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15 Methodology of Standards Development for EMF RF in Russia and by International Commissions: Distinctions in Approaches
... The following discussion is largely based on a 2012 review by Repacholi et al. (2012). For more recent reviews, see Grigoriev (2017) and Bukhtiyarov et al. (2015). Older reviews of the Soviet/Russian/Eastern European standards are also available (McRee, 1975;Gajšek et al., 2002). ...
... The inclusion criteria for Western health-agency reviews, for example, adequate exposure assessment, would undoubtedly exclude much of the Russian literature, particularly from the Soviet era. On the other hand, some Russian scientists who are prominent in the Russian EMF commu- nity continue to assert that exposure to RF energy at levels far below Western limits is harmful to health (e.g., Grigoriev, 2017). As a practical matter, some former Warsaw Pact countries that have now joined the EU (e.g., the Czech Republic, Latvia, and Slovakia) have adopted exposure limits similar to those of most of the rest of the EU, while others retain older and lower limits of the former Soviet Union. ...
There is no doubt that radiofrequency (RF) energy is hazardous to humans at some level of exposure and that limits to exposure are needed for workers and ordinary citizens. Harm from exposure to RF energy may occur directly, through direct action on the body, or indirectly by interaction of RF energy with other objects or systems in the environment (for example, by causing interference to an implanted medical device that results in harm to the patient).
In the following discussion, RF refers to the part of the electromagnetic spectrum from
3 kHz–300 GHz, and EMF refers generically to electromagnetic fields without specifying the frequency. Following conventional definitions,* harm refers to physical injury or damage to an individual’s health, a hazard is a potential source of harm, and risk is the chance or probability that a person will be harmed or experience an adverse health effect if exposed to a hazard. The frequency range of chief concern is 0.1 MHz–300 GHz (a subset of the RF band), which is the range where tissue heating is considered to be the dominant hazard mechanism but the limits at lower frequencies will be briefly discussed as well.
In its Framework for Developing Health-based EMF Standards† (WHO, 2006), the EMF Project of the World Health Organization (WHO) describes “science-based exposure limits that will protect the health of the population from EMF exposure.” While the Framework does not explicitly define “science-based,” it describes a standards-setting process that begins with a critical review of the relevant scientific literature, establishing exposure limits to avoid established hazards, and extending to “considerations regarding the overall practicability of the standard, compliance procedures and the use of precautionary measures” (Table 12.1). The process relies on a careful review of the scientific data by qualified experts, but also allows for stakeholder participation in setting exposure limits.
This chapter will focus on two science-based exposure limits as related to several national and regional/local exposure limits, but toward the end will also discuss precautionary based limits adopted in some jurisdictions. The main emphasis is on the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) Standard C95.1-2005, for which two of the three present authors (C.-K. Chou and R. Petersen) have played significant leadership roles. Some of the present material has been adapted from previous writings by these authors (Chou and Petersen, 2008; Chou, 2015; Petersen, 2009). For a recent review of RF exposure limits from a different (non-IEEE) perspective, see Wood (2017).
This chapter describes the major scientific rationales of the limits but does not attempt to summarize them in full detail. (The limits‡ are highly complex and detailed, and readers who wish to apply any of the exposure limits referred to in this chapter should consult with the original documents as well as any accompanying explanatory information).
For perspective, three kinds of standards have been developed to ensure safe use of electromagnetic energy over the RF spectrum: exposure standards, assessment standards, and electromagnetic compatibility standards for medical devices. These can be voluntary (as with the IEEE standards) or mandatory (implemented in government regulations).
... В связи с чем печень является уникальным органом для объективной оценки механизмов биологической реализации в формировании патологических процессов в организме при воздействии низкоинтенсивного ЭМП РЧ. Учитывая тот факт, что воздействие ЭМП от источников беспроводной связи влияет на компенсаторные процессы, а также приводит к накоплению неблагоприятных биологических эффектов [7], представляется актуальным анализ состояния антиоксидантной системы печени организма на различных этапах постнатального развития в условиях хронического воздействия ЭМП устройства Wi-Fi. ...
Currently, the World Health Organization (WHO) recognizes that radio frequency electromagnetic fields (RF EMF) are one of the most common sources of electromagnetic radiation and are significant factors for human health, having a pronounced biological effect. In addition, oxidative stress caused by hyperproduction of free radicals due to exposure to RF EMF is a factor that provokes the development of many diseases and, in particular, liver pathologies, including in the elderly.For the first time, studies were conducted on the state of the antioxidant system of the liver of male rats at various stages of postnatal development (young, adult, aging and pre-senile periods) under conditions of chronic exposure to EMF from a Wi-Fi device (2,45 GHz, PD=0,79±0,52 μW/cm2, 24 h/day, daily) from the age of 50 days until they reach 24 months. In the cytosolic-microsomal fraction, the activity of superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, glutathione reductase and glutathione-S-transferase was determined by spectrophotometry, and in the tissue homogenate, the concentration of protein-bound glutathione, sulfhydryl groups of proteins, total SH groups, reduced glutathione and protein oxidation products was determined.The revealed changes in the state of the liver antioxidant system during chronic exposure to EMF from Wi-Fi equipment on the body during aging indicate activation of the glutathionedependent system in experimental animals. The revealed changes are manifested in maintaining a stably elevated level of the reduced form of thiols in the liver tissue and are an adaptive response of cells to prolonged exposure of the body to EMF from Wi-Fi equipment.
... A variety of precautionary policies are also in place in different jurisdictions, which will be discussed in a later section. • Exposure levels in the Russian Federation and some of its former Warsaw Pact allies are very different (and vastly more restrictive) from those of the United States and most other Western countries (61). These limits had their origin in a regulatory framework (that of the former Soviet Union) that is very different from that of Western countries. ...
The radiofrequency (RF) part of the electromagnetic spectrum is conventionally defined as extending from 3 kilohertz (kHz) to 300 gigahertz (GHz) and includes a great many applications ranging in power level from very low (e.g. wireless key fobs, Wi‐Fi) to very high (e.g. some broadcast and radar facilities, industrial heaters). While RF energy is nonionizing, in the sense that its photons have insufficient energy to disrupt chemical bonds and form free radicals), exposure to RF energy at high levels can be quite hazardous. The presence of high‐powered RF sources in some occupational settings creates challenges for the industrial hygienist (IH), regarding both exposure assessment and control. This chapter reviews elementary aspects of RF safety, including RF sources in occupational settings with the potential of producing exposures above recommended limits, relevant exposure limits, elements of exposure assessment, and RF protection programs.
The continuously increasing usage of cell phones has raised concerns about the adverse effects of microwave radiation (MWR) emitted by cell phones on health. Several in vitro and in vivo studies have claimed that MWR may cause various kinds of damage in tissues. The aim of this study is to examine the possible effects of exposure to low‐intensity MWR on DNA and oxidative damage in the livers of rats. Eighteen Sprague–Dawley male rats were divided into three equal groups randomly (n = 6). Group 1 (Sham‐control): rats were kept under conditions the same as those of other groups, except for MWR exposure. Group 2: rats exposed to 1800 MHz (SAR: 0.62 W/kg) at 0.127 ± 0.04 mW/cm2 power density, and Group 3: rats exposed to 2,100 MHz (SAR: 0.2 W/kg) at 0.038 ± 0.03 mW/cm2 power density. Microwave application groups were exposed to MWR 2 h/day for 7 months. At the end of the exposure period, the rats were sacrificed and DNA damage, malondialdehyde (MDA), 8‐hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8‐OHdG), and total oxidant‐antioxidant parameter analyses were conducted in their liver tissue samples. It was found that 1800 and 2100 MHz low‐intensity MWR caused a significant increase in MDA, 8‐OHdG, total oxidant status, oxidative stress index, and comet assay tail intensity (P < 0.05), while total antioxidant status levels (P < 0.05) decreased. The results of our study showed that whole‐body exposure to 1800 and 2100 MHz low‐intensity MWR emitted by cell phones can induce oxidative stress by altering oxidant‐antioxidant parameters and lead to DNA strand breaks and oxidative DNA damage in the liver of rats. Bioelectromagnetics. © 2020 Bioelectromagnetics Society
Keywords: microwave radiation; liver; DNA damage; 8‐OHdG; MDA
The twenty-first century is marked with aggressive development of the wireless communications (satellite, mobile phones, Internet, Wi-Fi). In addition to thousand of satellites that deliver radio and TV signals, large satellite and base station networks secure intensive instant delivery of audio and video information. It is fair to say that that the entire civilization, both biosphere and mankind are exposed to continuous exposure of multitude of radiofrequency (RF) signals. It should be taken into account that the entire world population is exposed to exponentially increasing RF radiation from base stations and satellite antennas. While several years ago the potential hazard was connected with placement of mobile phones close to human head, today "smart phones" represent small, but powerful computers continuously receiving audio and video data. The largest group of users is the children and teenagers who "need" to communicate nearly 24 h a day. This is even more important because cell phones and tablets may be seen in the hands of children as little as two years in age. There is no way to assess and predict the potential damages of children brain, vision and hearing under exposure to RF radiation. The WHO precautionary principle and IARC classification must be applied in discussing the potential hazard of the use of today's and tomorrow's communication devices.
Studies of the effects of environmental low frequency electromagnetic fields on isolated cellular systems and tissue preparations derived from brain, bone, blood, and pancreas are reported. Behavioral effects of 60 Hz fields were examined in monkeys. Bioeffects of low level microwave fields modulated at 60 Hz and other ELF frequencies were also examined. Findings in the present studies emphasize a key role for cell membrane surfaces in detecting ELF environmental fields. Two broad groups of exposure techniques have been utilized. In the ELF spectrum, 60 Hz environmental fields were imposed on monkeys during behavioral task performance. Field intensities from 50 to 1000 V/m were tested in different experiments. The monkeys were exposed to a horizontal electric field. In tissue and cell culture preparations, ELF electric fields were generated by passing current between electrodes in the solutions bathing the tissue. Tissue and cell preparations were also tested with low frequency, pulsed magnetic fields by placing the biological preparation inside Helmholtz coils. For ELF dosimetry measurements in tissue preparations, electric gradients were measured directly in relation to specific axes of tissue and cell preparations. Exposures to ELF modulated 450 MHz microwave fields were conducted in two different systems, one uses a large anechoic horn chamber, the other utilizes a Crawford cell, a double-tapered coaxial system.Environmental field levels and tissue components of these fields were studied collaboratively using implantable tissue probes developed by BRH. Concurrent environmental field levels were based on measurements with other BRH probes and a NARDA microwave probe system. (ERB)
Unanesthetized rabbits exposed to 12.5-cm microwaves at a field intensity of 40 mW/cm2 in the region of the head showed an increase in the number of slow waves and spindle-shaped firings in the EEG and a change in the discharge frequency of neurons in the visual cortex in 41-52% of the cases. An enhancement of the evoked response of visual cortex neurons to light was observed in 61% of the cases and a facilitation of the driving response in 80% of all cases. It is concluded that the evoked response is a more sensitive indicator of the microwave effect than background activity. The effects of the fields were most distinctly observed with the driving response.
Mobile phones (MP) emit low-level electromagnetic fields that have been reported to affect neural function in humans; however, demonstrations of such effects have not been conclusive. The purpose of the present study was to test one of the strongest findings in the literature; that of increased "alpha" power in response to MP-type radiation. Healthy participants (N = 120) were tested using a double-blind counterbalanced crossover design, with each receiving a 30-min Active and a 30-min Sham Exposure 1 week apart, while electroencephalogram (EEG) data were recorded. Resting alpha power (8-12 Hz) was then derived as a function of time, for periods both during and following exposure. Non-parametric analyses were employed as data could not be normalized. Previous reports of an overall alpha power enhancement during the MP exposure were confirmed (relative to Sham), with this effect larger at ipsilateral than contralateral sites over posterior regions. No overall change to alpha power was observed following exposure cessation; however, there was less alpha power contralateral to the exposure source during this period (relative to ipsilateral). Employing a strong methodology, the current findings support previous research that has reported an effect of MP exposure on EEG alpha power.