Article

Extinction Risk and Conservation of the Earth's National Animal Symbols

Authors:
  • Shark Research Foundation
  • Beneath the Waves
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Abstract

Flagship species are commonly used as conservation tools, but to be effective, local public support is crucial. A country's national animal symbol is often selected for holding cultural and historical significance. Therefore, national animal symbols may serve as ideal flagships within their associated countries. Here, we evaluate the extinction risk and primary threats facing the world's national animal symbols and assess their levels of protection. Analysis of International Union for Conservation of Nature data revealed that 35% of symbols are threatened and 45% are exhibiting population declines. Two symbols are extinct, and four have been extirpated from their associated country. If population trends persist, over half of these symbols may face future extinction. The primary threats facing national animal symbols are exploitation, human–wildlife conflict and habitat loss. Only 16% of these symbols are nationally protected, whereas 50% receive international trade restrictions. Given their significance to national identity, it may be relatively easy to garner support for national animal symbols as flagship species.

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... In that way, they can be interpreted as an expression of biocultural relationships between society and species that they hold in high esteem. As such, they may also be viewed as cultural keystone species due to their intimate alignment with national identity (Garibaldi & Turner, 2004), which is therefore likely to result in their close monitoring and conservation in countries where they are the national symbol (Hammerschlag & Gallagher, 2017;Songster, 2018). ...
... However, Hammerschlag and Gallagher's (2017) analysis concluded that the designation of a particular animal species as a national symbol did not result in a better conservation status. Whilst there were some examples of conservation successes due to the national symbol status of some species (such as the bald eagle in the USA, the giant panda in China and the tiger in India), many national animal species are threatened or even extinct in the country where they are presumably revered as a national symbol (Hammerschlag & Gallagher, 2017), and two (dodo and auroch) are globally extinct. ...
... However, Hammerschlag and Gallagher's (2017) analysis concluded that the designation of a particular animal species as a national symbol did not result in a better conservation status. Whilst there were some examples of conservation successes due to the national symbol status of some species (such as the bald eagle in the USA, the giant panda in China and the tiger in India), many national animal species are threatened or even extinct in the country where they are presumably revered as a national symbol (Hammerschlag & Gallagher, 2017), and two (dodo and auroch) are globally extinct. Feeley (2017) concluded the same for national tree and flower species, whilst further observing that most national tree and flower species lacked any assessment of their conservation status, and thus the picture was far from clear. ...
Article
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Most countries have declared one or more animal or plant species to be among their national symbols, termed here national biodiversity symbols. National biodiversity symbols are the species formally or informally recognised by societies and countries as having meaning to one or more of national identity, values and unity. It has been proposed previously that national biodiversity symbols can be used as flagship species to advance habitat conservation in their respective countries. However, this assumes that the symbols are well‐known and revered by the citizens of the country concerned. We examined this assumption via direct interviews with 382 urban residents in four towns in South Africa, which is a mega‐biodiversity country with five national biodiversity symbols (a national tree, flower, animal, bird and fish). We found that less than 3% of the urban respondents could name all five species, ranging from 6% for the national tree to 40% for both the national flower and national animal. Knowledge of other national symbols (flag and anthem) were equally low. The number of national biodiversity symbols known increased with income and education level of respondents. Despite limited knowledge of which species were the national biodiversity symbols, almost two‐thirds of respondents felt that having national biodiversity symbols was important for promoting national identity. These findings show that from a heritage perspective a great deal more awareness needs to be developed in South Africa around the national biodiversity symbols. From a conservation perspective, it indicates that the national biodiversity symbols are unlikely, at this stage at least, to be useful as flagship species for habitat conservation programmes. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.
... To be considered an effective flagship, the symbol needs to be charismatic enough to generate sympathy and be able to raise funds for conservation actions (Home et al., 2009;Albert et al., 2018). Animal symbols are used across the globe, with all countries having at least one flagship species (Hammerschlag and Gallagher, 2017). It is by setting a flagship that the government and other organizations bring people closer to environmental issues, even those that do not have a direct link with conservationist aspects on their daily basis. ...
... According to Hammerschlag and Gallagher (2017), a significant part (~35%) of the Earth's national animal symbols are threatened with extinction and are exhibiting population declines (~45%). Such patterns may indicate that both direct and indirect effects of anthropogenic activities are increasing at a faster rate than species can withstand. ...
... Interestingly, this pattern was not observed in Brazil, where a predominance of birds as flagships species was identified in all geopolitical regions. All Brazilian states have at least one bird species used as a symbol, a pattern that seems to follow the one observed at the global level (Hammerschlag and Gallagher, 2017). In fact, birds are of great importance to the country as the official national symbol is the Rufous-bellied Thrush (Turdus rufiventris). ...
Article
Several strategies have been adopted to optimize biodiversity conservation. The use of fauna and flora species as flagships can help increase public commitment and raise funds for their conservation. However, species choices must be well balanced, considering not only intrinsic aspects (e.g., risk of extinction and ecological role), but also social, cultural, and economic aspects of the region where the flagship will be adopted. Brazil is one of the countries with the greatest diversity on the planet. Nevertheless, there are several challenges associated with natural resources conservation. Flagships have been adopted informally for decades throughout the country but there are no efforts to evaluate these strategies results for the preservation of the selected species. The aim of this study was to carry out an extensive survey on regional flagship species, their conservation status, level of endemism, and domestic legislation currently in force for their protection or human use. A total of 62 flagships were identified, with at least one species of flora and one of fauna for each of the 27 Brazilian Federative Units. The animals most commonly used as regional symbols are birds, followed by mammals. Flora species used as regional symbols are quite diverse. However, they are all somehow used by humans. As for legal protection, there are government measures for endangered species. Nevertheless, most species used as regional symbols are not at risk of extinction and, for this reason, do not receive any legal protection. Moreover, while some flagships are endemic, others are alien species, indicating that this criterion is not considered when choosing regional symbols. In the overall analysis, it was noted that species choice could be optimized to highlight the national biodiversity. Despite efforts to establish legal measures for their preservation, few effective results have been observed. Therefore, improved effective measures for their conservation should be adopted to guarantee the effectiveness of flagship species for biodiversity conservation.
... Flagship species as symbols or icons can also serve to build identity for individuals, communities, social groups as well as entire nations (Clark et al., 2021;Hammerschlag & Gallagher, 2017;Rüdisser et al., 2019). However, Tshikombeni et al. (2023) highlight that the potential support for conservation flagships may be limited where there is little knowledge of national biodiversity symbols. ...
... This lack of awareness of national symbols is of concern, particularly where these species might be threatened and Hammerschlag and Gallagher (2017) have previously highlighted that 35% of global national animal symbols are threatened, with 45% experiencing population declines despite their emblematic status. ...
Article
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The use of wildlife imagery in society is highly varied and could contribute to reinforcing national identity. Standard depictions of wildlife include photographs, video, artwork and symbols or icons, including on currency. We investigated the representation of native fauna on 4541 banknotes from 207 countries between 1980 and 2017, to identify geographic hotspots and taxonomic patterns and determine whether threatened and endemic species were more readily represented. Native fauna was depicted on 15.2% of banknotes reviewed (352 unique species) with a strong bias towards terrestrial species (89%) and a dominance of bird and mammal species (83% combined). African banknotes had the highest mammal representation while birds were favoured in South America. Globally, threatened species were commonly depicted on banknotes with 30% of all imagery representing these species. The fauna species depicted on banknotes generally perpetuate existing perceptions about these species (i.e., charismatic species). We recommend several avenues for further investigation to explore relationships between perceived value and wildlife representation. These include longitudinal studies of how representation changes over time, the inclusion of flora and/or coin imagery, identifying species‐specific traits for selected wildlife and examining the decision‐making processes governing wildlife imagery on banknotes. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.
... El carácter utilitarista de muchas prácticas de conservación se muestra a través del uso de conceptos como especie sombrilla y especie bandera, que enfatizan las ventajas y beneficios generales que se obtienen a través de la protección de determinados organismos (Hammerschlag & Gallagher, 2017;Isasi, 2011). ...
... Su conservación garantiza la permanencia de organismos que habitan en la misma zona geográfica, y favorece la existencia de especies que ocupan niveles tróficos más bajos, por lo que se utilizan con frecuencia como base para el diseño y gestión de áreas protegidas y corredores biológicos (Isasi, 2011). Las especies bandera resaltan por sus características físicas, y se utilizan para atraer a turistas y promover el apoyo de programas de conservación que beneficien a otras especies con las cuales estas interactúan a nivel trófico (Hammerschlag & Gallagher, 2017;Isasi, 2011). ...
Research
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Resumen La biología de la conservación se desarrolla a partir de fundamentos éticos que suelen ser ignorados por los propios científicos y conservacionistas. Se ha reconocido, sin embargo, que la explicitación de tales fundamentos éticos podría fortalecer la integración socioecológica y la incidencia a largo plazo de los proyectos de conservación que se desarrollan. Con el objetivo de profundizar en este tema, inexplorado hasta ahora en Costa Rica, se analizó los discursos de cinco organizaciones no gubernamentales (ONG) que trabajan en la conservación de jaguares (Panthera onca). Los discursos de cada ONG se recolectaron por medio de entrevistas semiestructuradas a miembros claves e investigaciones documentales de sus páginas web. El análisis de los datos se llevó a cabo a partir del enfoque metodológico de la teoría fundamentada, desde el cual se buscó inducir información proveniente de los propios discursos obtenidos, y no de supuestos teóricos previos. Los resultados obtenidos sugieren que las prácticas de conservación en estas ONG giran en torno a tres fundamentos éticos: la solidaridad, la justicia y la objetividad científica. Por medio de la solidaridad se reconoce la importancia de generar consensos comunitarios e intersectoriales que reconozcan los intereses en común vinculados a la protección de jaguares y su fauna silvestre asociada. A través de la justicia se evidencia la urgencia de mitigar la exclusión política y socioeconómica que enfrentan las comunidades rurales que cohabitan con jaguares y otros felinos silvestres. Mediante la objetividad científica se resalta la necesidad de ampliar los conocimientos científicos sobre la ecología y conservación de las poblaciones de jaguares y sus especies presa en el país. Con base en estos resultados, se recomienda implementar herramientas alternativas de comunicación que resalten las similitudes éticas entre las ONG y los habitantes de las comunidades; se insta a implementar nociones ecologizadas de justicia que reclamen los derechos y valores intrínsecos de la naturaleza; y se resalta la pertinencia ética de integrar conocimientos locales e interculturales en los discursos y proyectos de conservación que se desarrollan. A manera de discusión, se expone tres temáticas socioecológicas que se interrelacionan con los fundamentos éticos encontrados: la seguridad alimentaria, el ecoturismo y la subjetividad animal. En específico, se evidencia algunas repercusiones socioecológicas del consumo de derivados animales y su vinculación con la conservación de jaguares; se presenta propuestas ecoturísticas en pro de la conservación de estos felinos y de su fauna silvestre asociada; y se plantea que la consideración explicita de la subjetividad de los animales puede contribuir a robustecer los esfuerzos que se realizan para conservarlos. Se concluye que las ONG estudiadas parten de fundamentos éticos utilitaristas y antropocéntricos que enfatizan los beneficios que se obtiene a través de la conservación de jaguares. Se sostiene que estos fundamentos éticos limitan la posibilidad de transformar las estructuras sociopolíticas causantes del actual deterioro socioecológico, por lo que se recomienda su replanteamiento a partir de perspectivas biocéntricas que faciliten el reconocimiento del valor intrínseco de la vida silvestre. Palabras clave: ética, biología de la conservación, conflictos, jaguar, panthera onca, fauna silvestre
... El carácter utilitarista de muchas prácticas de conservación se muestra a través del uso de conceptos como especie sombrilla y especie bandera, que enfatizan las ventajas y beneficios generales que se obtienen a través de la protección de determinados organismos (Hammerschlag & Gallagher, 2017;Isasi, 2011). ...
... Su conservación garantiza la permanencia de organismos que habitan en la misma zona geográfica, y favorece la existencia de especies que ocupan niveles tróficos más bajos, por lo que se utilizan con frecuencia como base para el diseño y gestión de áreas protegidas y corredores biológicos (Isasi, 2011). Las especies bandera resaltan por sus características físicas, y se utilizan para atraer a turistas y promover el apoyo de programas de conservación que beneficien a otras especies con las cuales estas interactúan a nivel trófico (Hammerschlag & Gallagher, 2017;Isasi, 2011). ...
Thesis
La biología de la conservación se desarrolla a partir de fundamentos éticos que suelen ser ignorados por los propios científicos y conservacionistas. Se ha reconocido, sin embargo, que la explicitación de tales fundamentos éticos podría fortalecer la integración socioecológica y la incidencia a largo plazo de los proyectos de conservación que se desarrollan. Con el objetivo de profundizar en este tema, inexplorado hasta ahora en Costa Rica, se analizó los discursos de cinco organizaciones no gubernamentales (ONG) que trabajan en la conservación de jaguares (Panthera onca). Los discursos de cada ONG se recolectaron por medio de entrevistas semiestructuradas a miembros claves e investigaciones documentales de sus páginas web. El análisis de los datos se llevó a cabo a partir del enfoque metodológico de la teoría fundamentada, desde el cual se buscó inducir información proveniente de los propios discursos obtenidos, y no de supuestos teóricos previos. Los resultados obtenidos sugieren que las prácticas de conservación en estas ONG giran en torno a tres fundamentos éticos: la solidaridad, la justicia y la objetividad científica. Por medio de la solidaridad se reconoce la importancia de generar consensos comunitarios e intersectoriales que reconozcan los intereses en común vinculados a la protección de jaguares y su fauna silvestre asociada. A través de la justicia se evidencia la urgencia de mitigar la exclusión política y socioeconómica que enfrentan las comunidades rurales que cohabitan con jaguares y otros felinos silvestres. Mediante la objetividad científica se resalta la necesidad de ampliar los conocimientos científicos sobre la ecología y conservación de las poblaciones de jaguares y sus especies presa en el país. Con base en estos resultados, se recomienda implementar herramientas alternativas de comunicación que resalten las similitudes éticas entre las ONG y los habitantes de las comunidades; se insta a implementar nociones ecologizadas de justicia que reclamen los derechos y valores intrínsecos de la naturaleza; y se resalta la pertinencia ética de integrar conocimientos locales e interculturales en los discursos y proyectos de conservación que se desarrollan. A manera de discusión, se expone tres temáticas socioecológicas que se interrelacionan con los fundamentos éticos encontrados: la seguridad alimentaria, el ecoturismo y la subjetividad animal. En específico, se evidencia algunas repercusiones socioecológicas del consumo de derivados animales y su vinculación con la conservación de jaguares; se presenta propuestas ecoturísticas en pro de la conservación de estos felinos y de su fauna silvestre asociada; y se plantea que la consideración explicita de la subjetividad de los animales puede contribuir a robustecer los esfuerzos que se realizan para conservarlos. Se concluye que las ONG estudiadas parten de fundamentos éticos utilitaristas y antropocéntricos que enfatizan los beneficios que se obtiene a través de la conservación de jaguares. Se sostiene que estos fundamentos éticos limitan la posibilidad de transformar las estructuras sociopolíticas causantes del actual deterioro socioecológico, por lo que se recomienda su replanteamiento a partir de perspectivas biocéntricas que faciliten el reconocimiento del valor intrínseco de la vida silvestre. Palabras clave: ética, biología de la conservación, conflictos, jaguar, panthera onca, fauna silvestre
... In the light of increasing exploitation rates, massive land-use/cover transformations, and accelerating climate change, which are mainly responsible for the decline of species (Cumming et al. 2014), evaluating CESs, and the knowledge about their spatial distribution in particular, can support their integration in landscape management and foster conservation efforts (Poe et al. 2014;Raymond et al. 2013). Preserving symbolic species helps to maintain associated cultural values; however, about a third of the animal species used as national symbols worldwide are classified as ''at risk'' (Hammerschlag and Gallagher 2017) and the conservation status of most plant species used as national symbols is even unknown (Feeley 2017). ...
... We defined a symbolic use when at least 30 symbolic representations (pictures, names) of the selected species existed in different locations of the study area. We included depictions on flags, coins, souvenirs, logos and names of brands, organisations, associations, hotels, and restaurants, as these representations carry socio-cultural values and document the cultural identity of a specific place (Hammerschlag and Gallagher 2017;Malamud et al. 2007;Nyffenegger 2013;Roth 2010). We thereby concentrated on current visual and verbal representations of the selected symbolic species, disregarding appearance in literature, music or folklore, as many of such representations originated during the last century or earlier and the significance to the present generation is unclear. ...
Article
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PurposeSymbolic plants and animals are recognised as a cultural ecosystem service (CES), which is still underrepresented in ecosystem services assessments. Thus, this study aims at identifying and mapping important symbolic species in the European Alps, which are of cultural significance to large parts of the Alpine population. Methods Symbolic species were identified by ten expert groups, and their use was assessed in a qualitative way. The spatial distribution of all species across the Alpine Space area was mapped at the municipality level. Through hotspots analysis, we identified spatial patterns in the distribution of species. Spearman correlation was used to evaluate the relationship between symbolic species and selected environmental and social variables. ResultsTen species were identified (edelweiss, gentian, alpenrose, larch, pine, Alpine ibex, chamois, marmot, brown bear, and golden eagle) that are widely used for symbolic representations, i.e., depiction on flags, emblems, logos, and naming of hotels and brands. Hotspots of symbolic species were found in several locations in the European Alps and could be related to high elevation, steep slopes, open land cover, and naturalness. Conclusions This study proposes a methodology to map and assess symbolic species as a CES. As the spatial distribution of symbolic species depends on environmental characteristics and human activities, our results provide important insights for landscape planning and management. However, it remains unclear whether associated cultural values depend on the presence of the species and further research is needed to understand the relationships between the distribution of symbolic species and social benefits.
... In their recent article on the "Extinction risk and conservation of the Earth's national animal symbols, " Hammerschlag and Gallagher (2017) look at the International Union for Conservation of Nature's (IUCN) Red List assessments of the conservation statuses for flagship animal species. They show that 35% of national symbol animal species are at risk (i.e., listed in the IUCN's categories of vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered). ...
... Animals are of course not the only national symbols of countries, and indeed, many countries have also designated national-symbol plants. Following on Hammerschlag and Gallagher (2017), I looked at the conservation status of national-symbol flower and tree species. Of the 67 unique tree species listed as national symbols, 9 (14%) are only identified at the genus level (e.g., oak) and therefore cannot be assessed. ...
... Identification of the grebe with the Lake Titicaca region, including its people, may be more useful. Conservation has often been promoted by identifying a species with a people (Hammerschlag and Gallagher 2017), and perhaps by making the Titicaca Grebe a symbol of the Titicaca region, its conservation could be aided. This would lead to a positive cultural coexistence, as seen in other areas where wildlife that can harm people have a high degree of cultural saliency (Dhee et al. 2019). ...
Article
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Understanding the drivers of conflict and coexistence in human–wildlife relations are critical to conservation. This study sought to understand th varying attitudes of local indigenous people towards wildlife, focusing on the Titicaca Grebe ( Rollandia microptera), an endangered endemic species found in Lake Titicaca and surrounding waters in the Altiplano of Peru and Bolivia. We used an ethnobiology approach to understand which demographic, sociocultural, and economic factors influenced (a) attitudes and local ecological knowledge (LEK) towards the grebe and (2) their effects on Indigenous–wildlife conflict or coexistence. We used a qualitative, semi-structured questionnaire to interview 221 individuals over six months in villages surrounding Lake Titicaca. Participants primarily consisted of locals from the Aymara, Quechan, and Uro Indigenous groups. We found that most individuals expressed apathy towards the grebe, with a significant minority being hostile towards it. Hostility was concentrated amongst fishers and was driven by economic concerns. Knowledge of the grebe was low in the general population, but higher amongst fishers. There was, however, widespread willingness to conserve the grebe amongst the general population, particularly when informed that the grebe is endemic to the Altiplano. This small environmental education intervention suggested increased positive attitudes and a willingness to conserve the grebe. Non-homogenous perspectives towards the grebe were held within and between indigenous groups, suggesting the need for future research into intra-indigenous group dynamics in indigenous–wildlife relations. Future conservation work on the Titicaca Grebe should focus on reducing grebe-fisher conflict, both real and perceived, and on educating people on the grebe's endemic status.
... Human-wildlife interactions pose a significant challenge to conservation efforts (Abrahms, 2021;Dickman, 2010;Inskip & Zimmermann, 2009). Negative interactions and conflicts with predators and large mammals have both social and economic costs for people (Barua et al., 2013;Gulati et al., 2021) and can also result in the reduction of wildlife species (Hammerschlag & Gallagher, 2017;Mateo-Tom as et al., 2012). In places where people live near wildlife reserves, such as in rural India, encounters between humans and animals often result in damage to livestock and human property and sometimes lead to human injury and death (e.g., Karanth et al., 2018;Karanth & Kudalkar, 2017). ...
Article
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Environmental education has the potential to help reduce negative human–wildlife interactions by increasing positive attitudes toward wildlife and providing participants with knowledge and skills that can help mitigate conflict situations and promote safety. To promote positive human–wildlife relationships, effective programs could be implemented widely in areas near remote wildlife reserves and protected areas. We created and evaluated a new environmental education program for 10‐ to 13‐year‐old students in rural schools in India where human–wildlife conflicts with large mammals frequently occur. Between July 2019 and March 2020, we tested the program at 129 schools, reaching 4331 students. The program, which was iteratively designed to fit the local context, is both cost‐effective and scalable. We found that participation in the program resulted in a significant positive increase in local environmental knowledge, in knowledge of safe behaviors, and in some measures of environmental attitudes. This paper reports on the lessons learned while creating this program that may help other organizations interested in using environmental education in regions where negative human–wildlife interactions frequently occur.
... Toponyms highlight the existence of bears as a natural ecological factor [116,117]. In Prahova Valley, the toponyms reflect the bear's habitat, with steep, rocky and rugged slopes [36,118] specific to the Bucegi Mountains. ...
Article
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Our research focuses on a complex and integrative analysis of bear presence in four tourist resorts in Prahova Valley, Romania: Sinaia, Bușteni, Azuga and Predeal. Employing innovative mixed methods, including questionnaires, interviews, newspaper analysis, and consideration of the local toponymy, including bear-related names and souvenirs, we aim to highlight the extent to which a posthumanist attitude is evident in the region. The sustained appearance of bears is attributed to habitat invasion through deforestation, road construction, residential neighborhoods, and tourist infrastructure. Ambiguity arises from the presence of food sources and voluntary feeding both by locals and tourists. The mass media initially heightened fear and panic during the onset of human–bear interactions but later adopted a more tolerant tone regarding the bear’s presence in tourist resorts, reflecting an openness to the posthumanist approach in Prahova Valley. That is why locals express fear and concern about bear encounters, advocating for a clear separation between animal and human spaces. Tourists exhibit attitudes ranging from unconscious appreciation to ambivalence, often contributing to the problem through practices such as feeding bears for fun. The use of bear-related names for tourist establishments is identified as anthropocentric, despite their appeal for attracting tourists. Souvenir sales, through increasing socio-economic value and contributing to tourist experiences, are also recognized as anthropocentric. However, souvenirs can provide elements of support for bear conservation efforts and the equal consideration of human and non-human entities. This study concludes that a successful adaptive coexistence requires a posthumanist vision, overcoming anthropocentrism in a landscape altered by human activities, supported by bear management programs in Bucegi Natural Park, and conservation efforts in Prahova Valley in a landscape altered by people.
... Narratives that demonize sharks representing them as man-eaters create a complex relationship between humans and sharks by inspiring terror and fear and can negatively impact conservation efforts (CROWN; DOUBLEDAY, 2017). For example, recreational shark fishing received a significant boost in popularity in 1975 after Jaws release (GALLAGHER et al., 2017). However, with a correct approach, it is possible to use even these narratives to teach scientific or conservation topics. ...
Article
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The relationship established between popular media and elasmobranchs, especially sharks, is barely sympathetic and generally includes a common-sense idea of terrible ocean creatures that are a threat to human life. Elasmobranchs are threatened, and the preservation of these animals has been a matter of concern to conservationists worldwide. This study was dedicated to developing, applying, and testing a teaching activity using Trading Card Game cards (Magic: The Gathering, Pokémon, Yu-Gi-Oh!) in school and university students, aiming to investigate how pop culture can promote students’ affection and awareness about sharks and rays and their conservation. The results suggest that using popular culture to develop teaching practices is an effective strategy for raising awareness about elasmobranchs and conservation issues.
... Large carnivore recovery represents a unique opportunity for reversing broader degradation of ecosystems. As some of nature's most charismatic species, many serve as national symbols and flagship species whose conservation can indirectly benefit other species and increase support for about conservation initiatives 62 . Our global synthesis documents rare cases of recovery among large carnivore species and underlines the importance of species legislation and restricting or eliminating exploitation for recovery success. ...
Article
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In the face of an accelerating extinction crisis, scientists must draw insights from successful conservation interventions to uncover promising strategies for reversing broader declines. Here, we synthesize cases of recovery from a list of 362 species of large carnivores, ecologically important species that function as terminal consumers in many ecological contexts. Large carnivores represent critical conservation targets that have experienced historical declines as a result of direct exploitation and habitat loss. We examine taxonomic and geographic variation in current extinction risk and recovery indices, identify conservation actions associated with positive outcomes, and reveal anthropogenic threats linked to ongoing declines. We find that fewer than 10% of global large carnivore populations are increasing, and only 12 species (3.3%) have experienced genuine improvement in extinction risk, mostly limited to recoveries among marine mammals. Recovery is associated with species legislation enacted at national and international levels, and with management of direct exploitation. Conversely, ongoing declines are robustly linked to threats that include habitat modification and human conflict. Applying lessons from cases of large carnivore recovery will be crucial for restoring intact ecosystems and maintaining the services they provide to humans.
... The concept assumes that raising the profile of a particular species encourages public support for biodiversity conservation. Examples include the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) in China (Yang et al., 2018), the bison (Bison bison) in North America (Hammerschlag, & Gallagher, 2017) and the gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) in Congo (Breuer, Manguette, & Groenenberg, 2018). Whether flagship species hurt or help conservation remains contested (Moynes, Bhathe, Brennan et al., 2021). ...
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We investigated the success of the Koala Conservation and Education Program conducted in Ballarat, Victoria, Australia from 2000-2009 by interviewing 28 individuals, from various stakeholder groups involved in the project. Transcripts were analysed using grounded theory to identify common themes, keywords and phrases. We conclude that the chosen 'flagship' species, the koala, was crucial for the success of the project which culminated in the adoption of the Koala Plan of Management and habitat overlays into the City of Ballarat's planning scheme. Local people were concerned about the koala based on its conservation status nationally and globally rather than because of its local or Victorian status. We conclude that the concept of 'flagship' species in the case of the koala, is more a global than a local construct. He is committed to exploring the connections that people have with the flagship species, Koala. He has been working collaboratively on a series of journal articles on various aspects of koala conservation through his association with the Koala History and Sustainability Research Cluster and Koala Research-CQ. Honorary Professor Barry Golding AM is widely published in the international adult education field. His research has gravitated towards informal learning in community settings, with a specialization in older men's learning and community Men's Sheds: see www.barrygoanna.com. Barry Kentish (EdD) worked with Federation University and its predecessors, for almost three decades. His diverse research included aspects of freshwater ecology, bird pest management and latterly environmental ethics and the links to higher and community environmental education. The movement of his research towards a more philosophical basis is founded on his contention that it is essential for ethical considerations to underpin and inform environmental management decisions. Gabrielle McGinnis is a PhD graduate from the University of Newcastle, with research interests in Indigenous methodologies, biocultural heritage conservation and sustainable tourism development using digital technologies. Gabrielle is CEO and Founder of BrodiMapi LLC, whose mission is to provide digital mapping and marketing services to those who wish to preserve, conserve and share biocultural heritage. She is currently focusing on koala tourism and its history as a researcher, digital media manager and is a co-founding member of the Koala History and Sustainability Research Cluster. Ian D. Clark is an Adjunct Professor at Federation University and Monash University. He holds a PhD from Monash University in Aboriginal historical geography and has been researching Victorian Aboriginal and settler colonial history since 1982. His research interests include biography, local history, toponyms, the history of tourism, and genealogy. He is a co-founding member of the Koala History and Sustainability Research Cluster, a collaboration of researchers from different disciplines concerned with the future of the iconic koala. Tim Cadman is a Research Fellow in the Institute for Ethics, Governance and Law and the Law Futures Centre at Griffith University. Tim specialises in the governance of sustainable development, natural resource management including forestry, and climate change. He is currently overseeing the implementation of a research project in Nepal focused on the protection of the Red panda through habitat conservation and restoration at the landscape level, in collaboration with local communities. Fred Cahir (PhD) lives and works on Wadawurrung Country at Ballarat, Victoria. He is Associate Professor of Aboriginal History in the School of Arts at Federation University Australia. His research in recent decades has been focused on Victorian Aboriginal history during the colonial period, and on understanding the contribution Aboriginal people made to the foundations of our nation-state, and of the roles they played on the frontier, especially in connection to fire, flood and food. Flavia Santamaria!s PhD researched the impact of translocation on the health, food selection and movement of koalas from French Island to forests around Ballarat, Victoria. Flavia has worked on projects that included GIS koala habitat mapping and koala surveys in Victoria and Queensland. Her current and future research foci are on koalas' response to stress and kKoala ecology, and in particular the impact of anthropogenic environmental changes on koala populations, including the potential pressure of environmental stress on their health (i.e., Chlamydia). She is committed to educating communities on sustainability using the koala as a flagship species. Statement of authenticity: This manuscript is an original work that has not been submitted to nor published anywhere else."
... We are currently experiencing a worldwide environmental crisis, with animal species increasingly threatened by habitat loss, pollution, climate change, and overexploitation (Thomas et al., 2004;Hooper et al., 2012;Darimont et al., 2015;Maxwell et al., 2016;Hammerschlag and Gallagher, 2017;Nabi et al., 2018;Zabel et al., 2019). Anthropogenic stressors have impacted almost all vertebrate species, with more than one-fifth characterized as "threatened" by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (Hoffmann et al., 2010). ...
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The IUCN Red List is the most widely used tool to measure extinction risk and report biodiversity trends. Accurate and standardized conservation status assessments for the IUCN Red List are limited by a lack of adequate information; and need consistent and unbiased interpretation of that information. Variable interpretation stems from a lack of quantified thresholds in certain areas of the Red List guidelines. Thus, even in situations with sufficient information to make a Red List assessment, inconsistency can occur when experts, especially from different regions, interpret the guidelines differently, thereby undermining the goals and credibility of the process. Assessors make assumptions depending on their level of Red List experience (subconscious bias) and their personal values or agendas (conscious bias). We highlight two major issues where such bias influences assessments: relating to fenced subpopulations that require intensive management; and defining benchmark geographic distributions and thus the inclusion/exclusion of introduced subpopulations. We suggest assessor bias can be reduced by refining the Red List guidelines to include quantified thresholds for when to include fenced/intensively managed subpopulations or subpopulations outside the benchmark distribution; publishing case studies of difficult assessments to enhance cohesion between Specialist Groups; developing an online accreditation course on applying Red List criteria as a prerequisite for assessors; and ensuring that assessments of species subject to trade and utilization are represented by all dissenting views (for example, both utilitarian and preservationist) and reviewed by relevant Specialist Groups. We believe these interventions would ensure consistent, reliable assessments of threatened species between regions and across assessors with divergent views, and will thus improve comparisons between taxa and counteract the use of Red List assessments as a tool to leverage applied agendas.
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Historically, wild predators were overwhelmingly viewed as threats to livestock, wild “game,” and public health. Over time, public perceptions have broadened to include recognition of predators' intrinsic value and their role in structuring ecosystems. Nowhere are these changing perceptions better illustrated than in Yellowstone National Park, where the U.S. government deliberately eliminated wolves in the 1920s, only to actively restore them in the 1990s. Large carnivores are now recovering across much of North America and Europe but declining elsewhere ( 1 , 2 ). Predator control, once widely accepted by the public, has become a source of intense social conflict ( 3 , 4 ). Robust scientific evidence and broad stakeholder involvement are crucial for effective management of predator populations.
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A focus of conservation planning is to maximise the probability of species persistence, but this may reduce the number of species that can be secured with a limited budget. Using a dataset of 700 New Zealand species, we examine the trade-off between providing a high level of persistence for some species and a lower level of persistence for more species. We find that the target persistence level that delivers the highest conservation outcome is a function of the annual budget, such that lower budgets have lower optimal targets. However, it is never optimal to manage species below a 75% probability of persistence. We introduce a prioritization approach that maximizes biodiversity gains based on a flexible persistence target, and demonstrate how strategies with fixed high persistence targets can be inefficient. We also illustrate the risks in spreading conservation resources too thinly by undertaking low levels of management on more species.This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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To address the global extinction crisis, both efficient use of existing conservation funding and new sources of funding are vital. Private sponsorship of charismatic 'flagship' species conservation represents an important source of new funding, but has been criticized as being inefficient. However, the ancillary benefits of privately sponsored flagship species conservation via actions benefiting other species have not been quantified, nor have the benefits of incorporating such sponsorship into objective prioritization protocols. Here, we use a comprehensive dataset of conservation actions for the 700 most threatened species in New Zealand to examine the potential biodiversity gains from national private flagship species sponsorship programmes. We find that private funding for flagship species can clearly result in additional species and phylogenetic diversity conserved, via conservation actions shared with other species. When private flagship species funding is incorporated into a prioritization protocol to preferentially sponsor shared actions, expected gains can be more than doubled. However, these gains are consistently smaller than expected gains in a hypothetical scenario where private funding could be optimally allocated among all threatened species. We recommend integrating private sponsorship of flagship species into objective prioritization protocols to sponsor efficient actions that maximize biodiversity gains, or wherever possible, encouraging private donations for broader biodiversity goals. © 2015 The Author(s) Published by the Royal Society. All rights reserved.
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Most assessments of resilience have been focused on local conditions. Studies focused on the relationship between humanity and environmental degradation are rare, and are rarely comprehensive. We investigated multiple social-ecological factors for 100 countries around the globe in relation to the percentage of invasions and extinctions within each country. These 100 countries contain approximately 87% of the world's population, produce 43% of the world's per capita gross domestic product (GDP), and take up 74% of the earth's total land area. We used an information theoretic approach to determine which models were most supported by our data, utilizing an a priori set of plausible models that included a combination of 15 social-ecological variables, each social-ecological factor by itself, and selected social-ecological factors grouped into three broad classes. These variables were per capita GDP, export-import ratio, tourism, undernourishment, energy efficiency, agricultural intensity, rainfall, water stress, wilderness protection, total biodiversity, life expectancy, adult literacy, pesticide regulation, political stability, and female participation in government. Our results indicate that as total biodiversity and total land area increase, the percentage of endangered birds also increases. As the independent variables (agricultural intensity, rainfall, water stress, and total biodiversity) in the ecological class model increase, the percentage of endangered mammals in a country increases. The percentage of invasive birds and mammals in a country increases as per capita GDP increases. As life expectancy increases, the percentage of invasive and endangered birds and mammals increases. Although our analysis does not determine mechanisms, the patterns observed in this study provide insight into the dynamics of a complex, global, social-ecological system.
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Flagship species, common components of conservation programs, are frequently implicated in social conflicts. This article examines the multiple roles of flagships in conflicts including their part in human-wildlife conflicts and as symbols of broader sociopolitical disputes. The article shows that the relationship between the co-occurrence of conflict and flagship species, while complex, illuminates important patterns and lessons that require further attention. The article focuses on the most iconic flagships globally and discusses why they are commonly shrouded in controversy in which their meaning, value, and place are contested. It argues that the process of socially constructing animals as iconic symbols often entangles them in conflict, and saturates them with conflict agency. The article recommends that any program that involves the deployment of flagships should institutionalize analyses of their symbolic meaning as an essential conflict-management approach.
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Large carnivores face serious threats and are experiencing massive declines in their populations and geographic ranges around the world. We highlight how these threats have affected the conservation status and ecological functioning of the 31 largest mammalian carnivores on Earth. Consistent with theory, empirical studies increasingly show that large carnivores have substantial effects on the structure and function of diverse ecosystems. Significant cascading trophic interactions, mediated by their prey or sympatric mesopredators, arise when some of these carnivores are extirpated from or repatriated to ecosystems. Unexpected effects of trophic cascades on various taxa and processes include changes to bird, mammal, invertebrate, and herpetofauna abundance or richness; subsidies to scavengers; altered disease dynamics; carbon sequestration; modified stream morphology; and crop damage. Promoting tolerance and coexistence with large carnivores is a crucial societal challenge that will ultimately determine the fate of Earth’s largest carnivores and all that depends upon them, including humans.
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The oceans face a biodiversity crisis, but the degree and scale of extinction risk remains poorly characterized. Charismatic species are most likely to garner greatest support for conservation and thus provide a best-case scenario of the status of marine biodiversity. We summarize extinction risk and diagnose impediments to successful conservation for 1,568 species in 16 families of marine animals in the movie Finding Nemo. Sixteen percent (12–34%) of those that have been evaluated are threatened, ranging from 9% (7–28%) of bony fishes to 100% (83–100%) of marine turtles. A lack of scientific knowledge impedes analysis of threat status for invertebrates, which have 1,000 times fewer conservation papers than do turtles. Legal protection is severely deficient for sharks and rays; only 8% of threatened species in our analysis are protected. Extinction risk among wide-ranging taxa is higher than most terrestrial groups, suggesting a different conservation focus is required in the sea.
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Over the last 50 years there has been increasing use of charismatic large mammals and birds as ‘flagship species’ to raise funds and promote the ethos of conservation. However, species chosen to appeal to donor and membership groups may not necessarily be considered popular among local communities. A growing recognition of the need to engage local communities in conservation makes them an increasingly important audience for information about conservation. In such situations an awareness of the local perception and value of different species is central to choosing effective flagships. Emphasising this, we propose 10 criteria for the selection of flagship species. We then describe three examples of local flagship species and assess their use against these criteria: the Asian elephant Elephas maximus for the conservation of landscapes in Aceh, Indonesia, the flying fox Pteropus voeltzkowi for forest protection on Pemba Island, Tanzania, and the ceiba or kapok tree Ceiba pentandra for the conservation of forests in Belize.
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Large-scale, comparative studies of species extinction risk have become common in conservation science, but their influence on conservation practice appears limited. The link between such studies and the practice of conservation breaks down in two key places. First, results of comparative studies are often ambiguous, inconsistent and difficult to translate into policy. Second, conservation as currently practiced emphasizes the rescue and protection of currently threatened biodiversity, whereas comparative studies are often better suited to a proactive approach that anticipates and prevents future species declines. Scientists should make their research more accessible by addressing the first issue. Policymakers and managers, in turn, could make better use of comparative studies by moving towards more preventative approaches to conservation planning.
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Thomas et al. reply — We reconsider our estimates of climate-related extinction in the light of three questions raised by Thuiller et al., Buckley and Roughgarden and Harte et al.. We are able to confirm our original conclusion that climate change represents a major threat to terrestrial species.
Haliaeetus leucocephalus. Red List of Threatened Species. International Union for Conservation of Nature
BirdLife International. 2012. Haliaeetus leucocephalus. Red List of Threatened Species. International Union for Conservation of Nature. (19 April 2017; http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2012-1.RLTS. T22695144A40334702.en)
Flagship umbrella species needed for the conservation of overlooked aquatic biodiversity
  • G Kalinkat