Conference Paper

Critical Realism and ICT4D Research

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Abstract

There is little overt engagement with research paradigms in ICT4D research but what there is shows a dominance of positivism and interpretivism. In this paper we explore the value of a “third way” research paradigm: critical realism. We concisely review the main features of critical realism: its ontological realism combined with epistemological relativism; its iterative, pluralist and reflexive methodology; and its emancipatory values. Alongside the general value of explicit use of any research paradigm, we argue two particular types of value of critical realism for ICT4D research. First, generic values including exposure of context, a contingent causality that reflects real-world ICT4D experiences, legitimisation of different stakeholder views and reduction of research bias, and support for ICT4D’s interventionist approach and its goal of delivering international development. Second, specific value in addressing current trends in ICT4D research: the growing search for causal links between “ICT” and “D”, and the political and ethical turns in ICT4D that are spurring researchers to engage more with issues of power, rights and justice. We conclude that delivery of critical realism’s utility will require the ICT4D research community to take actions that enable this emergent research paradigm to flourish.

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... This observation has also been made by ICT scholars, including Heeks (2014), Walsham (2017) and Williamson & Johanson (2018), to account for cultural subtleties that are not always easily observable. They found that most ICT4D research was unable to ensure the quality of research rigour because of weak methodology and the absence of clear theoretical analysis (Duncombe, 2012;Heeks, 2014a;Heeks & Wall, 2018;Walsham, 2000). They also argued that there is scope for further research using qualitative methods as most of the ICT4D research has been dominated by quantitative and positivist research approaches. ...
... Consequently, while the digital divide in a developed country might address concerns like high-speed internet access, the concerns can be different in a developing country context, such as ensuring physical access to or ownership of mobile phones (Heeks, 2017;Aziz, 2020;GSMA, 2020). Therefore, scholars suggest considering three aspects of the digital divide: i) access, ii) affordability, and iii) digital ability (Thomas et al., 2018). ...
... I. One of the common research gaps identified from the ICT4D literature was that most of the ICT4D literature does not use a clear theoretical framework, and, in some cases, research also lacks a credible methodology (Heeks, 2014;Walsham, 2017;Williamson and Johanson, 2018). Some studies explicitly argue that because of weak methodology, most ICT4D research was unable to ensure research rigour (Duncombe, 2012;Heeks, 2014a;Heeks & Wall, 2018;Walsham, 2000). We may also argue that there is scope for further research using qualitative methods as there is a tendency for ICT4D research to be dominated by quantitative and empirical positivist research approaches (Ramadani et al., 2018). ...
Thesis
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This PhD examines the role of mobile technologies in the lives of women micro-entrepreneurs in rural Bangladesh and provides critical insights about a) the social, cultural and economic change processes and b) relationships between mobile technologies, sustainable livelihood outcomes and women’s empowerment. The research explored and modified the internationally recognized Sustainable Livelihood Framework from a Critical Realism perspective by examining two empirical cases from rural Bangladesh. Findings suggest that despite a generally positive impact, women’s utilization of mobiles is limited because of pervasive cultural norms. An outcome is the dilemma for village women needing to choose between the image of a ‘good woman’ and a ‘smart woman’. The agency of such norms and social structures can be missed in conventional research approaches. The findings can be utilized in ICT for development research and policy and practical settings.
... Explicitly stated interest of ICT4D research in critical realism is a relatively new phenomenon, rooted in the conformity of this paradigm to core theoretical and thematic aspects of the field. As discussed by Heeks and Wall (2017), in a discipline whose attention to paradigms is generally limited, such interest is functional to strengthening processes of theory-building, and the critical component of the paradigm mirrors the field's recent turn towards issues of ethics, power and justice (e.g. Dearden, 2013;Heeks & Renken, 2018;Taylor, 2017). ...
... Numerous papers have reviewed the key aspects of critical realism, framing them in the landscape of IS research (e.g. Henfridsson & Bygstad, 2013;Mingers, 2004;Smith, 2006;Wynn & Williams, 2012;Zachariadis, Scott, & Barrett, 2013) and more recently of ICT4D (Heeks & Ospina, 2018;Heeks & Wall, 2017). Here we provide a synopsis of the most important aspects of critical realism, conceptualising their connection with the generation of causal theory. ...
... To produce solid explanations, critical realism requires a plurality of data sources (Heeks & Wall, 2017), hence three related data sets have been used to answer our question. The first has been collected in 2011-2012, during an eight-month period of fieldwork on the computerisation of the PDS in the state of Kerala. ...
Article
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The need for formulation of solid explanatory theories is heightened in information and communication technologies for development (ICT4D) by the high incidence of failure, which involves substantial costs for the countries affected. A core argument of this paper is that a critical realist ontology offers intellectual tools that can ground the formulation of causal theory in ICT4D. The paper illustrates such potential through the case study of India's Unique Identity Project (Aadhaar), which Indian states are increasingly using within their anti‐poverty programmes. Following a critical realist retroductive methodology, the paper seeks to explain the incorporation of Aadhaar into India's main food security system, the Public Distribution System; an incorporation somewhat paradoxical given the mistrust often associated with biometric infrastructures in social protection. Critical realism allows construction of a theory of trust‐building in Aadhaar, based on mechanisms of institutionalisation (state governments framing Aadhaar as a core institutional means to receive benefits) and image formation (authorities systemically associating Aadhaar with an image of effective pro‐poor reform). Based on primary and secondary data collected over the course of six years, this paper contributes a theoretical explanation of an important phenomenon in Indian development, and illustrates how a critical realist philosophy is instrumental in building the type of causal theory that is needed in ICT4D.
... The adoption of CR allows this research study to iteratively describe the evolving cause and effect relationships using retroduction. The researcher could thus better reflect on the patterns of cause and effect as identified in SMEs in this study (Heeks & Wall, 2017). ...
... CR also enhances neutrality by ensuring that the research is bias free (Heeks & Wall, 2017). ...
Thesis
The tendency of SMEs to focus on their core business activities often results in them overlooking competences to maximise ICT usage which, in turn, leads to the escalation of costs and the diminishing of investment returns. This study, situated within a critical realist philosophy, seeks to explore and design a new ICT artefact for SMEs using the dynamic capabilities framework and mixed method approach. Dynamic capabilities (DCs) refer to an organisation’s ability to continuously renew internal resources towards ensuring business success and market competitiveness. The use of content analysis and retroduction enabled the initial qualitative study to analyse the interview responses gained from 16 SMEs situated in five of the most economically active states in Nigeria. The study then developed and evaluated the ICT artefact amongst 20 SMEs in similar contexts using the elaborated action design research method. The key findings revealed how SMEs in Nigeria use ICTs (in the real domain) to carry out their business processes (in the actual domain) using their DCs (in the empirical domain). The findings suggest that, despite the existence of government support for SMEs across Nigeria, these programmes are generally inaccessible using ICTs. This study identified a critical need for the creation and evaluation of a contextual ICT artefact (i.e. mobile app) suited to Nigeria and in probably other SMEs operating in similar low-income contexts. The evaluation results confirmed the usefulness of the artefact as a suitable tool which would assist SMEs in enhancing their DCs and thus maximise opportunities. This thesis presents a theoretical contribution to IS theory through the identification of absorptive, adaptive and innovative DCs which enhance the competences of SMEs to seize business opportunities. The other theoretical contribution to IS lies in using critical realism to reveal the causal powers of mobile apps and the events generated in SMEs. The findings also contribute to practice by outlining a way in which SME owners can effectively use ICTs to maximise their business capabilities. The thesis recommends that contextually designed ICTs should serve as the bedrock for policy development. Policy makers should continuously sensitise SME owners as to the benefits of ICTs by reinforcing ICT education and creating environments which enable ICT growth.
... This may be problematic in one context but is particularly likely to lead to problems when such narrow approaches are replicated in a different global South context. As Heeks and Wall (2017) point out, critical realism's triangulated approach forces consideration of multiple stakeholder perspectives and encourages consideration of multiple methodologies. It can therefore offer a wider analytical view that can expose ICT4D projects that have taken too-narrow or too-context-specific an approach. ...
... Based on our analyses so far using critical realism, we believe it has the ability to push research to go beyond labeling any particular project as a complete success or a failure based on any specific criteria. As Heeks and Wall (2017) suggest, critical realism can assist in comprehending and explaining multiplicities of outcomes (successes or failures) within ICT4D. We believe such inclusivity offered by critical realism can be used in developing a comparative framework for seemingly similar technology-driven initiatives across diverse communities, with the goal of achieving better understanding and efficient knowledge sharing. ...
... The study uses a CR perspective to understand the effects of critical 'events', which are a social phenomenon (Easton, 2010) associated with significant changes to introducing a new structure, program, or policy to support societal order and functions such as entrepreneurship. CR seeks to identify and understand with qualifications the underlying causal mechanisms that have generated the occurrence of a observed phenomenon (van Burg, Elfring, et al., 2022) of interest, which could occur again (Bygstad et al., 2016;Heeks & Wall, 2017;Heeks & Wall, 2018). ...
... The discussions have moved from mere reporting to trying to gain an indepth understanding of the role of ICT for development. Existing literature reveals research that examines the link between information and communication technology and socioeconomic development (ICT4D) is mainly anchored mainly on positivism and interpretivism paradigms to guide the research direction [1]. Positivism advances the idea of objectivity towards confirmation and falsification. ...
Article
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Today, Information Systems research and in particular in the area of ICT4D in developing nations is dominated by positivism and interpretivism paradigms. Information systems contributions are influenced by historical, cultural, and political contexts in which it is done. Researchers in this area question the appropriateness of positivism and interpretivism philosophical foundations to conduct ICT4D research. This paper explores the use of pragmatism as an alternative research paradigm to that can be employed to understand the state of the ICT4D research. Research drawing explicitly on pragmatism is still relatively rare. The paper reviews the pragmatism in terms of its ontology, epistemology, axiology and methodology and its value in the ICT4D research discipline. As a new paradigm, pragmatism disrupts the assumptions of older approaches based on the philosophy of knowledge, while providing promising new directions for conducting and understanding the nature of research in the area of ICT4D in developing countries. It is anticipated the readers of the article to make a more informed choice for themselves on whether or not to pursue the path ofpragmatism their own research. KeywordAxiology, epistemology, ICT4D, methodology, ontology, pragmatism, research paradigms
... More broadly, critical research has been used in various ICT4D studies as well (De' et al., 2018;Poveda & Roberts, 2018;Singh et al., 2018). CR-based ICT4D research makes use of an "iterative, pluralist and reflexive methodology with emancipatory values" (Heeks & Wall, 2017). It forces an involvement with the ICT4D context based on what exists-local expertise, needs and adaptive capabilities-and how it evolved over time, rather than perceiving development as what is lacking (Njihia & Merali, 2013). ...
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Humanitarian medical organizations rely on information on and from the ground to evaluate their effectiveness and accountability. Related digitalization efforts within health information systems assume an instrumental rationality in the use of data. However, previous research identified a multitude of factors influencing actual information use for evidence‐based decision‐making for healthcare delivery. This case study, anchored by critical realism philosophy, unpacks these nuances against the backdrop of a globally operating organization (Médecins Sans Frontières). It aims to highlight the contextual conditions and structures that enact the contingent mechanisms at work in project monitoring within humanitarian health management information systems. By applying an affordance‐based causal analysis, three mechanisms are identified: first, an analytics service provides templated analysis modalities resulting in user–producer–provider relationships; second, the rationalization and synchronization of content and software artifacts gives rise to the standardization strategy of flexible generification; third, the study uncovers the potential for increased internal social discourse and advocacy through collaborative and mobile data analysis. This paper proposes that mechanism‐based explanations can be useful for theory‐building in information systems research as well as for providing insights to practitioners in the humanitarian health sector.
... Critical Realism (CR) is a meta-theoretical philosophy by Bhaskar [11] that illustrates the significance of distinguishing knowledge from existence. CR allowed this study to identify the social and economic structural patterns that influence SMEs, and subsequently design a contextual mobile app for Nigeria SMEs [12][13]. Specifically, the study sought to: design a mobile app artefact that allows SMEs in Nigeria to identify opportunity from a critical realist viewpoint. ...
Chapter
This paper reports on the design and evaluation of an app that was designed using the newly created elaborated action design research method and critical realism to overcome the social and economic structural challenges that SMEs in Nigeria face. The results show that even though the app took into account the full range of SME dynamic capabilities and proved valuable, SMEs remained dependent on the affordances of the existing global digital platforms. The findings point to the lock-in effect of 'freely' available digital platforms and that SMEs tend to default to their path dependency (and therefore the existing global digital platforms) rather than explore local digital innovations. The paper suggests that intentional efforts from powerful actors such as government might be necessary to overcome the path dependency and lock-in effect of 'freely' available global digital platforms. The paper identifies the extra efforts required to sustain local digital innovation in the face of well-resourced global digital platforms. The paper further reveals the utility of the new elaborated action design research method for designing for context. Six (6) design principles for designing for SMEs in resource-constrained contexts were also elicited.
... Thus, by drawing on critical realism philosophical assumptions, we argue that the studies reviewed so far have placed emphasis on the empirical events, without recourse to the real domain of what must have been the generative mechanisms. Besides, IS scholars (e.g., Avgerou 2013; Heeks and Wall 2017;McGrath 2013;Mingers et al. 2013) emphasized the need for mechanism-based explanation of why IS phenomenon occurs in a given context. Thus, further study can focus the critical realism approach in order to understand the socio technical structures, mechanisms and conditions that can gave rise to the intentional and malicious misuse of IS especially in a selected public sector context. ...
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In this paper, we present a systematic literature review on the insider criminal and malicious misuse of information systems (IS) in organizations. The objective of the paper is to understand the insider's motivations and preventive strategies for the criminal and malicious misuse of IS in organizations. This is to identify research gaps that can go a step further and guide future study by providing a research agenda. To do this, we leverage some databases that houses the "pertinent academic IS journals", and conference papers from 1990-2018 in order to capture studies in relation to our review objective. For analyzing and organizing the review findings, we adopted a concept-centric approach. Thus, based on the findings, we presented a model that describe the motivations and preventive strategies associated with the insider criminal and malicious misuse of IS in organizations. Following the model, a research gap was identified and suggestion for future study was recommended.
... The claim is that critical realist researchers can transcend interpretation and explain the situations they research (Easton, 2010). Based on the above discussion we suggest turning to critical realism as an appropriate philosophy for studying ICT4D and as a means to investigate the real connections between ICT and D (see also Heeks & Wall, 2017). ...
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In this paper, the author contends that if the outsider-researcher involved in Information and Communication Technology for Development really wants to make a difference and honestly address the emancipatory interests of the developing community, social transformation will have to occur on both sides of the “development divide.” This statement implies both an understanding of the researcher’s own ethnocentrism, prejudice, assumptions and inabilities as well as local concerns, needs, expectations and realities. Using critical social theory as a position of inquiry and learning from the enculturation phases of critical ethnographic fieldwork in a deep rural part of South Africa, the paper presents three confessional narratives where the author reflects on how he confronted his own need for emancipation. Research results include lessons learned on building networks of friendships, traditional leadership and respect and the typical people-orientatedness of deep rural South African communities.
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In this paper the authors contend that if the outsider-researcher involved in Information and Communication Technology for Development research really wants to make a difference and honestly address the emancipatory interests of the developing community, emancipation has to take place on both sides of the “development divide”. Emancipatory research and practice need to be accompanied by an understanding of the researcher-practitioner’s own assumptions, preconceptions, and limitations as well as local concerns, needs, and realities. Using a critical theoretical underpinning, the paper demonstrates how the outsider researcher and practitioner may acquire emancipation in order to ensure more appropriate Information and Communication Technology for Development. Through confessional writing and demonstrating critical reflexivity, the authors reflect on particular instances of self-emancipation as they present three narratives from the community entry phases of an ongoing community engagement project in a deep rural part of South Africa. Lessons learned include, the value of cultural interpreters as research partners, tactics for community entry, and a self-reflective approach to doing fieldwork.
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An interpretive approach to political science provides accounts of actions and practices that are interpretations of interpretations. We develop this argument using the idea of ‘situated agency’. There are many common criticisms of such an approach. This paper focuses on nine: that an interpretive approach is mere common sense; that it focuses on beliefs or discourses, not actions or practices; that it ignores concepts of social structure; that it seeks to understand actions and practices, not to explain them; that it is concerned exclusively with qualitative techniques of data generation; that it must accept actors' own accounts of their beliefs; that it is insensitive to the ways in which power constitutes beliefs; that it is incapable of producing policy-relevant knowledge; and that it is incapable of producing objective knowledge. We show that the criticisms rest on both misconceptions about an interpretive approach and misplaced beliefs in the false idols of hard data and rigorous methods.
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This paper considers some of the ethical questions that arise in conducting interventionist ICTD research, and examines the ethical advice and guidance that is readily available to researchers. Recent years have seen a growing interest from technology researchers in applying their skills to address the needs and aspirations of people in developing regions. In contrast to much previous research in Information and Communication Technologies for Development (ICTD) which has sought to study and understand processes surrounding technologies, technology researchers are interested in finding ways to change the forms of these technologies in order to promote desirable social aims. These more interventionist research encounters raise distinctive ethical challenges. This paper explores the discussions that have been presented in the major ICTD journals and conferences and major development studies journals as well as examining codes of conduct from related fields of research. Exploration of this literature shows that the quantity, quality and detail of advice that directly addresses the challenges of interventionist ICTD is actually very limited. This paper argues that the there is an urgent need for the ICTD research community to investigate and debate this subject.
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Building on her seminal contribution to social theory in Culture and Agency, in this 1995 book Margaret Archer develops her morphogenetic approach, applying it to the problem of structure and agency. Since structure and agency constitute different levels of stratified social reality, each possesses distinctive emergent properties which are real and causally efficacious but irreducible to one another. The problem, therefore, is shown to be how to link the two rather than conflate them, as has been common theoretical practice. Realist Social Theory: The Morphogenetic Approach not only rejects methodological individualism and holism, but argues that the debate between them has been replaced by a new one, between elisionary theorising and emergentist theories based on a realist ontology of the social world. The morphogenetic approach is the sociological complement of transcendental realism, and together they provide a basis for non-conflationary theorizing which is also of direct utility to the practising social analyst.
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Community participation in ICT-for-development (ICT4D) is sometimes portrayed as a ‘magic bullet’, which will inevitably lead to better project outcomes and the empowerment of marginalised participants from the local community. This paper takes a critical approach to participation, drawing on dual roots of participation in Development Studies and Information Systems, to consider whether apparently successful ICT4D projects, that follow best-practice for participation, are also succeeding in longer-term participant and community empowerment. The paper identifies issues and success factors relevant to participatory ICT4D and its potentially empowering role for local communities; explores the relevance of these factors to the reality of ICT4D projects in developing countries; and investigates the potential for producing an analytical framework that incorporates a project design approach that could help practitioners in the field incorporate empowerment objectives.
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Moving beyond the mantra that 'politics matters', a range of conceptual approaches have recently emerged within international development thinking that seek to capture the specific ways in which politics shapes development. This paper critically assesses whether these approaches, including work on 'limited access orders' and 'political settlements', can underpin research into how developmental forms of state capacity and elite commitment emerge and can be sustained. It suggests that these new approaches offer powerful insights into certain elements of this puzzle, particularly through a focus on the relational basis of elite behaviour and institutional performance. However, these approaches are also subject to serious limitations, and insights from broader and (in particular) more critical forms of political theory are also required in order to investigate how the politics of development is shaped by ideas as well as incentives, popular as well as elite forms of agency, transnational as well as national factors, and in dynamic as well as more structural ways. The paper proposes an initial conceptual framework that can be operationalized and tested within a programme of primary research to be established by the Effective States and Inclusive Development Research Centre.
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ICTD benefits from being a broad multidisciplinary field that unites researchers from a wide range of domains attempting to understand the role of ICTs in the context of social, economic and political development. As a new field of study, however, ICTD continuously grapples with epistemological differences and varying (and often evolving) notions of what counts as development, and there still exists a significant gap in outlining where the current boundaries of this field lie. In this paper we present "Missing Pieces," an ongoing research project with the primary aim of uncovering the constitution, development, growth and impact of ICTD. Through in-depth quantitative and qualitative analyses of the distribution of participation in and impact of ICTD research across places, people, institutions, organizations and funding agencies, this project will look beyond just trends, and instead focus on finding the missing pieces, i.e. what, or rather who is being left out.
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This paper demonstrates the value of Archer's morphogenetic approach (MA) in understanding and explaining the complexity of the broader context within which many developing country information and communication technology (ICT) projects are implemented. It does this by using MA's analytical and explanatory apparatus to examine the evolution of the context of public sector ICT provision in Kenya over the period 1963-2006. In addition to demonstrating the practical value of MA, the paper contributes to the Information Systems literature on ICT for development (ICT4D). The analysis identifies (1) global normative pressures, polity, the national socio-economic base, disruptive technology, and the emergence of multistakeholder networks as key forces in shaping the evolutionary trajectory, (2) the explicit treatment of time and temporality as key for understanding mechanisms underpinning the evolutionary process, and (3) the difficulty of cleanly isolating the implementation of individual public sector ICT projects from the broader context and ICT4D agendas. The discussion elaborates on the features of MA found to be particularly valuable in this study. The paper concludes that explicitly attending to time and temporality, and to the broader context for ICT4D projects, would contribute to the development of more nuanced accounts of such projects and a more emancipatory outlook for ICT4D research.
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Dialectic and Difference is the first systematic exploration of Roy Bhaskar's dialectical philosophy and its implications for ethics and justice. That philosophy has three aims: a dialecticisation of original critical realism, a 'critical realisation' of dialectic, and a metacritique of western philosophy. In the first, real absence or negativity links structured being to dialectical becoming in a dynamic world. The second draws on Marx to locate the critical impulse in Hegel's dialectic in a material, open and changing totality. The third identifies a central problem in western philosophy from the Greeks on, the failure to think real negativity as the essence of change ('ontological monovalence'). Bhaskar's ethics connect basic human ontology with universal principles of freedom and solidarity. He marries ('constellates') these with a grasp of how principles are historically shaped. His account of freedom moves from the infant's 'primal scream' to the eudaimonic society, but thinks the limits to freedom under modern conditions. The morally real in ethics and justice is displaced and reconfigured as relations between 'the ideal' and 'the actual'. Western philosophy systematically denies the real negativity that drives Bhaskar's dialectic. Metacritique traces this to Parmenides and Plato's account of non-being as difference. It enables a critique of the poststructural radicalisation of difference via Nietzsche and the doctrine of 'Heraclitan flux'. Mobilised as 'the other' of Plato's Forms, this remains a move on Platonic terrain. It too denies real negativity in structured being as the ground of historical change and moral praxis. This text is essential reading for all serious students of social theory, philosophy, and legal theory.
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According to a growing number of reports, conferences, academic papers and popular media sources, more and morepeople are living in an “information society”. Wikipedia, arguably an archetypal result of the informationsociety, defines this term as “a society where the creation, distribution, diffusion, use, integration and manipulation of information is a significant economic, political and cultural activity.” But what does an information society look like? Does it look, behave and respond the same way for everyone? Who is part of the information society and who is not? How does participation vary by gender, ability and literacy? How can information and communications technologies (ICTs) worsen existing inequities and further marginalize disadvantaged groups? As with any society, an information society is composed of individuals and groups occupying a shared territory – a virtual one, in this case – and is characterized by relationships, expectations, institutions and varying levels of influence and participation. This chapter examines two central questions that are closely linked: How can inequities of access to ICTs be redressedand how can access to ICTs potentially facilitate or inhibit social inclusion? It would be foolish to assume that just using ICTs alone could redress inequities that persist within and among these groups. There are myriad factors and complex dependencies underlying if, how and to what extent social exclusion is experienced. Similarly, the ways in which social inclusion can be made possible through the use of ICTs are equally complex, interdependent and non-linear in nature. © 2013 International Development Research Centre. All Right Reserved.
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Originally published in 1989, Reclaiming Reality still provides the most accessible introduction to the increasingly influential multi-disciplinary and international body of thought, known as critical realism. It is designed to "underlabour" both for the sciences, especially the human sciences, and for the projects of human emancipation which such sciences may come to inform; and provides an enlightening intervention in current debates about realism and relativism, positivism and poststucturalism, modernism and postmodernism, etc. Elaborating his critical realist perspective on society, nature, science and philosophy itself, Roy Bhaskar shows how this perspective can be used to undermine currently fashionable ideologies of the Right, and at the same time, to clear the ground for a reinvigorated Left. Reclaiming Reality contains powerful critiques of some of the most important schools of thought and thinkers of recent years-from Bachelard and Feyerabend to Rorty and Habermas; and it advances novel and convincing resolutions of many traditional philosophical problems. Now with a new introduction from Mervyn Hartwig, this book continues to provide a straightforward and stimulating introduction to current debates in philosophy and social theory for the interested lay reader and student alike. Reclaiming Reality will be of particular value not only for critical realists but for all those concerned with the revitalization of the socialist emancipatory project and the renaissance of the Marxist theoretical tradition. Roy Bhaskar is the originator of the philosophy of critical realism, and the author of many acclaimed and influential works including A Realist Theory of Science, The Possibility of Naturalism, Scientific Realism and Human Emancipation and Dialectic: The Pulse of Freedom. He is an editor of the recently published Critical Realism: Essential Readings and is currently chair of the Centre for Critical Realism.
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This chapter offers a journey through the spectrum of epistemological and ontological perspectives in IS (IS), offering the necessary background to the researcher who has to explore diligently the research methods toolkit available and then make a choice. It does not attempt to solve any problems in existing paradigms or present any new ones, but systematically examines and clarifies the underlying set of ontological and epistemological assumptions that underpin every research activity. After a brief discussion on ontology and epistemology, the IS field and its underlying paradigms are discussed and what follow is an analysis of positivism, interpretivism, and a presentation of selected interpretive approaches. Hence, this chapter serves as a guide to be followed by researchers who would like to clarify and evaluate their views regarding epistemological and ontological assumptions, initiating a philosophical enquiry of their own. Consequently, it contributes in aiding the researcher in building a solid background upon which valid and rigorous research in the IS field should be anchored.
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How can critical social scientists pursue critically engaged research? This question is addressed by examining how an action research intervention, informed by critical realism, was used to assist a business support agency (SUPPAG) to provide support to new migrant business owners. The article responds to calls for more engaged approaches to research, and more engagement with new migrants in different forms of employment. Key critical realist ideas (layered ontology, mechanisms, morphogenetic loops) shaped: the theoretical perspective; the approach to action research; the findings; and practice at SUPPAG. A key conclusion is that ‘engaged’ research is possible without compromising a commitment to critical scholarship.
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Theory testing within small-N research designs is problematic. Developments in the philosophy of social science have opened up new methodological possibilities through, among other things, a novel notion of contingent causality that allows for contextualized hypothesis generation, hypothesis testing and refinement, and generalization. This article contributes to the literature by providing an example of critical realist (one such new development in the philosophy of social science) theory development for a small-N comparative case study that includes hypothesis testing. The article begins with the key ontological assumptions of critical realism and its relation to theory and explanation. Then, the article presents an illustrative example of an e-government comparative case study, focusing on the concept of trust, which follows these ontological assumptions. The focus of the example is on the nature and process of theory and hypothesis development, rather than the actual testing that occurred. Essential to developing testable hypotheses is the generation of tightly linked middle-range and case-specific theories that provide propositions that can be tested and refined. The link provides a pathway to feed back the concrete empirical data to the higher level (more abstract) and generalizable middle-range theories.
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ccess to mobile broadband is becoming a necessity for communication, commerce, and also obtaining information about healthcare, employment and education. However, the global broadband digital divide continues to inhibit and limit access to mobile broadband services within and among nations. Key dimensions of this divide for individuals include knowledge, skills, affordability, and the technology to obtain vital online resources. This paper uses an IE perspective, an information ethics perspective, based the work of Floridi, which builds on previous ethics work by Rawls and Sen. From an IE perspective, we empirically examine the impact of economic, social and political dimensions of social justice (due to Rawls), individual capabilities (due to Sen), and governance principles on mobile broadband affordability in 108 countries. Key questions addressed are: (1) Do people have a right to access the Internet via broadband for services and information that are vital to their well-being? And (2) what factors enable and hinder people from being able to afford mobile broadband access in order to obtain such information? This cross-national study shows that specific forces of social justice – income inequality and a competitive mobile telecommunications ecosystem – and an individual capability – per capita income – together determine to what extent mobile broadband services are affordable. Furthermore, these results hold even when the cost of mobile broadband services in each country is normalized by the per capita gross national income.
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A realist approach to social science method, offering an alternative to both positivism and idealism, providing both the philosophical justifications and the implications for doing research in social science.
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It is argued that recent research in the information systems field has tended to either emphasise the structural/collective dimension or the agency/individual dimension, not both. Structuration theory is a more recent attempt to address both agency and structure, however there are a number of issues with the use of structuration theory in information systems research, not the least of which is its lack of recognition of the temporal and longitudinal nature of information systems development. A relatively new philosophy, critical realism, provides the potential for a new approach to social investigations in its provision of an ontology for the analytical separation of structure and agency. The philosophy is introduced and its implications for sociological investigation are discussed.
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Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) are widely known as tools for poverty reduction. However, before ICTs can be utilized as tools for development, one needs to assess the various development challenges facing a country and then analyse where and how ICTs could positively impact development in a sustainable way. As technology influences the way people relate toward each other, it is important to view ICTs from an ethical perspective. This research theoretically explores the key aspects of ethics that should be applied to ICT projects in rural communities. Understanding the key aspects of ethics related to ICTs would foster the adoption of ICTs in rural communities and ensure that the integration of such ICTs is compatible with existing development strategies in developing countries. Four existing frameworks on ethical practice are explored which serve as a foundation for a theoretical framework of ethical practice in ICT4D. The proposed framework highlights four ethical themes that should be considered in rural ICT4D initiatives. These themes include: collaboration and participation, socio-economic context, cost and benefits and underlying stakeholder interests. It is suggested that further research and practical application can inform the framework.
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Building on recent developments in mixed methods, we discuss the methodological implications of critical realism and explore how these can guide dynamic mixed-methods research design in information systems. Specifically, we examine the core ontological assumptions of CR in order to gain some perspective on key epistemological issues such as causation and validity, and illustrate how these shape our logic of inference in the research process through what is known as retroduction. We demonstrate the value of a CR-led mixed-methods research approach by drawing on a study that examines the impact of ICT adoption in the financial services sector. In doing so, we provide insight into the interplay between qualitative and quantitative methods and the particular value of applying mixed methods guided by CR methodological principles. Our positioning of demi-regularities within the process of retroduction contributes a distinctive development in this regard. We argue that such a research design enables us to better address issues of validity and the development of more robust meta-inferences.
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The issue of politics in information and communication technology for development (ICT4D) research is rarely debated, yet one of the key instrumental freedoms proposed by Sen [(1999). Development as freedom. New York: First Anchor Books] in his seminal book on development is political liberty for individuals. We argue that ICT4D initiatives are predominantly informed by a modernist philosophy, which in their effort to bring some material progress risk granting technological tools a major role. This view assumes that ICT4D users are merely passive recipients of the benefits of technology. Moreover, it implies that development can only be brought by those in a more developed, powerful position. This in itself is a political viewpoint, and thus politics is embedded in the design of ICT4D projects. Building on Sen's (1999) capability framework, we discuss how far ICT4D projects are able to assist political liberty of the alleged beneficiaries, given that political liberties are constrained by wider institutional factors. We conclude by making a call for researchers to more critically examine the structure and intention of ICT4D projects.Annika Andersson is the accepting Guest Editor for this article.
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This study uses social movement concepts to explain the success and failure of actors in a network of relationships trying to influence policies on environmental issues in a small city. Results show that strategies to take action and mobilize others in a network of interorganizational relationships can vary depending on the social context, which consists of the political opportunity structure defined by government regulators, whether the actor faces opposition, and the actor's position in the network. Decisions to engage in strategies to try to influence government regulators directly, to use a broker to reach agreements with the opposition, or to form a coalition with actors in other organizations to influence government decision makers are affected by this social context. Results also show that even peripheral actors, usually assumed to be powerless in network studies, can influence policy if they use a direct-contact strategy and the political opportunity structure is favorable.
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This paper examines forty articles published in the journal Information Technologies & International Development between 2003 and 2010 in an effort to identify commonalities among projects that failed to meet some or all of their development objectives. We considered whether the selected papers articulated clear development objectives, and whether baseline data was used to inform project design. We then considered two factors associated with how development objectives are implemented: the development perspective (top-down vs. bottom-up), and the project focus (the technology vs. the community). Our goal was not to find fault with our colleagues or their work, rather to advance the debate about the effectiveness of ICTD initiatives at a particularly important point in the history of the discipline. We conclude that top-down, technology-centric, goal-diffuse approaches to ICTD contribute to unsatisfactory development results. Careful consideration of development objectives, perspective and focus is essential in all phases of an ICTD project, from design to deployment. Honest and comprehensive reporting of failure (and success) helps ICTD researchers and practitioners focus on best practices in meeting critical development needs.
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Research has investigated the main effect of training on information systems implementation success. However, empirical support for this model is inconsistent. We propose a contingent model in which the effect of training on IS implementation success ...