The Effect of School Climate on Student Achievement

Abstract

The effect of climate on student achievement was examined in this meta-analysis study. A total of 237 research studies were collected during the literature review, out of which 90 were included in the meta-analysis. The 90 research studies were compiled to obtain a sample size of 148,504 subjects. The results of the random effect model showed that climate had a medium-level positive effect on student achievement. The moderators identified for the study were the publication years , publication types , country (culture) , school subject or assessment type and school grade , of which school subject or assessment type and the publication year of research were found to be moderator variables .

Full text

Chapter 12
The Effect of School Climate
on Student Achievement
Sabiha Dulay and Engin Karadağ
12.1 Introduction
When an organization is considered as a habitat, the provision of a positive climate
is important for both the individuals and the organizations in terms of having good
relationships within the organization and the survival of the organization in a
healthy way. Many different definitions of climate were proposed since the first
appearance of the concept, and it can be seen that there is no clear agreement about
its definition. In the most general sense, organization climate is defined as the
personality of an organization (Aydın1986;Çelik 2012; Halpin and Croft 1962;
Halpin 1966; Hoy and Miskel 2011). Hoy and Miskel (2011) have extended this
definition and included it in the attributes describing the environment inside the
organization, distinguishing an organization from another and affecting the
behaviors of each member. The connection between climate and educational
institutions started to be studied as late as the 1950s, and the basics of the concept
of school climate have been founded by Halpin and Croft (1962). The interest
towards school climate increased subsequently, and researchers started to focus on
examining the climate within the school and classroom. However, it was observed
that the consensus problem experienced in the conceptualization of organizational
climate was also valid for the definition of school climate. Hoy and Miskel (2011)
have adapted their definition of organizational climate, and they have defined
school climate as a number of characteristics that separate schools from each other
and that affect the behavior of each member of the school. According to Talbert
(2002), school climate expresses the sum of the values, cultures, health and safety
S. Dulay (&)E. Karadağ
Eskişehir Osmangazi University, Eskişehir, Turkey
e-mail: sabihaisci@gmail.com
E. Karadağ
e-mail: enginkaradag@ogu.edu.tr
©Springer International Publishing AG 2017
E. Karadağ(ed.), The Factors Effecting Student Achievement,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56083-0_12
199
enginkaradag@ogu.edu.tr

practices and work and organizational structures that allow the school to fulfill its
function and to respond in certain manners.
School climate, which can be described as the psychosocial effect of organiza-
tional environment on the students and adults inside the school, includes the
school’s norms, goals, targets, values, relations, organizational structure and
learning-teaching methods (Cohen and Geier 2010). In this context, school climate
is formed by different parts of the school, such as the physical environment that
provides an intimate and positive learning, the social environment that encourages
positive communication and interaction among shareholders, the emotional envi-
ronment that creates a sense of belonging especially among students and the aca-
demic environment that develops a learning system encouraging everyone towards
achievement (Tableman 2004). At the same time, school climate can also be defined
as the atmosphere created by social relations, values, attitudes and feelings shared
by the actors of the school. Based on all these conceptualizations about school
climate, it is possible to conclude that climate expresses the environment or per-
sonality of the school, and it is associated with the behaviors of the teachers,
students and other members and stockholders of the educational institutions.
Studies have revealed that climate is associated with various outcomes for students,
teachers and schools. In this context, climate is associated with the following
concepts and issues: organizational performance (Litwin 1968), morale (Alsop
1984), job satisfaction (Beckley 2012; Williams 2009), general behavior problems
(Wang et al. 2010), a sense of belonging to the school (Waters et al. 2009),
motivation (Cheema and Kitsantas 2014) and school attendance (Brookmeyer et al.
2006; Voight et al. 2011). In this regard, school climate, which is seen as the spirit
and heart of the school, is perceived as an important factor for student outcomes and
overall performance of the students (Hoy et al. 1991).
School climate is arguably an important component of successful and effective
schools (Koth et al. 2008). In this context, the formation of a positive school climate
is one of the basic requirements for the realization of effective learning. A positive
school climate provides an environment where students feel themselves valuable; at
the same time, it allows students to increase their academic achievement. In par-
ticular, there are numerous studies revealing that there is a positive relationship
between school climate and student achievement (Agnew 1981; Allen 2015;
Anderson 1982; Bear et al. 2014; Carwell 2012; Davis 2010; Hough and Schmitt
2011; Williams et al. 2008). Johnson and Stevens (2006) have examined the
relationship between school climate in terms of teachers’perceptions and
achievement and concluded that teachers with a positive school climate perception
increase student achievement. In this regard, school climate in terms of students and
teachers should be considered as an important factor for improving student
achievement. A safe and supportive school environment in which students develop
positive relations, get respected, and are genuinely engaged with their work, affects
achievement (Tschannen-Moran and Barr 2004). Similarly, it is argued that school
climate is a predictor of important organizational outcomes, such as academic
achievement, school achievement, violence prevention, healthy development of
students and teacher turnover (Cohen et al. 2009). It is, therefore, important to
200 S. Dulay and E. Karadağ
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examine the concept of climate and its relation with the lives of schools and
individuals, with establishing a positive atmosphere and with academic
achievement.
This study investigates the effect of self-concept on student achievement. In
addition, the factors that are hypothesized to affect the average effect size obtained
in the study were set as moderators. These are the following: (i) the publication year
of research, (ii) the publication type of research, (iii) the country (culture) where
the research was carried out, (iv) the course in which the achievement was measured
and (v) the school level. All these variables, along with the results of previous
research results, were used to test the following hypotheses of this study:
H
1
Climate has a positive effect on student achievement.
H
2
School subject or assessment type is a moderator for the positive effect of
climate on student achievement.
H
3
Country (culture) in which the study was conducted is a moderator for the
positive effect of climate on student achievement.
H
4
Publication year of research is a moderator for the positive effect of climate on
student achievement.
H
5
Publication type of research is a moderator for the positive effect of climate on
student achievement.
H
6
School grade (level) is a moderator for the positive effect of climate on student
achievement.
12.2 Method
12.2.1 Study Design
In this study, the effect of climate on student achievement was tested with a
meta-analysis design.
12.2.2 Review Strategy and Criteria for Inclusion/Exclusion
To determine the research studies to include in the meta-analysis, the
Science-Direct, Proquest and Ebsco academic databases were used to conduct a
literature review. For this process, the terms climate and student achievement/
student success included in the titles of the studies were used to screen the research
studies. The deadline for the research studies included in the research was identified
as January 2016. Doctoral dissertations and peer-reviewed journals were included
in the study.
Many strategies were used to identify the research studies that were appropriate
for the meta-analysis of the study. First, a research study pool (237 research studies)
12 The Effect of School Climate on Student Achievement 201
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was established; it included all studies with climate and student achievement/suc-
cess in their titles. The abstracts of these studies were reviewed, and 90 research
studies were found to be appropriate to include in the study. The results of the
examination found that 90 of the research studies in the pool were appropriate, and
147 were not found to be appropriate. The descriptive statistics of the 90 research
studies included in the analysis are presented in Table 12.1.
The criteria for inclusion of the research studies in the analysis study were
identified as follows:
•To have the statistical information necessary for correlational meta-analysis
(nand r, or R
2
values)
•To be a study measuring the correlation climate and student achievement/
success.
Reasons for not including a research study in the meta-analysis:
•Having no quantitative data (qualitative research)
•Not having a correlation coefficient
•Not focusing on student achievement
•Not focusing on climate.
12.2.3 Coding Process
The coding process was essentially a data sorting process used to ascertain which
data were clear and suitable for the study. In this scope, a coding form was
developed before the statistical analysis was conducted, and the coding was con-
ducted according to the form. The main aim was to develop a specific coding
system that allowed the study to see the entirety of the research studies in general
and that would not miss any characteristics of each individual research study. The
coding form developed in the study was comprised of:
•References for the research
•Sample information
Table 12.1 Characteristics of the studies included in the meta-analysis
Options 1 2 3 4 5 Total
Publication year Before 1995 1996–2000 2001–2005 2006–2010 2011–2015 –
n14 11 15 11 39 90
%15.5 12.2 16.7 12.2 43.3 100
Publication type Dissertations Articles
n74 16 90
%82.2 17.3 100
202 S. Dulay and E. Karadağ
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•Publication types and years of researches
•School subject or assessment type
•Methodological information
•Quantitative values.
12.2.4 Statistical Processes
The effect size acquired in meta-analysis is a standard measure value used in the
determination of the strength and direction of the relationship in the study (Borenstein
et al. 2009). Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r) was determined to be the effect size in
this study. Because the correlation coefficient has a value between +1and −1, the
rvalue calculated was evaluated by converting this value into the value as it appears in
the ztable (Hedges and Olkin 1985). Provided that more than one correlation value is
given between the same structure categories in correlational meta-analysis studies,
two different approaches are used in the determination of the one to be used in the
meta-analysis (Borenstein et al. 2009; Kulinskaya et al. 2008). For this study, (i)first,
if the correlations were independent, all the related correlations were included in the
analysis and were considered to be independent studies, and (ii) if there were
dependent correlations, then the highest correlation value was accepted. A random
effect model was used for the meta-analysis processes in this study. The
Comprehensive Meta-Analysis program was used in the meta-analysis process.
12.2.5 Moderator Variables
To determine the statistical significance of the differences between the moderators
of the study, only the Q
b
values were used. Four moderator variables that were
expected to have a role in the average effect size were identified in the study. The
first of these considered is the publication years of researches as a moderator in
regards to the relationship between climate and student achievement. The second is
the publication type of researches. The rest are the country (culture) in which the
study conducted school subject/assessment type and school grade.
12.2.6 Publication Bias
A funnel plot for the research studies included in the meta-analysis of can be seen in
Fig. 12.1. Evidence that publication bias affected the research studies included in
the meta-analysis can be seen in Fig. 12.1. A serious asymmetry would be expected
in the funnel plot if there were a publication bias. The concentration of plots on one
12 The Effect of School Climate on Student Achievement 203
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side under the line of average effect size, particularly in the bottom section of the
funnel, suggests the probability of a publication bias in the research studies. In this
study, no evidence of partiality of the publications was observed in any of the 90
data subjected to meta-analysis.
Although no partiality in publications was observed in the funnel plot, the results
of Duval and Tweedie’s trim and fill test, which was applied to determine the effect
of partiality in publications acquired with the meta-analysis using the random effect
model, are given in Table 12.2. As is seen in Table 12.2, there is no difference
between the effect observed and the artificial effect size created to fix the effect of
the partiality of publications. The research on each side of the center line is sym-
metrical, and this is the indicator of non-difference. Because there is no evidence
indicating lost data on either side of the center line, the difference between the fixed
effect size and observed effect size is zero.
Fig. 12.1 Effect size funnel for publication bias
Table 12.2 Duval and Tweedie’s trim and fill test results
Excluded
studies
Point
estimate
CI (confidence interval) Q
Lower
limit
Upper
limit
Observed
values
0,41 0,40 0,41 12385.5*
Corrected
values
0 0,41 0,40 0,41 12385.5*
*p < .01
204 S. Dulay and E. Karadağ
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12.3 Findings
The results of the meta-analysis about the relationship between climate and student
achievement are displayed in Table 12.3.Thefindings supported hypothesis H
1
which
formulated that there is a positive relationship between climate and student achievement.
The effect size of climate on student achievement was calculated as .38 which showed
that climate had a medium level effect (see Cohen 1988) on student achievement.
The first moderator analysis supported hypothesis H
2
which stated that the
course in which the achievement was measured plays a moderator role in the effect
of climate on student achievement. According to the moderator analysis, it was
found that climate had a significant low level effect on reading skill [r= .30] and a
medium level effect on cumulative grade average [r= .33], mathematics [r= .36],
English [r= .57], science [r= .58] and social sciences [r= .58]. The effect size
differences of the climate among the various courses in which the achievement has
been measured were found to be statistically significant (Q
b
= 15.21, p< .05).
The findings did not support hypothesis H
3
which formulated that the country
(culture) where the research was carried out plays a moderator role in theeffect of climate
on student achievement. Although the effect size differences according to the culture
type (country) of the research were not found to be significant (Q
b
=.26,p>.05),the
effect of climate on student achievement was at a medium level both in horizontal
individualistic cultures [r= .38] and in vertical-collectivist countries [r=.52].
The findings of this study supported hypothesis H
4
hypothesis which formulated
that the publication year of the research plays a moderator role in the effect of
climate on student achievement. As a result of the moderator analysis, the effect size
differences between the publication years of the studies examined were found to be
statistically significant (Q
b
= 45.17, p< .05). In particular, in the studies published
before 1995 (r= .16) the effect of climate on student achievement was at a low
level, whereas in the studies published between in the years 2001–2005 [r= .57],
2006–2010 [r= .45] and 2011–2015 [r= .46] this effect was at a medium level.
The findings did not support hypothesis H
5
hypothesis which formulated that the
publication type of the research plays a moderator role in the effect of climate on
student achievement. According to the moderator analysis, the effect size difference
of the publication types was not found to be statistically significant (Q
b
= 2.87,
p> .05). The effect of climate on student achievement was at a medium level both
in the articles [r= .48] and in dissertations [r= .36].
The findings of the moderator analysis did not support hypothesis H
6
which
formulated that the school grade (level) plays a moderator role in the effect of
climate on student achievement. Although the effect size differences between the
levels of education were not found to be statistically significant (Q
b
= 2.20,
p> .05), the effect of climate on student achievement is statistically significant for
all education levels except for the university [r= .29]. In particular, the effect of
climate on student achievement is at a medium level for primary school [r= .40],
secondary school [r= .36], high school [r= .35] and for mixed groups where
students from different levels are together [r= .52].
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12.4 Conclusion
This meta-analysis, which aimed to determine the effect size of climate on student
achievement, included 90 studies. In this study, the moderator variables were the
publication year and publication type of the research, the country (culture) where
the research was carried out, the course in which the achievement was measured
and the level of education. The meta-analysis results of the study showed that
Table 12.3 Findings of the correlations between climate and student achievement: results of the
meta-analysis
Variable k N rCI (confidence
interval)
QQ
b
Lower
limit
upper
limit
Climate 90 148.504 .38.8* .33 .43.9 12385.15*
Moderator [course] 15.21*
GPA 42 42.981 .33* .25 .41
Mathematic 23 63.299 .36* .25 .46
English 10 12.431 .57* .43 .68
Reading ability 9 22.127 .30* .12 .47
Social sciences 3 3.833 .61* .36 .78
Science 3 3.833 .58* .32 .76
Moderator [country] 0.26
Horizontal
individualistic
1 55 .52 −.06 .83
Vertical-
collectivist
89 148.499 .38* .33 .43
Moderator [publication year]
Before 1995 14 13.720 .16** .02 .30 45.17*
1996–2000 11 13.267 .04 −.12 20
2001–2005 15 5.465 .57* .47 .66
2006–2010 11 24.688 .45* .31 .57
2011–2015 39 91.364 .45* .37 .51
Moderator [Publication Type] 2.87
Dissertation
Article
16 50.874 .48 .36 .59
74 97.630 .36 .30 .42
Moderator [school grade] 2.20
Elementary 42 9.772 .40* .32 .47
Secondary 25 12.447 .36* .25 .46
High 15 12.622 .35* .21 .48
Mixed 5 3.356 .52* .29 .69
University 3 4 .29 −.05 .58
*p < .01, **p < .05
206 S. Dulay and E. Karadağ
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climate had a medium level positive effect on student achievement. This finding
supports the argument in the literature that the climate is associated with student
achievement (Agnew 1981; Allen 2015; Anderson 1982; Bear et al. 2014; Carwell
2012; Cohen et al. 2009; Davis 2010; Hough and Schmitt 2011; Goddard et al.
2000; Tschannen-Moran and Barr 2004; Williams et al. 1992).
The findings of the moderator analysis in terms of the course in which the
achievement was measured showed that the effect size differences among courses
were statistically significant. In particular, it was found that climate had a significant
low level effect on reading skill [r= .30] and a medium level effect on cumulative
grade average [r= .33], mathematics [r= .36], English [r= .57], science [r= .58]
and social sciences [r= .58]. This finding is supported by similar studies which
examine the relationship between climate and the academic achievement of the
students. In this regard, it is argued that climate is positively associated with reading
skill (Allen 2015; Fleenor 2015; Smallwood 2014; Demery 2000), cumulative
grade average (Carter 2015; Hopson et al. 2014; Vaux 2015), mathematics (Bear
et al. 2014; Carwell 2012; Demery 2000), English (Bear et al. 2014; Bergren 2014),
science (Spence 2003) and social sciences (Bergren 2014; Spence 2003).
The effect size difference of country (culture) type was not statistically signifi-
cant. On the one hand, the effect of climate on student achievement was at a
medium level in horizontal individualistic cultures [r= .38]. On the other hand, this
effect is not statistically significant in vertical-collectivist countries [r= .52]. The
review of the studies included in the meta-analysis showed that only one study
(Dincer et al. 2012) was conducted in a vertical-collectivist culture, and the high
number of studies conducted in horizontal-individualistic cultures was striking.
Regarding the publication year and publication type, the difference in the effect
size of climate on student achievement is statistically significant for the publication
year, while this effect size is not significant in terms of the publication type. It was
found that the effect of climate on student achievement was at a low level for the
studies published before 1995 [r= .16], whereas the effect of climate on student
achievement was at a medium level for the studies published in the years 2001–2005
[r= .57], 2006–2010 [r= .45] and 2011–2015 [r= .46]. It can be seen that this
effect rapidly increased between 2001 and 2005, whereas it remained similar in the
subsequent years. In the light of the above findings, it is possible to conclude that the
number of studies about climate increased after 1995. In this context, the concept of
organizational climate, including its application in the school environment, became
the focus of many studies in the literature since the beginning of the 20th century
(Bergren 2014). The review of the effect sizes according to publication type showed
that the effect of climate on student achievement did not change in the articles and
dissertations; there was a medium level effect in both types.
Finally, the moderator analysis of the education levels showed that the effect size
differences among the various education levels were not statistically significant.
Despite this result, the effect of climate on student achievement was significant for
all education levels except university. The highest effect was observed in the mixed
group in which students from different levels are mixed together, whereas the
lowest effect was in high school.
12 The Effect of School Climate on Student Achievement 207
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The results about the effect of climate on student achievement are reviewed as a
whole and summarized as below:
•Climate has a medium level positive effect size [r= 38.8] on student
achievement.
•Regarding the moderator variables, the country (culture) where the research was
carried out, the school grade, and the publication type do not play a moderator
role in the effect size of climate on student achievement, whereas the course in
which the achievement was measured and the publication year play a moderator
role in the effect size of climate on student achievement.
Based on the results obtained from this study, it is concluded that school climate,
which is an important factor in creating a heathy and positive atmosphere in schools
and in ensuring the effectiveness of interpersonal relations, affects the academic
achievement of students positively. In other words, school climate appears as one of
the basic factors that are crucial for predicting and increasing student achievement.
Accordingly, this meta-analysis study is important in terms of revealing that the
studies focusing on the relationship between climate and student achievement
should be deeply examined. In order to examine the effect of climate on academic
achievement, further qualitative and comparative meta-analysis studies should be
conducted.
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