival and conservation of elephants. HEC are severe in South Asia with increasing attacks on humans, crop depredation and property damage. Such incidents reduce societal tolerance towards elephants and increase the risk of retaliation by local communities. We analyzed a 2-year dataset on crop depredation by Asian elephants (N = 380) events in North Bengal (eastern India). We also explored the effect of landscape, anthropogenic factors (area of forest, agriculture, distance to protected area, area of human settlements, riverine patches and human density) on the spatial occurrence of such incidents.Crop depredation showed a distinct nocturnal pattern (22.00-06:00) and majority of the incidents were recorded in the monsoon and post-monsoon seasons. Results of our spatial analysis suggest that crop depredation increased with an increase in the area of forest patches, agriculture, presence of riverine patches and human density. Probability of crop depredation further increased with decreasing distance from protected areas. Villages within 1.5 km of a forest patch were most affected. Crop raiding incidents suggest a deviation from the ''high-risk high-gain male biased'' foraging behavior and involved proportionately more mixed groups (57%) than lone bulls (43%). Demographic data suggest that mixed groups comprised an average of 23 individuals with adult and sub adult females, bulls and calves. Crop depredation and fatal elephant attacks on humans were spatially clustered with eastern, central and western parts of North Bengal identified as hotspots of HEC. Our results will help to prioritize mitigation measures such as prohibition of alcohol production within villages, improving condition of riverine patches, changing crop composition, fencing agriculture fields, implement early warning systems around protected areas and training local people on how to prevent conflicts.
Efforts to increase food production across Asia have relied on the intensification of established farms, as well as the expansion of farming activities into previously wild areas. Farms at agricultural frontiers face distinct challenges from those in historically farmed regions and require distinct support structures. We interviewed 324 rice farmers at seven sites in southern Sri Lanka to determine challenges to rice production in the region and the propensity for human wildlife conflict. Farmers (80%) reported wildlife including peafowl (Pavo cristatus) and other birds, as well as free-ranging (semi-)domestic animals such as buffalo (Bubalus bubalis), as their principal biotic constraints across sites, with relatively few farmers regarding weeds, insect pests, or diseases as a constraint (mentioned by 25% of farmers in total). Farmers near wilderness areas reported elephants (Elephas maximus) and wild boar (Sus scrofa) as major constraints to rice production. 64% of farmers had received training from government and other support agencies during the five years prior to our survey. Training mainly addressed insect pests and diseases and focused on lethal product-based solutions (88% of training). Farmers did not receive support or advice to mitigate crop foraging and human-wildlife conflict; instead, farmers relied heavily on repellence (human activated) responses, such as early warning systems and active scaring. We suggest that Agriculture, Development and Wildlife authorities might increase intergovernmental cooperation and coordination of farmer training to better manage crop foraging in our study region. We present a review of possible non-lethal, farm-based methods that could be promoted during training programs for farmers facing challenges from wildlife in such a biologically diverse region. Currently, a wide range of low-cost avoidance, barrier and deterrence systems (that are not monitored or activated by humans) are available. These can be used to avoid harmful repellence practices.
In this chapter, the concepts of integrated pest management (IPM) and integrated production (IP) are explained, and the most important definitions are given. The legal framework for regulation of IPM in the European Union is specified, and the general principles are explained. The EU Framework Directive requires that all EU member states develop a national action plan (NAP), which ensures that a set of eight general principles of IPM are implemented by all professional pesticide users. Along these principles, the authors present an overview on important examples for new and innovative developments and attempts in plant protection to enhance sustainable agriculture. They give short introductions in selective and biorational pesticides, anti-resistance strategies, and new methods for monitoring pest insects by semiochemicals. Furthermore, they give an overview on the diversity of nonchemical methods in pest control. These methods include mating disruption techniques mediated by semiochemicals and substrate vibrations, mass trapping, attract-and-kill techniques, the use of repellents, antifeedants and deterrents, as well as more complex push-and-pull strategies.
Rodents are among the most damaging pests in agriculture worldwide. High-density populations of rodent pests can kill plants or diminish their growth, and reduce both fruit size and the number of seeds. Therefore, rodent pests can lead to considerable crop loss and require management actions to minimize damage. Optimal management of pest rodents is usually based on the combination of methods to reduce damage. Although rodenticides are usually the most commonly deployed approach, they have undesirable side effects. Consequently, more environmentally benign approaches such as repellents or attractants to lure rodents away from fields are gaining traction. The dispersal of a large number of juvenile males at certain times of year has prompted us to focus on male rodents for our experiments. We used laboratory feeding experiments to measure how the odor of plant secondary metabolites (PSMs) affects two pest rodents: common voles (Microtus arvalis, Pallas) and house mice (Mus musculus, L.). We tested eighteen different PSMs or combinations thereof with voles. Four PSMs reduced feeding and seven PSMs increased feeding of male common voles. Five of six tested odors were effective as repellents against house mice. However, we assume a species-specific response to volatile PSMs repellents. This study demonstrated that four repellents reduced feeding in both rodent species. Our results contribute to the development of non-lethal management tools for rodent pest species that are potentially more suitable than traps and rodenticides. This approach could be applicable to a variety of crops if effective at field conditions.
Human–elephant conflict is one of the main threats to the long-term survival of the Asian elephant
Elephas maximus
. We studied the nature and extent of human–elephant interactions in the buffer zones of Chitwan National Park and Parsa Wildlife Reserve in Nepal, through household questionnaire surveys, key informant interviews, site observations, and analysis of the reported cases of damage during January 2008–December 2012. During this 5-year period 290 incidents of damage by elephants were reported, with a high concentration of incidents in a few locations. Property damage (53%) was the most common type of damage reported. Crop damage was reported less often but household surveys revealed it to be the most frequent form of conflict. There were also human casualties, including 21 deaths and four serious injuries. More than 90% of the human casualties occurred during 2010–2012. More than two thirds of the respondents (70%) perceived that human–elephant conflict had increased substantially during the previous 5 years. Despite the increase in incidents of human–elephant conflict in the area, 37% of respondents had positive attitudes towards elephant conservation. Our findings suggest that public awareness and compensation for losses could reduce conflict and contribute to ensuring coexistence of people and elephants in this human-dominated landscape.
Throughout the sub-saharan African countries, in which populations of the African Elephant (Loxodonta africana) exist, farmers come into conflict with these pachyderms. Attracted by nutritious crops on the fields they destroy substantial amounts of harvest by crossing through the plantations and feeding on the crops. As this species is protected and listed as a threatened species by the IUCN Red List and therefore must not be killed, new ways need to be found to repel or not attract the pachyderms to fields. The replacement of crops, which are attractive to elephants by such, which are not attractive, might be a solution for the agricultural sector in and close to elephant habitats.
A field experiment has been conducted to test the attractiveness of potential alternative crops (ginger, onion, garlic and lemon grass) compared to a control plot with maize as a very attractive crop. Elephants visited both, the test crops and the control of maize and completely destroyed the maize six weeks prior to its harvest time. In contrast, the test crops were only slightly damaged, mostly through trampling. In a very late state of the experiment lemon grass and ginger were consumed by the elephants in small quantities. Yields that have been obtained from the test crops would have exceeded the yields of the maize. The selection of crops which are less attractive to large herbivores such as elephants needs to be considered as a strategy to reduce conflicts between farmers and endangered wildlife species.
The systematic study of human–elephant conflict (HEC) and its mitigation began in the mid-1990s. The IUCN African Elephant Specialist Group and its Human–Elephant Conflict Working Group took the lead in research required and the subsequent dissemination of tools to manage the problem. Over 15 years we have now seen widespread application of HEC mitigation methods by wildlife practitioners and affected communities all over the African elephant range. This paper re-evaluates and refines some established mitigation methods and introduces innovations that have appeared recently. The evolution of the arsenal of HEC mitigation methods suggests that currently relevant developments fall into three categories: biological, physical and governance. These broadly reflect new knowledge about problem animals themselves, better application of fencing and olfactory deterrents, and evaluation of options for damage compensation and land-use policy. We now have a much-improved understanding of the behaviour of 'problem' elephants which points to the futility of killing them. Credible evaluation of the use of fencing models and designs is now possible. The package of low-tech and sustainable defences based around the olfactory deterrent of chilli is well established and producing good results in smallholder agricultural situations. The deterrent potential of bees is assessed. Recommendations for the critical area of HEC mitigation through new official policy and governance initiatives are mostly in the proposal or experimental stage; this relates to political rights and land use and is the most urgent and crucial part of containing the problem across the continent. It is being marketed to elephant range States under an umbrella term – the Vertical Integration Model. Effective HEC mitigation is difficult to understand and problematic to implement; it remains a complex package of apparently disparate measures that have to be used in combination and flexibly, at different scales. Future HEC mitigation will be as much an art as a science, but since we now have a solid research foundation, we can proceed with some confidence to address the inherent socio-political difficulties.
Coriandrum sativum L. (C. sativum) is one of the most useful essential oil bearing spices as well as medicinal plants, belonging to the family Umbelliferae/Apiaceae. The leaves and seeds of the plant are widely used in folk medicine in addition to its use as a seasoning in food preparation. The C. sativum essential oil and extracts possess promising antibacterial, antifungal and anti-oxidative activities as various chemical components in different parts of the plant, which thus play a great role in maintaining the shelf-life of foods by preventing their spoilage. This edible plant is non-toxic to humans, and the C. sativum essential oil is thus used in different ways, viz., in foods (like flavouring and preservatives) and in pharmaceutical products (therapeutic action) as well as in perfumes (fragancias and lotions). The current updates on the usefulness of the plant C. sativum are due to scientific research published in different web-based journals.
The demand for lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) is for its high citral content. Early or delayed harvesting of lemongrass affected essential oil and citral content. The objective of the study was to determine the effects of three maturity stages at harvest of lemongrass on essential oil, chemical composition and citral contents. The lemongrass plant was planted using a randomized complete block design with four replications, at the University Agriculture Park, Universiti Putra Malaysia. The plants were harvested at 5.5, 6.5, and 7.5 months after planting. After harvest, the essential oil, chemical composition and citral contents were analysed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis. There were significant effects of maturity stages on essential oil and citral contents. Lemongrass harvested at 5.5 and 6.5 months after planting had significantly higher oil contents than those harvested at 7.5 months. A total of 65 compounds were detected from all the three stages of maturity. However, only 13 compounds were present at each of the maturity stage. Among 13 compounds, only 7 compounds (β-myrcene, 3-undecyne, neral, geranial, nerol, geranyl acetate and juniper camphor) had a concentration of greater than 1%. The citral content at 6.5 months after planting was higher by 11.4% than at 5.5 months after planting. The citral content decreased by 5.4% when lemongrass was harvested at 6.5 compared to at 7.5 months after planting. Citral content peaked at 6.7 ± 0.3 months after planting. Thus, maturity stage at harvest influenced essential oil and citral contents of lemongrass. Therefore, lemongrass should be harvested at the appropriate level of maturity in order to achieve high quality essential oil and lower production cost.
Ocimum basilicum L. (Lamiaceae) commonly known as sweet basil, has been used as a traditional medicinal plant for the treatment of headaches, coughs, diarrhea, constipation, warts, worms, and kidney malfunctions.
The essential oil of the flowering aerial parts of O. basilicum growing in the Western Ghats region of North West Karnataka, India, was obtained by hydro-distillation and analyzed by gas chromatography equipped with flame ionization detector and gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The oil was tested against six Gram-positive, eight Gram-negative bacteria, and three fungi by the tube-dilution method at a concentration range of 5.00-0.009 mg/mL.
Twenty-five constituents were identified in the essential oil of O. basilicum. The major constituents were identified as methyl eugenol (39.3%) and methyl chavicol (38.3%), accounting for 98.6% of the total oil. The oil was found to be active against Gram-positive, Gram-negative bacteria, and fungi with minimal bactericidal concentration values in the range of 0.143 ± 0.031 to 0.572 ± 0.127 mg/mL, 0.781 ± 0.382 to 1.875 ± 0.684 mg/mL, and 0.312 ± 0.171 to 0.442 ± 0.207 mg/mL, respectively.
The essential oil of O. basilicum of this region contains methyl eugenol/methyl chavicol chemotype and has bactericidal properties.
The two-way object choice paradigm has been used extensively in studies of animal cognition. The paradigm involves presenting two options, one rewarding and one nonrewarding, to a subject and allowing it to make a choice between the two, potentially by exploiting specific cues provided by the experimenter. Using the paradigm, we tested first whether Asian elephants, Elephas maximus, could use auditory and/or olfactory cues to find food. While elephants were unable to locate hidden food by following an auditory cue, they were capable of finding food when the cue was olfactory. The second part of the study involved providing the subjects with only olfactory information about one option before presenting them with a choice between two. In trials in which subjects were allowed to investigate only the nonrewarding option, they made choices by exclusion, either inferring the location of the rewarding option or simply avoiding the nonrewarding one. Elephants thus relied on olfaction to locate food and to exclude nonrewarding food locations, but failed to use auditory information (when it was the only cue presented) to do the same. This study represents important evidence of elephants using their sense of smell in a cognitive task.
The Terai is one of the world's most spectacular landscapes, encompassing parts of Nepal and northern India. This area used to harbour large and continuous populations of charismatic species like elephants, tigers and rhinoceros. However, recent habitat fragmentation reduced these populations into small, partially or completely isolated remnants. The largest of these fragments in Nepal is the Bardia National Park. Here, the elephant population was functionally extinct in the early 1970s and -80s, but was rescued by a considerable number of immigrants in 1994. In order to assess population size, sex ratio, age structure, and levels of genetic variation, we carried out non-invasive genetic sampling, using elephant dung as the source of DNA. A capture-mark-recapture estimate of population size suggested that there were 57 individuals in the study area, which agrees well with field observations. Notably, a strongly male-biased sex ratio was evident among sub-adult individuals. This observation suggests the presence of sub-adult immigrants in the population, which was supported by formal migrant detection analysis. Genetic variation was quite high and the evidence for male immigrants suggests that there are good prospects for maintenance of genetic diversity. A decade ago a large-scale project was initiated in the Terai region to link remaining populations of large mammals through dispersal corridors. The program is basically founded on the assumption that habitat fragments are isolated with little or no migration between them. Our results indicate that this may not be the case, at least not for the Asian elephant in western Nepal, which therefore reduces the alleged extinction risk from genetic erosion and stochastic demographic events.
This paper describes the collection and trade of dry medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) from Gorkha District in central Nepal to Delhi in northern India. It is based on two years’ field work in Nepal and India. Substantial amounts of MAPs are available and accessible in the northern and middle parts of the district; currently 35 species are traded and further 13 species traded elsewhere are found in the district. Approximately 3700 individuals are engaged in commercial MAP collection; in the northern and middle parts of the district 25–100% of households in a given village participate in the collection. The average daily income is competitive with other income generating activities and commercial MAP collection constitutes from 15–35% of poor households ’ annual income (households with less than 300 US$ annual income). Commercial MAP collection is generally not important in the southern part of the district. Almost all species are harvested in the wild. The harvested and dried MAPs move southward from the forests and alpine pastures in Nepal to the main Indian markets on the Gangetic plain. Marketing margin analysis of the six main products traded shows that collectors’ net margins average 46.6% of the Delhi wholesale price; the overall average net margin for traders is only 3.0% and for Terai wholesalers 31.5%. The main potentials and pitfalls in connection to improving the trade for the collectors are briefly discussed. There are indications that the commercial MAP collection in central Nepal is not unsustainable.
In the mid 1980s, Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) populations were believed to persist in 44 populations on the Indonesian island of Sumatra. Twelve of these populations occurred in Lampung Province, but our surveys revealed that only three were extant in 2002. Causal factors underlying this decline include human population growth, changes in land use, and human–elephant conflict. Nevertheless, our surveys in the Province’s two national parks, Bukit Barisan Selatan and Way Kambas, produced population estimates of 498 (95% CI = [373, 666]) and 180 (95% CI = [144, 225]) elephants, respectively. The estimate for Bukit Barisan Selatan is much larger than previous estimates; the estimate for Way Kambas falls between previous estimates. The third population was much smaller and may not be viable. These are the first estimates for Southeast Asian elephant populations based on rigorous sampling-based methods that satisfied the assumptions of the models used, and they suggest that elephant numbers in these parks are of international importance. While our results suggest that Sumatra’s remaining elephant populations may be larger than expected, they also suggest that the future for these animals is bleak. Human–elephant conflict was reported around all three areas in Lampung and their elephant populations are currently threatened by habitat loss and poaching. Local solutions are possible, but will require much greater commitment by all stakeholders.
Plant secondary metabolites (PSMs) significantly impact the nutritional ecology of terrestrial vertebrate herbivores. Herbivores have a wide range of mecha-nisms (herbivore offenses) to mitigate the negative effects of PSMs. We discuss several behavioral and physiological offenses used by terrestrial vertebrates. Several newly rec-ognized herbivore offenses such as regulated absorption and regulation of toxin intake are presented. We give a detailed description of the biotransformation system with respect to PSMs. We also summarize recent findings of plant–animal interactions for lizards, birds, and mammals. Finally, we discuss some new tools that can be applied to long-standing questions of plant–vertebrate interactions.
The association between man and elephant in Sri Lanka is ancient. Elephants being the largest terrestrial herbivores require relatively large areas and diversity of environments to forage. With the increase in human population density and changes in the land-use patterns, elephant habitat is being continuously reduced. As a result, much of the present day elephant range extends into and overlaps with agricultural lands resulting in conflict with man. The assessment of the human-elephant conflict was carried out from January to March 2008 through the use of a questionnaire in 100 villages selected randomly from five provinces whose combined extent is 42,559 km 2 which amounts roughly to 65% of the total land area of Sri Lanka. 65% of the respondents identified crop depredations with bull elephants, both young and old. At least 13 food items have been identified by the villagers as preferred by wild elephants in agricultural areas. Crop damage to paddy accounted for 69% of the complaints. At the same time, most of the farmers identified citrus trees as the most likely crop to be avoided by elephants. Failure to recognize the significance of the human-elephant conflict can result in a negative attitude to elephants and apathy or indifference to conservation initiatives. Although it is unlikely that the human-elephant conflict can be eliminated altogether, yet every effort must be taken to reduce it to tolerable levels.
Dry season diets and habitat use of increasing populations of Asian elephants Elephas maximus and greater one-horned rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis in the Babai Valley of Royal Bardia National Park, Nepal, are described, and an assessment is made of the potential for competition between them. The diets, analysed by microhistology, were different, with a similarity index of 37.5%, and with different grass/browse proportions: the rhino diet consisted of 63% grass and 28% browse; that of elephants was 24% grass and 65% browse. A tallgrass floodplain grass, Saccharum spontaneum, was the plant most eaten by rhinos, whereas elephants consumed a large proportion of bark of Bombax ceiba and Acacia catechu, as well as several browse species not eaten by rhino. The habitat use of elephants was determined by dung-counts within 30 km of 20-m wide belt transects, while that of rhino was taken from an earlier study. Elephants used a wider range of habitats than rhino, but two types, the tallgrass floodplain and khair–sissoo forest, were preferred by both species simultaneously. While elephants used the abundant sal forest extensively, rhino strongly avoided this habitat. Densities of both species were low at the time of study (<0.5 animals/km2), but their numbers are expected to increase markedly in coming years. Because available habitats for expansion are limited, this may lead to competition. Rhino might then become the weaker species, as elephants are more flexible in their ranging and foraging activities. The tallgrass floodplain habitat and its important forage grass S. spontaneum may then become the critical resources.
Interactions among sympatric large predators and their prey and how they respond to conservation measures are poorly known. This study examines predictions concerning the effects of establishing a protected area in Nepal on tigers (Panthera tigris), leopards (Panthera pardus), and their ungulate prey. Within a part of the park, after 22 years the total density of wild ungulates had increased fourfold, to ca. 200 animals/km2, almost exclusively due to a remarkable increase in chital deer (Axis axis). Tiger density also increased markedly to nearly 20 animals/100 km2, whereas leopard density did not and was ca. 5 animals/100 km2. The prediction that grazers should increase more than browsers was only partially supported. The prediction of positive density dependence in prey selection was not supported. Instead, the most abundant species (chital and hog deer, Axis porcinus) were killed less frequently than expected, whereas the lower-density wild boar (Sus scrofa) was preferred. Predictions that (i) initially rare species suffer highest predation was partially supported, that (ii) predation is highest among the most abundant prey was not supported, and that (iii) predation is highest among the most preferred prey independently of their densities was supported. Clearly, the conservation efforts adopted in Bardia were successful, as both tigers and their natural prey base increased. However, the positive numerical response of tigers limited and depressed the abundance of some prey species. Thus, conservation activities aimed at restoring large predators are likely to change in the composition of the overall mammal community, potentially eliminating rare but preferred prey species.
Conflict with humans over livestock and crops seriously undermines the conservation prospects of India's large and potentially dangerous mammals such as the tiger (Panthera tigris) and elephant (Elephas maximus). This study, carried out in Bhadra Tiger Reserve in south India, estimates the extent of material and monetary loss incurred by resident villagers between 1996 and 1999 in conflicts with large felines and elephants, describes the spatiotemporal patterns of animal damage, and evaluates the success of compensation schemes that have formed the mainstay of loss-alleviation measures. Annually each household lost an estimated 12% (0.9 head) of their total holding to large felines, and approximately 11% of their annual grain production (0.82 tonnes per family) to elephants. Compensations awarded offset only 5% of the livestock loss and 14% of crop losses and were accompanied by protracted delays in the processing of claims. Although the compensation scheme has largely failed to achieve its objective of alleviating loss, its implementation requires urgent improvement if reprisal against large wild mammals is to be minimized. Furthermore, innovative schemes of livestock and crop insurance need to be tested as alternatives to compensations.
Medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) have been recognized as an important resource for health care and perfumery since antiquity. At present, there is a vast scope for enterprise development in this natural resource. The wealth of knowledge on the use of MAPs and different stages of MAPs sector, including collection, cultivation, processing, marketing, value addition and manufacturing, each stage on its own forms a base for an exclusive enterprise. Realizing the enormous potential for building up entrepreneurship in the MAPs sector, the present paper aims to review and discuss the ways and areas of concerns for MAPs-based enterprise development, including certification, value addition, marketing and policy frameworks.
The Asian elephant has had a unique cultural association with people. Unfortunately, elephants and people have also been in conflict, resulting in the decline in elephants throughout their former range in Southern Asia. This book provides an ecological analysis of elephant human interaction and its implications for the conservation of elephants. The foraging habits of elephants and their impact on vegetation are considered, along with the interactions that occur between elephants and humans. The ecological data provide the basis for recommendations on elephant conservation and management, keeping in view the socioeconomic imperatives of the Asian region.This first comprehensive account of Asian elephant ecology will be of particular interest to conservation biologists and mammalogists.
The metabolic rate—body size relationship suggests that the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) should be least selective among mammalian herbivores in its diet. However, selection among plant species needs to be distinguished from selection for plant parts or other features. We investigated seasonal variation in the selective utilization and dietary contribution of woody plant species, parts, and height classes to vegetation consumed by elephants in the Kalahari sandveld region of Chobe National Park, Botswana. Only 30% of 27 common woody species were moderately or highly acceptable to elephants in the wet season, increasing to more than 50% in the hot dry season. Six woody species remained mostly or entirely rejected by elephants throughout the year. Most of the browse consumed during each season came from 1 or 2 common shrub species. Leaves and leaf-bearing shoots constituted 80% of the material consumed from woody plants during the wet season, but only 45% during the cool dry season. Stem, bark, and root tissues contributed 50% of the woody plant component of the diet in the cool dry season, increasing to 94% in the hot dry season. Hence, despite their narrow selection for plant species, large size coupled with hindgut digestion enables elephants to exploit a wide range of plant parts, including fibrous stems, bark, and roots. Accordingly, elephants occupy a dietary niche distinct from browsing or grazing ruminants.
Palatabilities of parts and growth stages of balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera) to snowshoe hares (Lepus americanus) are related to concentrations of specific plant metabolites that act as antifeedants. Buds are defended from hares by cineol, benzyl alcohol, and (+)-α-bisabolol. Internodes are defended by 6-hydroxycylohexenone (6-HCH) and salicaldehyde. Although defense of interaodes depends upon both compounds, the defense of juvenile internodes is principally related to salicaldehyde concentration; the defense of internode current annual growth is principally related to 6-HCH concentration. The concentration of 6-HCH can be supplemented by the hydrolysis of phenol glycosides when plant tissue is disrupted, raising the possibility of a dynamic element of the chemical defense of poplar.
Geraniol is a commercially important terpene alcohol occurring in the essential oils of several aromatic plants. It is one of the most important molecules in the flavour and fragrance industries and is a common ingredient in consumer products produced by these industries. In addition to its pleasant odour, geraniol is known to exhibit insecticidal and repellent properties and used as a natural pest control agent exhibiting low toxicity. Geraniol has been suggested to represent a new class of chemoprevention agents for cancer. Other biological activities such as antimicrobial, anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory and some vascular effects have also been investigated. The effect of geraniol as a penetration enhancer for transdermal drug delivery has also attracted the attention of researchers and formulation scientists. This review aims to coherently discuss some of the most important applications of geraniol and unites the results obtained from several studies reporting the biological properties of this molecule.
The habitat utilisation by ungulates in a newly created tiger sanctuary of the southwestern Nepalese Terai is analysed. While most of the Royal Karnali-Bardia Wildlife Reserve is covered by a rather homogeneous belt of moist subtropical deciduous forest, one section of the reserve supported a wide variety of habitat types. In this area, flood plain, savannah, and several riverine forest associations intergraded with stands of the dominant Shorea robusta forest. Free-living mammals responded to this ecological heterogeneity, permitting an analysis of habitat preferences by the following species: chital Axis axis, nilgai Boselaphus tragocamelus, hog deer Axis porcinus, barking deer Muntiacus muntjak, swamp deer Cervus duvauceli, sambar Cervus unicolor, and two primate species, common langur Presbytis entellus, and rhesus monkeys Macaca mulatta. Differences in feeding and anti-predator strategies offered a degree of ecological separation between most of the ungulates studied. Changes in plant distribution and phenology affected ungulate food habits, energy budgets, movements, and seasonal distribution. A special feeding relationship between certain ungulates and langur and rhesus monkeys was observed. The sambar, an ungulate capable of exploiting a feeding niche in continuous climax forest, appears to be best adapted to the habitat types which dominate most of Karnali-Bardia, while only 30% of the reserve could be considered prime habitat for the chital, the most abundant grazing ungulate in the reserve. Proposals to improve habitat conditions for grazing ungulates through an experimental programme integrating controlled burns, water hole development, and the creation of openings in continuous climax forest are examined.
A field experiment was conducted in the farm of Mr Jayanthilal Sachdev, a progressive farmer on a red clay loam soil in the semi-arid tropical climate of South India, to study the influence of planting cornmint (Mentha arvensis L. f. piperascens Malinvaud ex Holmes, family: Lamiaceae) in different months on its biomass and essential oil yields. In this climate, cornmint was harvested six–seven times in a period of 17–18 months. August (rainy), November (autumn), and December (winter) planted crop produced significantly superior total biomass and essential oil yields compared to September and January planted cornmint. The results indicated the feasibility of intercropping cornmint with tomato (6.3 t/ha) during the first harvest period. The quality of the essential oil with 73.0% menthol, 9.6% menthone, 4.0% isomenthone, and 4.0% menthyl acetate was found to be good and readily accepted in the market. This investigation in a farmer’s field with 42.5–63.5 t/ha total biomass yield and 196.3–271.5 kg/ha total essential oil yield, clearly demonstrated the economic feasibility of cultivating cornmint in semi-arid tropical climate. It has also shown the possibility of planting the crop during different seasons and growing it as a biennial.
Habitat loss and fragmentation are main causes for Asian elephant population declines. We mapped wildlands - large, unfragmented and undeveloped areas - asking: (1) Where are the largest wildlands that constitute elephant habitats? (2) What proportion of these wildlands is protected? (3) What is their potential for elephant conservation? Our study demonstrates that wildlands constitute only 51% of the Asian elephant range. Myanmar has the largest wildland ([similar]170,000 km2), followed by Thailand and India. In Principal Components Analysis (PCA), the first two components explained 73% of the variation in fragmentation among ranges. We identified three fragmentation clusters from the PCA. Cluster A contains large ranges with unfragmented wildlands; cluster B includes ranges with well-developed transportation networks and large human populations; and cluster C contains ranges with severely fragmented wildlands. In cluster A, we identified four ranges with elephant populations >1000 animals: ARYO, MYUC, BNMH and BITE. Together with ranges that support >1000 elephants in cluster B, these A ranges have great potential for long-term elephant conservation. We propose that fragmentation clusters and population size can be used to identify different elephant monitoring and management zones.
Productivity of crops grown for human consumption is at risk due to the incidence of pests, especially weeds, pathogens and animal pests. Crop losses due to these harmful organisms can be substantial and may be prevented, or reduced, by crop protection measures. An overview is given on different types of crop losses as well as on various methods of pest control developed during the last century.
Estimates on potential and actual losses despite the current crop protection practices are given for wheat, rice, maize, potatoes, soybeans, and cotton for the period 2001–03 on a regional basis (19 regions) as well as for the global total. Among crops, the total global potential loss due to pests varied from about 50% in wheat to more than 80% in cotton production. The responses are estimated as losses of 26–29% for soybean, wheat and cotton, and 31, 37 and 40% for maize, rice and potatoes, respectively. Overall, weeds produced the highest potential loss (34%), with animal pests and pathogens being less important (losses of 18 and 16%). The efficacy of crop protection was higher in cash crops than in food crops. Weed control can be managed mechanically or chemically, therefore worldwide efficacy was considerably higher than for the control of animal pests or diseases, which rely heavily on synthetic chemicals. Regional differences in efficacy are outlined. Despite a clear increase in pesticide use, crop losses have not significantly decreased during the last 40 years. However, pesticide use has enabled farmers to modify production systems and to increase crop productivity without sustaining the higher losses likely to occur from an increased susceptibility to the damaging effect of pests.
The concept of integrated pest/crop management includes a threshold concept for the application of pest control measures and reduction in the amount/frequency of pesticides applied to an economically and ecologically acceptable level. Often minor crop losses are economically acceptable; however, an increase in crop productivity without adequate crop protection does not make sense, because an increase in attainable yields is often associated with an increased vulnerability to damage inflicted by pests.
Although much has been published about curcumin, which is obtained from turmeric, comparatively little is known about turmeric itself. Turmeric, a golden spice obtained from the rhizome of the plant Curcuma longa, has been used to give color and taste to food preparations since ancient times. Traditionally, this spice has been used in Ayurveda and folk medicine for the treatment of such ailments as gynecological problems, gastric problems, hepatic disorders, infectious diseases, and blood disorders. Modern science has provided the scientific basis for the use of turmeric against such disorders. Various chemical constituents have been isolated from this spice, including polyphenols, sesquiterpenes, diterpenes, triterpenoids, sterols, and alkaloids. Curcumin, which constitutes 2-5% of turmeric, is perhaps the most-studied component. Although some of the activities of turmeric can be mimicked by curcumin, other activities are curcumin-independent. Cell-based studies have demonstrated the potential of turmeric as an antimicrobial, insecticidal, larvicidal, antimutagenic, radioprotector, and anticancer agent. Numerous animal studies have shown the potential of this spice against proinflammatory diseases, cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, depression, diabetes, obesity, and atherosclerosis. At the molecular level, this spice has been shown to modulate numerous cell-signaling pathways. In clinical trials, turmeric has shown efficacy against numerous human ailments including lupus nephritis, cancer, diabetes, irritable bowel syndrome, acne, and fibrosis. Thus, a spice originally common in the kitchen is now exhibiting activities in the clinic. In this review, we discuss the chemical constituents of turmeric, its biological activities, its molecular targets, and its potential in the clinic.
The chemical composition of essential oils isolated from six different cultivars of corn mint grown at CIMAP Field Station, Pantnagar, were compared: menthol (77.5–89.3%) was the main constituent of all the cultivars, followed by menthone (0.3–7.9%) and isomenthone (3.7–6.1%). The oil of MAS-1 cultivar contained the highest concentration of menthol (89.3%) but the lowest percentage of menthone (0.3%), while isomenthone was not detected. Although the compositions of the six oils were similar, quantitative differences in the concentration of some constituents was observed. Yield and quality appraisals in the study led to the identification of the cultivars Kosi, Himalaya and Damroo as the most potent genotypes for maintaining mint crop diversity and productivity stability. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The Asian elephant Elephas maximus is distributed discontinuously across the Asian continent. The total wild population is 38 500-52 500, with a further c. 16 000 in captivity, the majority of which are in range countries. India has 60% of the global population of wild Asian elephants. The species has a multi-tiered social system with ♀♀ living in matriarchal groups of five to 20 individuals that interact with other family units in the area. Adult ♂♂ live alone or in small, temporary groups with weak social bonds. Asian elephants are megaherbivores that spend 12-18 hours per day feeding, and they eat browse and plants depending on availability and season. Home-range size is dependant on the availability of food, water and shelter in the region. Loss and fragmentation of habitat, human-elephant conflicts and poaching are the greatest threats to the species. Asian elephants are managed using traditional and modern methods but progress still needs to be made to improve welfare, training and breeding for these animals.
Repeated biomass harvesting for human livelihood needs can cause significant changes in forest structure, composition and diversity. Such impacts have often been associated with the distance to villages and their size, but the effects of individual villages in relation to their characteristics have been little studied. Focussing on the issues around communities’ impacts on the forest, this research aimed to understand how resource extraction by two Buffer Zone villages in Nepal's Bardia National Park affects forest structure and diversity. Tree density, basal area, diameter at breast height (DBH), species richness, two diversity indices and disturbance indices were recorded in 108 plots in 12 transects, from March till May 2005, within the park along the village boundaries, where resource extraction occurs, and in the core park area which is isolated from human disturbance. Forest subject to resource extraction had a lower density of trees, smaller DBH and lower species richness and diversity. Forest disturbance declined with distance from the villages but the two villages differed widely in their impact on the forest. Resource use was more intensive in Shivapur village and percentage of trees lopped, average lopping intensity and numbers of dung piles were statistically significant. This was mainly due to the lack of access to Buffer Zone community Forest for Shivapur households. Interviews with villagers suggested that there have been changes in species availability compared to 5 years ago. Households also underestimated the impact of their resource extraction, which may prevent them from changing their behaviour to benefit conservation. It is clear that understanding rural communities’ needs, their framing of resource extraction and utilisation, and dependence on forest resources will be very helpful for long term conservation measures.
Comparative kinetic analyses of the mechanisms of toxicity of the alkylphenol eugenol and its putative toxic metabolite (quinone methide, EQM) were carried out in cultured rat liver cells (Clone 9, ATCC) using a variety of vital fluorescence bioassays with a Meridian Ultima laser cytometer. Parameters monitored included intracellular GSH and calcium levels ([Ca2+]i), mitochondrial and plasma membrane potentials (MMP and PMP), intracellular pH, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, and gap junction-mediated intercellular communication (GJIC). Cells were exposed to various concentrations of test compounds (1 to 1000 microM) and all parameters monitored directly after addition at 15 s intervals for at least 10 min. Eugenol depleted intracellular GSH, inhibited GJIC and generation of ROS, and had a modest effect on MMP at concentrations of 10 to 100 microM. At high concentrations (1000 microM), eugenol also affected [Ca2+]i, PMP, and pH. Effects of EQM were seen at lower concentrations (1 to 10 microM). The earliest and most potent effects of either eugenol or EQM were seen on GSH levels and GJIC. Coadministration of glutathione ethyl ester enhanced intracellular GSH levels by almost 100% and completely protected cells from cell death caused by eugenol and EQM. These results suggest that eugenol mediates its hepatotoxic effects primarily through depletion of cytoprotective thiols and interference in thiol-dependent processes such as GJIC. Furthermore, our results support the hypothesis that the toxic effects of eugenol are mediated through its quinone methide metabolite.
The aim of the present study was to investigate the mode of action of luteolin on phisphodiesterase (PDE) 1-5, and the possible adverse effects, such as nausea, vomiting, and gastric hypersecretion, determined by replacing [(3)H]-rolipram binding and reversing xylazine/ketamine-induced anesthesia. The reversing effect was reported to occur through a presynaptic alpha(2)-adrenoceptor inhibition and trigger vomiting in ferrets. In contrast, clonidine, an alpha(2)-adrenoceptor agonist, prevented emesis induced by PDE4 inhibitors in ferrets. According to the Lineweaver-Burk analysis, luteolin (3-30 microM) competitively inhibited PDE1-5 activities, with K(i) values of 15.0, 6.4, 13.9, 11.1, and 9.5 microM, respectively, which did not significantly differ from each other. The equilibrium dissociation constant (K(d)) and maximal density (B(max)) for [(3)H]-rolipram binding at high-affinity rolipram binding sites of guinea pig brain cell membranes were 10.1 nM and 3.7 p mol/g of tissue, respectively. The EC(50) (PDE4(H)) values of luteolin and Ro 20-1724, a selective PDE4 inhibitor, for displacing 2 nM [(3)H]-rolipram binding were 11.2 microM and 45.6 nM, respectively. The therapeutic (PDE4(H)/PDE4(L)) ratios of luteolin and Ro 20-1724 were calculated to be 0.6, and 0.004, respectively. Both luteolin (10-30 micromol/kg, s.c.) and Ro 20-1724 (0.1-1 micromol/kg, s.c.) significantly reversed the xylazine/ketamine-induced anesthesia in mice. Although luteolin non-selectively and competitively inhibited PDE1-5, only PDE4 inhibition contributed to a reversing effect. In conclusion, because of the low therapeutic (PDE4(H)/PDE4(L)) ratio of luteolin, the gastrointestinal adverse effects such as nausea, vomiting and gastric hypersecretion should be carefully monitored, whenever luteolin is used for treating allergies, asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
Menthol and related cooling compounds such as 'coolant agent 10', are widely used in products ranging from common cold medications to toothpastes, confectionery, cosmetics and pesticides. The review brings together a range of information on production and chemistry of menthol, and its metabolism, mechanism of action, structure-activity relationships, pharmacology and toxicology. In particular, the coolant action and carminative actions of menthol are discussed in terms of actions on calcium conductance in sensory nerves and smooth muscle. The actions of menthol on the nose, respiratory reflexes, oral cavity, skin and gastrointestinal tract are reviewed.
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the histopathological effect of eugenol and bis-eugenol on oral mucous membranes at the tissue organ level. Oral mucous membranes of mice were applied with three reagents, eugenol, bis-eugenol, and acetone (as the control). The control group showed a normal architecture. The eugenol group showed severe hyperkeratosis, parakeratosis, cellular edema, patchy chronic inflammation, pleomorphism and hyperchromatism of basal layer cells, indicating high mitotic activity. Comparatively, the bis-eugenol group showed mild hyperkeratosis, parakeratosis, however, the shape or arrangement of basal layer cells were normal. Bis-eugenol was considerably less toxic than eugenol.
Chamomile (Matricaria recutita L., Chamomilla recutita L., Matricaria chamomilla) is one of the most popular single ingredient herbal teas, or tisanes. Chamomile tea, brewed from dried flower heads, has been used traditionally for medicinal purposes. Evidence-based information regarding the bioactivity of this herb is presented. The main constituents of the flowers include several phenolic compounds, primarily the flavonoids apigenin, quercetin, patuletin, luteolin and their glucosides. The principal components of the essential oil extracted from the flowers are the terpenoids alpha-bisabolol and its oxides and azulenes, including chamazulene. Chamomile has moderate antioxidant and antimicrobial activities, and significant antiplatelet activity in vitro. Animal model studies indicate potent antiinflammatory action, some antimutagenic and cholesterol-lowering activities, as well as antispasmotic and anxiolytic effects. However, human studies are limited, and clinical trials examining the purported sedative properties of chamomile tea are absent. Adverse reactions to chamomile, consumed as a tisane or applied topically, have been reported among those with allergies to other plants in the daisy family, i.e. Asteraceae or Compositae.
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