Organi Zational culture and job satisfaction among academic professionals at a South African university of technology

Abstract

The South African higher education sector introduced structural changes, which resulted in the creation of universities of technology, (hereafter referred to as UoTs). There, however, has the not been any known studies that investigated organizational culture and job satisfaction among academic professionals at these new types of institutions in the country. This study's main objective was to determine perceptions of organizational culture and their impact on job satisfaction among academic professionals at a University of Technology in the Free State Province, South Africa. The study's respondents had positive perceptions of the organizational culture with academic professionals showing satisfaction with co-worker relations, supervision support and the work itself, as well as moderate satisfaction with the available advancement opportunities. Academic professionals were, however, dissatisfied with the salaries they were receiving. A significant correlation between overall organizational culture and job satisfaction was found. © Irena Bakanauskiene, Rita Bendaravičiene, Laima Barkauske, 2017.

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“Organizational culture and job satisfaction among academic
professionals at a South African university of technology”
AUTHORS Crispen Chipunza, Bulelwa Malo
ARTICLE INFO
Crispen Chipunza and Bulelwa Malo (2017). Organizational
culture and job satisfaction among academic professionals at a
South African university of technology. Problems and
Perspectives in Management , 15(2), 148-161
RELEASED ON Thursday, 08 June 2017
RECEIVED ON Tuesday, 24 January 2017
ACCEPTED ON Thursday, 30 March 2017
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148
Problems and Perspectives in Management, Volume 15, Issue 2, 2017
Abstract
e South African higher education sector introduced structural changes, which resulted
in the creation of universities of technology, (hereaer referred to as UoTs). ere, however,
has the not been any known studies that investigated organizational culture and job satis-
faction among academic professionals at these new types of institutions in the country. is
study’s main objective was to determine perceptions of organizational culture and their im-
pact on job satisfaction among academic professionals at a University of Technology in the
Free State Province, South Africa. e study’s respondents had positive perceptions of the
organizational culture with academic professionals showing satisfaction with co-worker
relations, supervision support and the work itself, as well as moderate satisfaction with the
available advancement opportunities. Academic professionals were, however, dissatised
with the salaries they were receiving. A signicant correlation between overall organiza-
tional culture and job satisfaction was found.
Crispen Chipunza (South Africa), Bulelwa Malo (South Africa)
BUSINESS PERSPECTIVES
LLC “P “Business Perspectives”
Hryhorii Skovoroda lane, 10, Sumy,
40022, Ukraine
www.businessperspectives.org
OrganiZational culture
and job satisfaction among
academic professionals at
a South African university
of technology
Received on: 24th of January, 2017
Accepted on: 30 of March, 2017
INTRODUCTION
e study of organizational culture and job satisfaction within the corpo-
rate world of the developed contexts has long intrigued scholars (Sempane,
Reiger, and Roodt, 2002; Sabri, IIyas, Amjad, 2011). An exploration of both
phenomena has resulted in a better understanding of organizational life
and reveals the complexities of everyday tasks and objectives in the work-
place. e results of signicant studies (Vukomjanski and Nikolic, 2013)
on these two concepts have elevated these insights into signicant ele-
ments of organizational theory (MacIntosh & Doherty, 2010). e eects
of the two concepts on outcomes including reduced turnover intentions
(Salman, Saira, Amjad, Sana, and Muhammad, 2014) and on organiza-
tional performance in the developed world make the study of developing
sectors such as the higher education sector, where there is still paucity
of empirical evidence regarding the two phenomena imperative. Hence,
this exploration of the relationship between organizational culture and
job satisfaction among academic professionals at a higher education insti-
tution in South Africa.
Brief context of the study
Research (Gazzola, Jha-akur, Kidd, Peel, & Fischer, 2011) has shown
that changes in both the internal and external environments aect busi-
nesses in the corporate world and other sectors, such as higher education
in the developing world. e global higher education sector is undergo-
ing continuous changes due to expansions in student numbers, funding
© Crispen Chipunza, Bulelwa Malo, 2017
Crispen Chipunza, Ph.D., Central
University of Technology, Free State,
South Africa.
Bulelwa Malo, M. Tech., Central
University of Technology, Free State,
South Africa.
is is an Open Access article,
distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution-Non-
Commercial 4.0 International license,
which permits re-use, distribution,
and reproduction, provided the
materials aren’t used for commercial
purposes and the original work is
properly cited.
organizational culture, job satisfaction, academic
professionals, organizational culture prole, job
descriptive index
Keywords
JEL Classification M12

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Problems and Perspectives in Management, Volume 15, Issue 2, 2017
challenges, and program changes determined by national and international demands (Hazelkorn, 2012). For
example, the post-1994 dispensation in South Africa witnessed a new order in the higher education sector
evidenced in mergers and incorporations of higher education institutions, which resulted in the formation
of new comprehensive institutions, retention of some traditional universities, and the creation of Universities
of Technology (UoT) (Chipunza & Gwarinda, 2010). A typical South African UoT oers industry-oriented
or vocationally-oriented programs, where students undergo a six months to a year world of work experi-
ence under the ‘Work Integrated Learning Program (WIL)’. e institution under study underwent some
changes with regard to: leadership, systems, procedures and processes, programs, student numbers, condi-
tions of service, quality of sta, structures, in order to create a new university culture while maintaining
the vocationally-oriented aspects. ese changes introduced a new organizational culture and presumably
impacted on the institution’s employees’ job satisfaction. Organizational change theories (Gready, 2013; O’
Malley, 2014) argue that major changes, such as mergers and acquisitions, aect an organization’s core busi-
ness, with the change to the core business in the higher education sector likely to aect academics (Timmins,
Bham, McFadyen, and Ward, 2006). It is this context and observations drawn the above-cited scholars that
formed the basis for our choice of academic professionals as units of analysis in the current study.
Theoretical framework
is study was based on the social exchange theory, which draws on social psychological and sociological per-
spectives that explaining behavioral and social changes as negotiated exchanges between parties (Greenberg
& Scott, 1996; Zarovski, 2005). e theory postulates that people make decisions based on their individual
satisfaction levels within a social relationship. us, the process of change, which relates to perceptions of
organizational culture, can be viewed as a social relationship in which the organization and employees ne-
gotiate exchanges that result in outcomes such as increased employee motivation and job satisfaction. is
research postulates that, the perceptions of organizational culture, constituted from institutional transfor-
mation, and the resultant job satisfaction among academic employees, are social exchange outcomes as both
constructs reect a perception of the exchange quality (Van Knippenberg & Sleebos, 2006). erefore, the
study’s particular focus on the ways that the established organizational culture of the ‘new institution’ im-
pacts the academic professionals’ job satisfaction.
1. LITERATURE REVIEW
1.1. Organizational culture
e last decade witnessed the rise to prominence
of organizational culture as an important concept
in the business world. ere are various deni-
tions of the concept organizational culture, with
Mohelska and Sokolova (2014), stating that the def-
inition depends on the sector, the organization’s
historical events, and the employees’ personalities
and nature of interaction. It is variously dened
as: a system of shared meaning held by members
that distinguishes one organization from another
(Robbins, 2001; Naicker, 2008); collective think-
ing, habits, attitudes, feelings and behavior pat-
terns (Clemente, Greenspan, 1999); and a pro-
grammed way of perception derived from the
beliefs and values (Sonja, Matjaz, & Monty, 2008).
Organizational culture, in the context of this study,
can be dened as “the shared values and beliefs of
university stakeholders (i.e., administrators, facul-
ty members, students, board members and support
sta), developed in historical process and conveyed
by the use of language and symbols” (Bartell, 2003,
p. 5; Mohelska & Pitra, 2012).
Organizational culture impacts on how employ-
ees set personal and professional goals, perform
tasks and administer resources in order to achieve
set goals (Lok & Crawford, 2004, p. 3). Various
researchers (Kono, 1990; Rue & Holland, 1986;
Silvester & Anderson, 1999) use a variety of terms,
methods and approaches to describe the compo-
nents and characteristics of organizational cul-
ture. However, the shared meanings at the core of
an organization’s culture are captured in key sev-
en characteristics, which are innovation and risk
taking, attention to detail, outcome orientation,
people orientation, team orientation, aggressive-
ness and stability. Consequently, these organiza-
tional culture’s elements aect the way employees

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Problems and Perspectives in Management, Volume 15, Issue 2, 2017
consciously and unconsciously think, make deci-
sions and the way they perceive, feel and act using
shared meanings.
Innovation and risk taking play a signicant role
in organizational culture. Both are indicative of
an organization’s openness to change, and abil-
ity to encourage employees to experiment and take
risks (Delobbe, Haccoun & Vandenberghe, 2001).
Innovation leads to improved orientation (Wilderom
& Van der Berg), adaptability (Fey & Dension, 2003),
high performance (Matthew, 2007), and job satisfac-
tion (Bashayreh, 2009).
Attention to detail refers to the degree to which em-
ployees exhibit precision and analysis in their daily
activities (Naicker, 2008, p. 7). Some organizational
culture experts argue that the emphasis on innova-
tion and aggressiveness compromises the attention
to detail (Chow et al., 2001). Nonetheless, Bikmoradi
et al., (2008) state that an organizational culture
that de-emphasizes attention to detail engenders a
negative response from employees. e newly cre-
ated universities of technology in South Africa have
a mandate to transform themselves into innovative
and entrepreneurial hubs. As a result, the creation
of such cultures, though plausible, also yields nega-
tive results such as dissatised employees (academ-
ics), especially those who fail to accept the unfolding
changes.
An organization should be people-oriented and this
involves the institution’s support, cooperation with
and respect of employees (Delobbe, Haccoun &
Vandenberghe, 2001). e management should fa-
cilitate an ongoing people-oriented organizational
culture if the impact is to be felt by its workforce
(Kulkarni, 2010). is is evidenced in the example
of the South Korean context, where a positive peo-
ple-oriented culture oering respect for personal
employee values leads to employee satisfaction and
reciprocal responses of commitment (Choi, Martin
& Park, 2008).
A team orientation culture, also a signicant element
of organizational culture, organizes work activities
around teams (Naicker, 2008). Established teams de-
liver better results than individual eorts (Bauer &
Erdogan, 2014). Furthermore, organizations that cre-
ate teams based on employees’ complementary skills
are more eective than those that do not (Robbins,
Judge, Odendaal & Roodt, 2013). On the contrary,
some research ndings, such as Chow et al. (2001),
found a moderate association between task-oriented
cultures and outcomes in Chinese-based academic
collective cultures. Nonetheless, these studies’ sam-
ple sizes were not aggregated, thus they do not suf-
ciently explore the extent of the impact of team
orientation cultures on behavioral outcomes such as
job satisfaction, among a cross-section of academic
professionals.
A culture of aggressiveness, on the one hand, relates
to a stability culture in which organizational activi-
ties emphasize status quo maintenance at the expose
of growth. is culture oen competes with cultures
of aggression that are associated with an organiza-
tion’s employees’ level of competitiveness (Naicker,
2008). In fact, aggression aects an organization’s
sense of global competitiveness and survival tech-
niques (Chow et al., 2001), as conrmed by Bauer
and Erdogon (2014) and Castiligia (2006) in their
ndings on how academic faculty regarded aggres-
sive cultures as the least preferred organizational cul-
ture. However, the ever-changing business environ-
ment requires that organizations, higher education
institutions included, be organic and dynamic for
their own survival.
Each of the above characteristics complement each
other. Hence, there is a need to use to appraise South
Africa’s universities of technology using these char-
acteristics to get a composite picture of their current
organizational culture(s) and the academic employ-
ees’ perceptions on the culture and eect on job sat-
isfaction (Naicker, 2008).
1.2. Job satisfaction
Job satisfaction contributes to an organization’s suc-
cess (Saari & Judge, 2004). Beam (2006) denes job
satisfaction as “the favorable viewpoint of the worker
toward the dierent aspects of work role or job he/
she presently occupies”. Chiboiwa, Chipunza, and
Samuel (2001) and Sempane, Rieger, and Roodt
(2002, p. 25) regard job satisfaction as “the feeling
that employees have about their job characteristics”.
us, job satisfaction is a constellation of employees’
feelings about various job elements, and these relate
to the intrinsic or extrinsic job elements. ere are
countless approaches that are used to classify job
satisfaction dimensions, as outlined by Weiss et al.

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Problems and Perspectives in Management, Volume 15, Issue 2, 2017
(1967), Cranny et al. (1992), and Moorman (1993).
is study draws on the intrinsic-extrinsic approach
postulated and recommended by Weiss et al. (1967),
which includes psychological and physical aspects in
the intrinsic-extrinsic classication in its consider-
ation of the dimensions of job satisfaction. According
to Sempane, Rieger & Roodt, (2002, p. 25) and Beam
(2006, p. 170), a job and its characteristics, are asso-
ciated with intrinsic satisfaction such as its content,
autonomy, responsibility, achievement and variety,
whereas the context of job performance is associated
with the extrinsic elements, such as the salary, com-
pany policies, job security and work relationships
(Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman, 1959). Brough
and Frame (2004), and Saari and Judge’s (2004)
study shows that similar satisfaction scores among
employees do not suggest that they are all satised
with all job factors. us, it can be assumed that aca-
demic professionals at higher education institutions
may show the same score of satisfactions levels and
yet there might be dierences regarding particular
aspects of job satisfaction that contribute[d] to each
individual’s score. erefore, our study assumes
that an academic employee may be generally satis-
ed with their job, but not be satised with certain
intrinsic or extrinsic facets of the job owing to their
perceptions of organizational culture.
1.3. Relationship between
organizational culture and job
satisfaction
Existing literature examining organizational cul-
ture and employees’ attitudes in higher education
has not really focused on organizational culture
as a determinant factor of job satisfaction. Various
two-factor theory-based studies in the higher edu-
cation context noted that job satisfaction is inu-
enced by intrinsic-motivational factors, in partic-
ular academic autonomy, while job dissatisfaction
is associated with extrinsic-hygiene factors, such
as pay and conditions of employment (Pearson &
Seiler 1983; Hill, 1986; Moses, 1986). is section
reviews studies on organizational culture and job
satisfaction in both the higher education settings
in order to provide a context to this study.
e relationship between organizational and behav-
ioral outcomes such as job satisfaction is signicant.
A study on the organizational supportive culture
and job satisfaction in the Taiwanese higher educa-
tion context carried out by Dian-Yan, Chia-Ching,
and Shu-Hsuan (2014) underscores the halo eect of
organizational commitment in the mediation of or-
ganizational culture and in aecting behavioral out-
comes such as job satisfaction. Mabasa and Ngirande
(2015) also found a positive relationship between or-
ganizational support and job satisfaction among aca-
demics in South Africa, with their study further dif-
ferentiating male and female job satisfaction levels
owing to the existence of a rotational culture that is
supportive of sta. Although our current study does
not determine male and female dierences, it is pru-
dent to assume that such dierence exists within
South African universities of technology.
Bashayreh’s (2009) study examining the relationship
between the dimensions of organizational culture
and job satisfaction in Malaysia’s higher education
shows that there was no signicant relationship be-
tween reward and the performance-oriented dimen-
sion of organizational culture and job satisfaction.
e study, however, recorded a signicant relation-
ship between organizational culture factors such
as organizational supportiveness, innovation and
stability, and communication and job satisfaction.
is raises the question on whether there is a direct
linkage between organizational culture and job sat-
isfaction in higher education. e question leads to
Trivelas and Dargenidou’s (2009, p. 382) study on or-
ganizational culture and job satisfaction’s inuence
on the quality of services provided in higher educa-
tion among faculty and administration members in
Lisbon. e results indicated that specic culture
archetypes are linked, through the job satisfaction
of employees, with dierent dimensions of higher
education service quality. For example, a hierarchy
culture, most prevalent among faculty members,
had a strong correlation service quality with job sat-
isfaction moderating the relationship. Furthermore,
Sabri, Ilyas and Amjad’s (2011, p. 121) study, which
notes that organizational culture in Pakistan is cat-
egorized that related to managers and leaders (OCM)
and another to employees (OCE), observed that the
eect of both cultures on job satisfaction were posi-
tive and signicant among faculty in both the public
and private higher education institutions.
It is evident that organizational culture impacts on
job satisfaction. However, studies on the new orga-
nizational cultures arising from the restructuring

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Problems and Perspectives in Management, Volume 15, Issue 2, 2017
of South Africa’s higher education focused more on
aspects such employee engagement (Gay, 2012) and
quality of teaching (Leibowitz, 2014) and not on or-
ganizational culture and its impact on issues such as
organizational culture, hence this study.
2. PROBLEM STATEMENT
e University under study, which is named
University X, for ethical reasons, was established in
2004 as a UoT, as part of higher education trans-
formation in South Africa. e ‘new institution’
has undergone some changes in its operations and
these have resulted in the creation of a new organi-
zational culture. To the researcher’s knowledge, no
study has been carried out to investigate the rela-
tionship between the newly created organizational
culture and job satisfaction among academic pro-
fessionals at the institution. In view of this, this
study examines the impact of changes in the orga-
nizational culture of the university under investiga-
tion, by asking the following questions: (i) Since the
establishment of University X, what perceptions do
academic professionals have about organizational
culture and job satisfaction? ii) Do the perceptions of
organizational culture correlate with the levels of job
satisfaction among the academic professionals?
2.1. Conceptual framework
e above-noted theoretical framework and lit-
erature review were used to develop a conceptual
framework to illustrate the hypothesized relation-
ships between academics’ perceptions of organi-
zational culture and job satisfaction. e dierent
elements of organizational culture are perceived
to be related to either intrinsic or extrinsic job sat-
isfaction of employees. For example, if the insti-
tution allows innovation and risk-taking among
its academic professionals, it is assumed that they
will develop intrinsic motivation (Lee & Chang,
2008), while promoting team and people oriented
approaches are linked to the extrinsic motivation
of the academic professionals (Grin, Patterson &
West, 2001). If the institution emphasizes stabil-
ity and maintenance of the status quo, then aca-
demic employees will be negatively satised since
an academic environment is one in which ideas
and change are organic and evolving (Trivellas &
Dargenidou, 2009).
2.2. Objectives and hypotheses
e objectives of the study drawn from the above con-
ceptual framework, were to: (1) determine academic
professionals’ perceptions of organizational culture
(2) measure the job satisfaction levels of the academic
professionals, and (3) determine the relationship be-
tween academic professionals’ perceptions of organi-
zational culture and their job satisfaction.
It was hypothesized, with Ho and Ha representing
the null and alternative hypotheses, respectively
that: Ho – employees’ perceptions of the institu-
tion’s organizational culture will be positively cor-
related with their perceived job satisfaction; Ha
– employees’ perceptions of the institution’s orga-
nizational culture will not be positively correlated
with their perceived job satisfaction.
2.2.1. Research objectives
e research, which uses University X in the Free
State Province of South Africa as a case study, in-
vestigated perceptions of organizational culture
and their resultant impact on job satisfaction lev-
els among academic professionals.
2.2.2. Research methodology
e mainly cross-sectional descriptive case study,
adopted the quantitative approach and a positiv-
ist philosophical paradigm (Kumar, 2011), which
emphasize empirical deductive reasoning and in-
terpretation of gures to determine the standing
of a sample of a given construct.
2.2.3. Population and sampling
e target population consisted of 274 full-time
academic professionals from the selected institu-
tion. eir distribution across the faculties was:
84 Faculty of Engineering; 46 Health and Science;
70 Humanities, and 74 Management Sciences.
Stratied proportional representation sampling was
used to select the sample, with a sample calculator
used to calculate the minimum required sample
size. us, a determined sampling size of 160 full-
time academics was established. A proportional se-
lection system, where for every one academic profes-
sional from the Health faculty, two were picked in
the Humanities, three from Management Sciences
and four from Engineering, was used. e propor-

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Problems and Perspectives in Management, Volume 15, Issue 2, 2017
tional stratied sampling method resulted in 16 aca-
demic professionals being randomly selected from
the Faculty of Health, with 32 from the Faculty of
Humanities, 36 from the Faculty of Management
Sciences and 51 from the Faculty of Engineering.
e actual sample used for the study was (n=135),
representing 84% of the total population.
2.3. Data collection
A questionnaire divided into three sections, was
used to collect data for this study. One section mea-
sured demographic variables such as gender, with
the second, an adapted Organizational Culture
Prole Questionnaire (OCP), developed by Reilly et
al. (1991) having 28 items measured on a ve point
Likert scale form (1) not at all to (5) very much, and
the last section adapted from the Job Descriptive
Index (JDI) by Smith, Kendall, and Hulin (1969)
seeking to measure the job satisfaction of the aca-
demic professionals. Permission to distribute the
questionnaires was obtained from the institutional
management and the distribution done by trained
research assistants. e purpose of the study was
explained to each respondent and participation was
voluntary. Cronbach’s alpha coecient was used to
determine the internal consistency of the scale items
for each section. e scale items showed excellent
internal consistency, as the alpha values were 0.95
for the OCP, and 0.96 for the JDI.
2.4. Data analysis
Decretive statistics data analysis was used to analy-
ze demographic variables and test the study’s both
hypotheses. Measures of central tendency, speci-
cally the mean, were computed for hypothesis one
and hypothesis two to determine the academic pro-
fessionals’ levels of organizational culture and job
satisfaction. e Likert scale was used to measure
organizational culture measured items on a ve-
point scale ranged from: (1) not at all, (2) minimally,
(3) moderately, (4) considerably and (5) very much.
For job satisfaction, items were measured on a ve-
point scale ranging from; (1) very dissatised, (2)
dissatised, (3) neutral, (4) satised and (5) very
satised. In this regard, using measures of central
tendency and dispersion provided in Table 1 and
Table 2, a mean value of below < 3 indicates a nega-
tive inclination towards organizational culture or
job dissatisfaction, whilst a mean value equal to or
above ≥ 3 indicates a positive inclination towards
organizational culture or job satisfaction. e
third hypothesis was tested using Pearson Moment
Correlation method which measures the strength
of agreement between two or more variables in so-
cial science research (Cohen, 1992).
3. THE STUDY’S RESULTS
3.1. Sample characteristics
e sample of academic professional who par-
ticipated in the study had more males (57%) than
females (43%). e distribution of age was close
to normal, with the majority (24%) between 36
– 40 yrs. e other characteristics were: whites
at 46.6% and the dominant race; the majority of
academics (69.6%) married, and a Masters as the
highest qualication among 66.7% of the sample.
3.1.1. Organizational culture
e study’s rst hypothesis was that academic pro-
fessionals have negative perceptions about orga-
nizational culture. e results of the analysis are
shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Mean values for organizaonal culture
Dimension of organizational culture NMinimum Maximum Mean
Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Std. error
Innovation and risk taking (IRT) 132 1.256 0 0 4.9950 0 3.1674 015 0.06394240
Attention to details (ATD) 132 1.4 4200 5.00000 3.6002121 0 .0610 1191
Outcome orientation (OCO) 135 1.00100 5.00500 3.6673111 0.06663519
People orientation (PO) 133 1.00000 5.00000 3.2877820 0.07927024
Team orientation (TMO) 135 1. 51200 5.00000 3.412814 8 0.06826748
Aggressiveness (AGR) 134 1.00100 5.00500 3.3422239 0.05705265
Stability (STAB) 134 1.00000 5.00000 3.317 7164 0. 0774 0 821

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Problems and Perspectives in Management, Volume 15, Issue 2, 2017
e table shows that academic professionals per-
ceived the institution’s organizational culture as
possessing a moderate character of team orientation
(3.41), aggressiveness (3.34), stability (3.32), people
orientation (3.29), and innovation and risk taking
(3.17). Higher mean scores of organizational culture
perceptions were found in the dimensions of: atten-
tion to details (3.60) and outcome orientation (3.67).
3.1.2. Job satisfaction
e study’s second hypothesis stated that academ-
ic professionals are not satised with their jobs.
As shown in Table 2, two of the extrinsic job sat-
isfaction factors (co-worker relations and supervi-
sion support) had mean scores above 3, while that
of salary was almost 3.
3.1.3. Organizational culture
and job satisfaction
e third and fourth hypotheses stated that: (1)
there is no correlation between organizational cul-
ture and job satisfaction, and (2) there is no correla-
tion between specic components of organizational
culture and specic job satisfaction components.
Table 3 demonstrates a positive signicant correla-
tion between most organizational culture and job
satisfaction indices. ere was a signicant correla-
tion between work itself and the following dimen-
sions of OC: innovation and risk taking (r = 0.014),
outcome orientation (r = 0.001), people orientation
(r = 0.000), team orientation (r = 0.000), aggressive-
ness (r = 0.015), and stability (r = 0.000). Further
signicant correlation between advancement
Table 2. Mean values of job sasfacon
Dimension of job satisfaction NMinimum Maximum Mean
Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Std. error
Work itself (WRK) 128 1.78200 4.99000 3.606234 4 0.05469959
Advancement opportunities (ADVOP) 126 1.6 860 0 5.00000 3.443142 9 0.05608071
Salary (SAL) 134 1.00000 5.00000 2.7590299 0.07939667
Supervision support (SUPSUP) 131 1.00000 5.00000 3.6533664 0.07071744
Co-worker relations (COWRE) 133 2.43100 5.00500 3.7859699 0.05003133
Table 3. Correlaon of organizaonal culture and job sasfacon indices
Correlations IRT ATD OCO PO TMO AGR STA B
WRK
Pearson correlation 0.220* 0.166 0.279** 0.422** 0.423** 0.215* 0.443**
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.014 0.064 0.001 0.000 0.000 0.015 0.000
N125 125 128 126 128 128 127
ADVOP
Pearson correlation 0.362** 0.358** 0.421* * 0.480** 0.562** 0 .311** 0.502**
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
N123 123 126 124 126 125 125
SAL
Pearson correlation 0.040 0.182* 0.276** 0.290** 0 .316** 0 .231** 0.16 3
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.648 0.037 0.001 0.001 0.000 0.008 0. 061
N131 131 134 132 134 133 133
SUPSUP
Pearson correlation 0.160 0 . 217 * 0.216* 0.410 ** 0.404** 0.131 0.449**
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.072 0.014 0.0 13 0.000 0.000 0.137 0.000
N128 128 131 129 131 130 13 0
COWRE
Pearson correlation 0.189* 0.262** 0.280** 0.3 81** 0.509** 0.247** 0.456**
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.030 0.003 0.0 01 0.000 0.000 0.004 0.000
N131 130 133 131 133 132 132
Notes: ** Correlation is signicant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed); * Correlation is signicant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

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Problems and Perspectives in Management, Volume 15, Issue 2, 2017
opportunities with all the organizational culture
characteristics, such as innovation and risk tak-
ing (r = 0.000), attention to details (r = 0.000), out-
come orientation (r = 0.000), people orientation
(r = 0.000), team orientation (r = 0.000), aggres-
siveness (r = 0.000) and stability (r = 0.000) is al-
so noted. A signicant correlation was found be-
tween salary and the following OC dimensions, at-
tention to details (r = 0.037), outcome orientation
(r = 0.001), people orientation (r = 0.001), team ori-
entation (r = 0.000), and aggressiveness (r = 0.008).
ere was a signicant correlation between super-
vision support and attention to details (r = 0.014),
supervision support and outcome orientation
(r = 0.013), supervision support and people ori-
entation (r = 0.000), and supervision support and
stability (r = 0.000). Co-worker relations had a
signicant correlation with the organizational
culture characteristics, innovation and risk tak-
ing (r = 0.030), attention to details (r = 0.003), out-
come orientation (r = 0.001), people orientation
(r = 0.000), team orientation (r = 0.000), aggressive-
ness (r = 0.004) and stability (r = 0.000). ese cor-
relations lead to the rejection of both hypotheses.
4. DISCUSSION
4.1. Perceptions of organizational
culture
e results based on the hypothesis that academic
professionals will have negative perceptions about
organizational culture indicate that academic pro-
fessionals had moderate positive perceptions of
the organizational culture.
Outcome orientation had the highest mean score
response of 3.67. is indicates that academic
professionals at the institution under study per-
ceived the institution’s culture as more focused
on outcomes than the process used to achieve
these outcomes. e present study’s high mean
score conrms Dastmalchian, Javidan and Alam’s
(2001, p. 540) ndings from an Iran-based study
that societal culture was characterized by a high
level of outcome orientation eective leader-
ship and culture in Iran. However, Bikmoradi,
Brommels, Shoghli, Zavareh and Masiello’s (2008)
study on medical school faculty members point-
ed out that there was insucient support for the
outcome orientation within the school. Similarly,
Gray, Densten and Sarros’s (2003) study on or-
ganizational culture in small, medium and large
Australian organizations, found that outcome
orientation had the lowest mean score and was
perceived as the least characteristic of organiza-
tional culture. erefore, the present study adds
to the existing literature by highlighting outcome
orientation as the highest characteristic of orga-
nizational culture within a vocationally-oriented
higher education institution found in a developing
economy.
Attention to details had a high mean response
score of 3.60. is indicates that academic profes-
sionals at the studied institution were of the view
that the institution’s culture emphasized on em-
ployee precision and paying attention to detail in
the workplace. Gray et al. (2003) found a moderate
mean score for attention to details in a study done
on executives’ perceptions on organizational cul-
ture in small, medium and large Australian orga-
nizations. Similarly, Chow, Harrison, McKinnon
and Wu (2001) argue that much time and eort
within organizations is directed towards innova-
tion and aggression, which carries with it a re-
duced emphasis on attention to detail. is is
conrmed in an observed medical school faculty
members’ provision of insucient support to pay-
ing attention to details noted by Bikmoradi et al.
(2008). Although the high mean score for atten-
tion to details in this study is not consistent with
previous studies, the present study’s results are
unsurprising, considering that paying attention to
detail is one of the virtues expected of any institu-
tion of higher academic learning.
e study results show that team orientation had
a moderate mean score of 3.41. e result may be
due to the institution’s academic professionals’
perceptions that the institution’s culture encour-
ages teams than individuals. Organizations with a
team-orientated culture are collaborative and em-
phasize cooperation among employees (Robbins,
Judge, Odendaal, and Roodt, 2013). Kozlowski and
Bell (2003) argue that organizations that stress a
spirit of team work and collaboration can capital-
ize on the individual strengths of their employees,
for the collective product is greater than the sum
of the individual eort. us, the results could
be justied, considering that one of the key re-

156
Problems and Perspectives in Management, Volume 15, Issue 2, 2017
sponsibilities of academic professionals is lectur-
ing, which can be regarded as an individual task.
Conversely, this assertion would contradict the
collegiality that is encouraged among academic
professionals in areas such as research.
e moderate score on aggressiveness 3.340
showed in Table 1 refers to the degree of competi-
tiveness in an organization (Naicker, 2008). Bauer
and Erdogan (2014) explain that every organiza-
tion lays down the level of aggressiveness with
which their employees work. Greene, Reinhardt
and Lowry (2004, p. 80) contend that organiza-
tions with aggressive cultures value competitive-
ness and oen fall short in terms of corporate so-
cial responsibility. A Catholic college based study
by Castiglia (2006) found that the faculty regarded
aggressiveness as the least preferred organisation-
al culture characteristic. Nonetheless, one may ar-
gue that aggressiveness is an organizational cul-
ture character mostly found in corporate organi-
zations than in institutions of higher learning.
e stability factor had a moderate mean score of
3.32. is score means that the academic profes-
sionals perceived the institution’s culture as en-
couraging the maintenance of the status quo and
not growth. Stability is associated with centraliza-
tion, conict reduction, conformity, consensus,
consistency, continuity, control, formalization,
hierarchy, integration, maintenance, order, secu-
rity, status quo, and standardization (Burchell and
Kolb, 2007). A study by Chow et al. (2001) states
that stability as part of organizational culture, has
a strong impact on aective commitment, job
satisfaction and information sharing. Similarly,
Bikmoradi et al. (2008, p. 424) in a study faculty
members, found that the faculty participants from
the research on a medical school emphasized on
stability versus openness to change. erefore, the
moderate mean score obtained in the study for the
stability factor can be understood within the con-
text of the transformation agenda that the institu-
tion is currently promoting and championing.
People orientation had a moderate mean score
of 3.29. People-orientated cultures value fairness,
supportiveness, and respect for individual rights.
e mean score indicates that the academic pro-
fessionals were not sure whether the institution’s
culture promoted criticisms from its members
or was concerned with their personal problems
and personal development. ese results are con-
sistent with the results from Dastmalchian et al.
(2001), which noted a moderate emphasis on hu-
man orientation as a cultural attribute of Iranian
society. Contrastingly, a study by Choi, Martin
and Park (2008) focusing on organizational cul-
ture and job satisfaction in Korean professional
baseball organizations found that the clan cul-
ture had a positive impact on employee satisfac-
tion owing to its emphasis on personal values and
respect for people.
Innovation and risk taking had a moderate mean
score of 3.17. e obtained moderate mean score
is consistent with that from a study by Gray et al.
(2003) that found that the executives perceived in-
novation as a moderate character of their rms’
culture. According to Deutschman (2004, p. 54),
organizations that have innovative cultures are
exible, adaptable, and experiment with ideas.
ese organizations are characterized by at hier-
archy and titles and other status distinctions tend
to be downplayed. Khan, Usoro, Majewski and
Kuoe (2010) explain innovation as the introduc-
tion and implementation of new ideas that posi-
tively benet the organization and its members.
Managers regard innovation as the major source
of competitive advantage (Khan et al., 2010). us,
it can be argued that the moderate mean score for
innovation and risk taking arises from the nature
of any institution of higher learning’s hierarchy.
4.2. Job satisfaction
e study’s second hypothesis was that academic
professionals were not satised with their jobs.
e results indicate that the institution’s academic
professionals were satised with their co-worker
relation, supervision support, work performed,
and the advancement opportunities they received.
ey were, however, not satised with the salary
they were receiving.
Co-worker relations had the highest mean score
response of 3.79. In this regard, academic profes-
sionals were more satised with their co-worker
relations. ese results are consistent with those
from Boeve’s (2007) study on the job satisfaction
factors for a physician assistant (PA) faculty in
Michigan, where the respondents were most satis-

157
Problems and Perspectives in Management, Volume 15, Issue 2, 2017
ed with co-worker relations. However, Alam and
Mohammad (2011) found a moderate mean score
for JDI dimension co-worker relation on their
study of the level of job satisfaction and intent to
leave among Malaysian nurses.
e results of the study also indicate that supervi-
sion support had a high mean score of 3.65. is
indicates that academic professionals were sat-
ised with the supervision support received in
their respective units. e results conrm nd-
ings from studies such as Luddy’s (2005) which
found that employees at a public health institu-
tion in the Western Cape, South Africa, were sat-
ised with the received supervision, and Sowmya
and Panchanatham’s (2011) nding of a high
mean score for supervision support in the Indian
banking sector as measured by JDI. On the con-
trary, Alam and Mohammad’s (2011) study on
Malaysian nurses found a moderate satisfaction
with supervision support. Nonetheless, the high
mean score of supervision support obtained in the
present study could be a function of institutional
leadership styles.
e salary subscale had the least mean score of
2.76. is score shows that academic profession-
als were not satised with the salary they received
during the time of the study. Gurbuz (2007) ar-
gues that although employees want to be paid fair-
ly for their work, money is not an eective way to
motivate individuals. Hays and Hills (1999) con-
cur with Gurbuz (2007) that if managers will lose
the motivation battle should they reward perfor-
mance only with money, as there are other moti-
vators such as freedom and organizational exibil-
ity. Amar (2004) argues that money has been the
most important outcome from employment and
the only outcome that employers oered to their
employees. Maslow (1954) notes that money is im-
portant as it serves the function of meeting physi-
ological needs – food, water, shelter and clothing,
hence, people would want to have their physiologi-
cal needs fullled before other needs are satised.
e inconsistencies surrounding the nature of this
relationship from several authors can be used to
support the nding in this study. If the institution
in the present study only uses money as a source of
motivation, then this could explain the lack of sat-
isfaction with extrinsic motivators. However, em-
ployees’ low level of the satisfaction on the salary
subscale would not be surprising if the institution
is failing to pay its employees adequately.
Intrinsic job factors in the present study had a high
mean score. Wood, Wallace, Zeene, Fromholtz
and Morrison (2001) explain that intrinsic job
satisfaction as related to what people do in their
jobs, such as the work itself, recognition and job
autonomy. In this regard, work had a high mean
response of 3.60 which means that academic pro-
fessionals were satised with their jobs. ese re-
sults are consistent with a number of studies, such
as Luddy’s (2005) ndings that the employees at
a public health institution in the Western Cape
Province in South Africa, were satised with the
nature of their work.
Advancement opportunities had a moderate mean
score of 3.44. is shows that respondents at the
institution were moderately satised with the ad-
vancement opportunities oered. ese results are
consistent with those from Aydin’s (2012) study
of the eect of motivation factors and hygiene
factors on research performance of Foundation
University members in Turkey, where the respon-
dents reported a high mean score for advance-
ment opportunities received at the Foundation
University. Similarly, Castillo and Cano (2004)
found a high mean score for advancement oppor-
tunities in their study on factors explaining job
satisfaction among faculty members in Mexico.
However, Malik, Nawab, Naeem and Damish’s
(2010) study on job satisfaction and organizational
commitment found a moderate mean score for job
satisfaction among Pakistan’s public sector uni-
versity teachers. It can, therefore, be argued that
employees are more satised with their jobs if they
see a path available to move up the ranks in the
company, given more responsibility and a higher
compensation.
4.3. Organizational culture and job
satisfaction
e positive signicant relationship between orga-
nizational culture and job satisfaction indices not-
ed in the present study concur with ndings from
other similar studies. For example, Lund’s (2003)
survey of marketing professionals in a cross-sec-
tion of American rms to assess the impact of or-
ganizational culture on job satisfaction noted that

158
Problems and Perspectives in Management, Volume 15, Issue 2, 2017
job satisfaction levels varied across organizational
culture typologies. McKinnon, Harrison, Chow
and Wu’s (2003) study focusing on participants
from a diverse Taiwanese manufacturing compa-
nies also shows that organizational cultural values
of respect for people; innovation, stability and ag-
gressiveness are strongly associated with aective
commitment, job satisfaction and information
sharing. Furthermore, other organizational cul-
tural factors play a signicant role in the establish-
ment of job satisfaction. Bashayreh’s (2009, p. 2)
study on the relationship between organizational
culture and employee job satisfaction among aca-
demic sta at Universiti Utara Malaysia (UUM),
shows the signicance of the relationship between
factors such as organizational supportiveness, in-
novation and stability, and communication and
job satisfaction. us, various organizational cul-
tural values lead to organizational commitment,
job empowerment and job satisfaction.
CONCLUSION
e study of perceptions of academics from the studied South African university of technology regard-
ing organizational culture and job satisfaction deduced, from the data analysis that, academic employ-
ees had positive views on the culture evident at the existing institution. e academics were gently
satised with their jobs and there was a moderate relationship between organizational culture and job
satisfaction. Hence, the creation of an organizational culture that leads to employee satisfaction is im-
portant towards the establishment of academic employees’ adjustment to a newly established vocation-
ally-oriented institution of higher learning in a developing context.
Recommendations for practice
e study recommends that management ensures that every employee understands and identies with
the culture of the institution, as organizational culture relates to employee behavior. It recommends fur-
ther that job satisfaction levels be monitored periodically as this assists towards the achievement of the
academics’ job satisfaction. Finally, it is recommended, drawing on the fact that the institution must cel-
ebrate and can communicate both all positives and dissatisfactions to the stakeholders that, committees
should be formed to develop action plans that will enhance satisfaction and resolve identied problem.
Contribution of the study and future research
e study contributes to the generation of knowledge about organizational culture and job satisfaction
of academic professionals at institutions of high learning, forms a base for similar studies and recom-
mends strategies that can be adopted in other UoTs in South Africa towards the development of orga-
nizational cultures that promote job satisfaction. Finally, a corroborative study, looking at the two con-
cepts from a phenomenological point of view could be adopted in future, just as future studies on job
satisfaction and organizational culture can use other variables to get a complex picture.
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