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The Lord-Collins Site (Site 3.12): A Late Pleistocene Site in Sanford, Maine
Bruce Bradley and Arthur Spiess
University of Exeter, Department of Archaeology Exeter, UK (Bradley)
Maine Historic Preservation Commission (Spiess)
Abstract
A bifacial, bipointed, flaked stone knife was
found during the expansion of a house cellar in
the early twentieth-century in Sanford, Maine.
It was brought to Bradley’s attention in 2011 by
the current owner of the artifact. The geological
surface map indicated that the find spot was
likely an exposure of late Pleistocene deposits
and the form of the artifact resembles some
other bipointed knives that may be of Late
Glacial Maximum origin. The locality was
investigated through test excavations with the
geology verified. However, no in-place archae-
ological deposits were encountered. Dating of
the deposits by optical stimulated luminescence
(OSL) was also unsuccessful. Nevertheless there
is circumstantial evidence that the knife may
have been in late Pleistocene deposits and that
it could represent an early use of the area when
it was an interface between glacial outwash and
the ocean beach. A small stone end scraper,
typical of Late Pleistocene Paleoindian cul-
tures, has also been recovered from the locality.
The site is named after two landowners (L. Lord
and G. Collins).
Introduction
(by Bruce Bradley)
As the result of reading a story about a theory
later presented in detail in Across Atlantic Ice
(Stanford and Bradley 2012) in a local newspa-
per in 2011, L. Lord of Sanford, Maine con-
tacted me by email saying that she had in her
possession what she thought might be a very old
stone knife (Figure 1). It had been found during
the extension of a house cellar in 1929 in San-
ford. On request, she sent me photographs of
the artifact. It does indeed resemble a number
of other artifacts that have been recovered from
early deposits along the eastern seaboard (Col-
lins et al. 2013; Crock et al. 1993; Lothrop et al.
2016) and is a form that is lacking or at least
extremely rare in late Pleistocene Paleoindian
contexts in the region (but see Price and Spiess
2013). Also, the surficial geology indicated that
the find location was the interface between
glacial outwash and marine beach deposits, or
possible glaciomarine delta formations (Thomp-
son et al. 1989).
For these reasons I concluded that the find
could indicate an early archaeological site and
was worthy of investigation. On a subsequent
The Maine Archaeological Society Bulletin 57(1):21-38 (2017)
The Lord-Collins Site (Site 3.12): A Late Pleistocene Site in Sanford, Maine
Figure 1. The Lord “laurel leaf” bipoint knife in 2013.
trip I visited the find location and examined the
stone knife. The property now belongs to a Mr.
Collins, and he indicated he would grant per-
mission for exploratory excavations. He also
gave me a small artifact, a red chert end scraper,
he had found on the property during landscap-
ing activities. Mrs. Lord loaned me the stone
knife for study with the only proviso that it
would someday be given to a museum in Maine.
A research grant proposal was submitted to the
British Academy and test excavations were
funded. This paper is based on a file report
(Bradley 2013).
Location
Sanford is located in southern Maine, 22 km
northwest of the present Atlantic Ocean shore-
line. It sits on the inland side of the Coastal
Lowlands (Toppan 1935:77) along the Mousam
River. Sanford, and the Lord Collins site
location are in a glacial outwash geological
setting (Figure 2, Nell et al. 1997). This area,
including most of the developed area of San-
ford, has seen significant post-Pleistocene
isostatic uplift and marine transgression after ice
retreat, with sequential ice contact outwash, and
inshore submarine outwash delta formation
22
The Lord-Collins Site (Site 3.12): A Late Pleistocene Site in Sanford, Maine
Figure 2. Section of the Sanford quadrangle surficial geology
map (Nell et al. 1997) showing glacial outwash and related
deposits (darker grays) trending from northwest to southeast
through urban and suburban Sanford. The darkest, oblong
features are eskers. The Sanford delta “proper” is at the
southeast corner of this figure.
associated with the isostatic
uplift (Koteff et al. 1993;
Smith and Hunter 1989;
Tary et al. 2001; Thompson
et al. 1989). Although dat-
ing is still uncertain, the
outwash deltas were em-
placed between 14,000 and
12,500 B.P. (radiocarbon),
with a land surface not
emerging until roughly
12,500 B.P. The geological
situation in the immediate
area of the site is complex,
and our small stratigraphic
sample was not enough to
work out details. However,
we did encounter aeolian
(wind-deposited) material in
testpit 2 (see below). Ae-
olian deposits (dunes, loess)
are not mapped on the
surficial map (Nell et al.
1997).
The site (Maine archae-
ological survey prehistoric
site number 3.12, Maine
Historic Preservation Com-
mission) is now located in
an area of twentieth-century
residences and other indus-
trial features, such as a sandpit; and the area
exhibits significant land surface disturbance.
The stone knife was recovered during an ap-
proximately 2 meter southward expansion of the
cellar of the original 1923 foundation, sometime
prior to World War II (presumably in 1929) (L.
23
The Lord-Collins Site (Site 3.12): A Late Pleistocene Site in Sanford, Maine
Figure 4. Auger testing along the south house foundation.
C.D. Cox (left), and Michael Johnson (right).
Figure 3. Testpits 1 and 2, and the intersection E-W
and N-S profiles located relative to the Lord and
Collins house.
Lord, personal communication to
Bradley). When I visited in 2011, Mr.
Collins had been doing some landscaping
to the east, uphill of the house, and there
was an exposed irregular sand profile. A
preliminary assessment of this exposed
stratigraphy indicated that there were in-
place deposits that could be investigated.
Excavations
Limited test excavations were undertaken
to try and find any in- place archaeologi-
cal features or materials, and if encoun-
tered to determine their chronological and
cultural origins. Excavations were also
done to expose on-site geological forma-
tions in an attempt to reconstruct the
depositional sequence and establish a
chronology.
The general site area around
the house was investigated with two
intersecting transects, one running
east-west downhill along the south
edge of the house (and cellar exten-
sion where the knife was found)
and the other in a north-south direc-
tion uphill to the east of the house
(Figure 3). Initially, investigations
were attempted along the east-west
line just south of the house founda-
tion by using a 3 inch diameter
auger with two meter spacing (Fig-
ure 4). Unfortunately, this was
24
The Lord-Collins Site (Site 3.12): A Late Pleistocene Site in Sanford, Maine
Figure 5. Intersecting stratigraphic profiles after excavation, view south to the E-W
profile.
unsuccessful as the auger encountered numer-
ous cobbles. This approach was abandoned in
favor of exposing two intersecting profiles and
excavating two unconnected test pits (refer to
Figure 3). The first of the two unconnected test
pits was 2 x 2 meters in size just to the south of
the house along the east-west transect. The
other (1 x 1 m) was located near the top of the
existing slope in the northeast corner of the
property near the road. Creation of the two,
long intersecting profiles (Figure 5) involved
excavation of a roughly triangular area inside
their intersection (Figure 6), from the present
ground surface downward, including careful
excavation of the A and B soil horizons that
were encountered.
Excavations were done with hand tools and
in arbitrary horizontal levels in the test pits.
Profiles were cut vertically, also by hand. All
horizontally excavated and augered sediment
was passed through ¼” (6.3mm) mesh screen
(Figure 7) to recover any small artifacts and
ecofacts that might be encountered.
25
The Lord-Collins Site (Site 3.12): A Late Pleistocene Site in Sanford, Maine
Figure 6. Excavation of the pre-development A soil horizon along the N-S profile.
Completion of this work resulted in the profiles shown in Figure 5 above. Left to right:
Michael Johnson, Bruce Bradley, and Darrin Lowery.
Figure 7 (left). C.D. Cox, designated screen-
er for the project. C.D. had worked at the
Michaud Paleoindian site in Auburn in the
early 1980s.
Sampling
The two main objectives of the research were to
locate any archaeological deposits and to under-
stand the geological setting, including dating of
the deposits. Unfortunately, no additional pre-
historic artifacts or contexts were found. How-
ever, excellent geological sections were exposed
26
The Lord-Collins Site (Site 3.12): A Late Pleistocene Site in Sanford, Maine
Figures 8, 9, and 10 (upper left,
right, lower left). OSL samples
extracted from the N-S profile,
glacial outwash or ice-contact de-
posits. Samples are taken with PVC
pipe hammered into the profile, then
labeled.
that allowed us to obtain sediment samples for
attempted dating and geomorphological analy-
ses. Eight OSL (optically stimulated lumin-
escence) samples were recovered (Figures 8 to
10) and sent to the Luminescence Dating Re-
search Laboratory, Dept. of Earth & Environ-
mental Sciences, University of Illinois of Chi-
cago for dating analysis. Sediment samples
were also taken from the same locations for
granulometric analysis. An additional sample
was taken for soil chemistry analysis. No
materials suitable for radiocarbon dating were
encountered.
Stratigraphy
Sediments encountered in test pit #1 were all
determined to be of recent origin, deposited
27
The Lord-Collins Site (Site 3.12): A Late Pleistocene Site in Sanford, Maine
Figure 11. E-W profile stratigraphy. (1) modern
landscaping topsoil; (2) landscaping redeposition
of coarse sand; (3) in place early twentieth century
A horizon soil; (4) well-developed B horizon; (5) in
place coarse sand and cobble C horizon.
when the top of the adjacent ridge was levelled
for house and road construction, presumably in
the 1920s. As this was the area adjacent to the
purported stone knife find, this was unfortunate,
but it may also indicate that the knife was
recovered from redeposited sediments.
This redeposition (and landscaping) was
very clear in the profile along the east-west
exposure (Figure 11) where there is a clear
buried soil (A-horizon) that contained early
twentieth-century artifacts, including frag-
ments of a 33 rpm record. Beneath the A-
horizon was a well-developed B-horizon
with elevated iron oxide content underlain
by a C-horizon of coarse sand and cobbles.
Because of the length of the north-
south profile and its relative shallowness a
composite photo was done showing the
entire exposed stratigraphy of the cut
(Figure12). The C-horizon under the area
of long profiles consisted of strata of
interbedded coarse sands with areas of
mixed sand and cobbles (Figure 13).
In order to better understand the upper
portion of the ridge north of the house, a
1x1 m test pit (test pit #2) was excavated in
the northeast corner of the property at the
highest existing elevation near the road.
This testpit contained a very different stra-
tigraphy, made up of very fine white sand,
which contained thin laminated silty-clay
layers near its base; similar to varves (Fig-
ures 14 to 16). This stratigraphy was inter-
preted (after analysis, see below) as wind-
reworked aeolian deposition over water-lain,
thin strata.
Geoarchaeological Analyses
In order to better understand the depositional
conditions of the various sediment units, 8
samples (25 grams each) were analysed for
grain size, pH and soil organic matter content
28
The Lord-Collins Site (Site 3.12): A Late Pleistocene Site in Sanford, Maine
Figures 12 and 13. Composite view of the N-S profile (above) and close-up of the
sloping beds of coarse sand, sands and gravels at the north end of the profile (below).
by Dr. Ben Pears (Bradley 2013, Appendix 1).
The results indicate that the upper fine-grained
sediments in Test Pit #2 were wind deposited
(probably loess, or a dune).
The laminations indicate that the lower
deposits were made in a low energy water
environment, probably a fresh water pond. The
inter-bedded C-horizon coarse sands with
cobbles in the main north-south and west-east
profiles probably represent the interface be-
tween glacial outwash and ocean littoral sands,
or a shallow ice-contact deposit or submarine
delta. A chemical analysis of the lower portion
of this coarse sand yielded a relatively high salt
concentration (Bradley 2013, Appendix 2),
supporting the marine deposition interpretation.
The well-developed B-horizon also indicates
that there was once a well-developed stable A-
horizon soil that is now mostly missing.
29
The Lord-Collins Site (Site 3.12): A Late Pleistocene Site in Sanford, Maine
Figures 14, 15 and 16. Testpit 2, on ridge north of house, with aeolian dune or loess deposits
over fine, laminated water-lain layers. OSL samples 7 and 8 located on the testpit wall. This
aeolian deposit is probably too small in scale to show on the surficial map (see Figure 1).
30
The Lord-Collins Site (Site 3.12): A Late Pleistocene Site in Sanford, Maine
Dating Attempts
The only organic remains were encountered in
the sub A-horizon deposits, and were clearly
intrusive roots, probably from relatively recent
forestation of the area. We made attempts to
date the undisturbed, late Pleistocene sand
deposits by taking eight OSL (optical-stimu-
lated luminescence) samples. The eight OSL
samples did not yield any credible dates in spite
of intensive and even experimental methods
being applied. The analyst, Professor Steve
Forman, explained (Bradley 2013, Appendix 2):
“We have completed the alternative
analytical approach using a multiple
aliquot regenerative (MAR) dose pro-
cedure on two samples and obtained
considerably older ages (72-95 ka)
than indicated on the sample submittal
forms. Even the SAR ages are too old,
though they should be considered
minimum estimates because of carry-
over signal through the analytical pro-
tocols. Something is amiss; either what
was sampled, incomplete solar reset-
ting and/or uncompensated sensitivity
change in the laboratory”.
Whatever the reason that the OSL dating
failed, this lack of sediment dating means that
the best alternative is an estimate based on
geology. As mentioned above, the outwash
delta sand was emplaced between 14,000 and
roughly 12,500 B.P. (radiocarbon), and the delta
surface was probably not exposed sub-aerially
until after 12,500 B.P. This was quickly fol-
lowed by “isostatic uplift [which] caused the sea
to recede to the present position of the Maine
coast by 11,000 B.P.” (Thompson and Borns
1985b.) This dating means that if the bipointed
knife was in-place, and there are reasons to
suggest it was in the coarse sand B-horizon (see
below), it likely dates from between 12,500 and
11,000 B.P. (radiocarbon), or before 13,000
calibrated B.P. This reasoning could place the
bipoint firmly in the earliest post glacial occu-
pation of the Maritime provinces (see Lothrop
et al. 2016 for a review of Paleoindian settle-
ment timing in the Northeast and the Mid-
Atlantic).
Artifacts
Two flaked stone artifacts have been found at
the locality, neither of which was in a primary
depositional context. The stone knife (bipoint)
had been recovered during the expansion of the
house cellar, perhaps from deposits that had
been pushed off of the top of the hill to the east
in the early twentieth century. The small end
scraper was recently picked up off of the sur-
face. It a may have come in with the topsoil
used in landscaping the hill slope above the
house, or may have originated in the same sand
deposits as the stone knife.
31
The Lord-Collins Site (Site 3.12): A Late Pleistocene Site in Sanford, Maine
Table 1. Knife Dimensions (mm).
Maximum Length 150 Length at maximum width 68-75
Maximum Width 37 Thickness at maximum width 10
Maximum Thickness 10 Minimum thickness 8
Width/thickness 3.7/1 Thickness at ½ length 9
Maximum width/
minimum thickness
4.6/1 Width/thickness at ½ length 4.1
Figure 17. The Lord laurel leaf or bipoint stone knife.
Stone Knife ( Lord laurel leaf, or bipoint)
The stone knife (Figure 17, see Figure 1) was
flaked of rhyolite from an as yet unidentified
source (see Table 1 for dimensions and propor-
tions). There are a number of possible sources
in the region such as Mt. Kineo in Maine,
Mount Jasper and Jefferson in New Hampshire.
XRF results clearly show that the
Lord stone knife did not originate at
either Mount Jasper or Jefferson
(Williams 2013, Appendix 3 in
Bradley 2013). The rhyolite could be
a Kineo-Traveler rhyolite, based on
macroscopic, visual appearance (Ar-
thur Spiess, personal observation
2013). It is possible that the rhyolite
was collected from glacial till in the
immediate vicinity of the Lord Col-
lins site, although southwestern
Maine is outside the usual area of
glacially-distributed Kineo rhyolite
debris.
Additionally, one of us (Bradley)
noted that the biface has a small area
of fresh flaking at the base (see
Figure 17, noted as “a”), proba-
bly a result of damage when it
was found. This exposed the
interior of the piece. There is a
clear contrast between this and
the weathered surface of the rest
of the knife, which exhibits
orange-brown staining; proba-
bly iron oxide. To test this XRF
was done on both the weathered and fresh
surfaces clearly showing an elevated iron signa-
ture on the weathered areas (Williams 2013:
Figure 3). This iron staining was most likely
the result of the artifact residing in an iron-rich
environment. In the deposits that were encoun-
tered in the test excavations the most likely
32
The Lord-Collins Site (Site 3.12): A Late Pleistocene Site in Sanford, Maine
Figure 18. End scraper of red chert found by
Mr. Collins.
candidate is the B- horizon soil, which is iron
enriched. This B-horizon formed below the
organic-rich A- horizon in the coarse sand
(e.g. see Figure 11, level 4). The presence of
an iron-enriched, B-horizon soil (podsol) in
Maine is common, indicating a forest soil
that had not been disturbed (plowed) in the
last few centuries.
The knife is bipointed, relatively narrow,
fully bifacially flaked and exhibits a distinct
twist in longitudinal section. Original manu-
facture flaking was percussion with appar-
ently no pressure. Remnant primary flake
scars mostly run past the midline, but the mar-
gins exhibit all around smaller ‘retouch’ flake
scars. There is no indication of patterned flak-
ing. There was a tendency toward alternate
edge and facial flaking, which produced the
twisting section. This was likely the result of
systematic resharpening so that the lowered
cutting edge is on the right distal edge at both
ends. The stone seems to have been of fairly
good flaking quality, although there are some
crack remnants that caused a few step fractures.
The edges of the implement are still fairly
sharp and exhibit only a slight degree of weath-
ering. While the knife was lightly weathered
post-depositionally, there are no indications that
it was transported in alluvial sediments nor that
it suffered from sediment abrasion. While its
depositional environment could not be directly
observed, the relative lack of surface abrasion
and increased iron staining may indicate that it
was deposited very near to where it was recov-
ered and it likely came from the shallow, iron
enriched B-horizon adjacent to the house foun-
dation when the foundation was expanded.
This implement form is not common in the
earliest known archaeological assemblages in
the region (Bradley et al. 2008). However, this
implement compares reasonably well with a few
other bipointed stone knives from submerged
contexts (Price and Spiess 2013). There are
also now emerging a series of similar artifacts
along the Mid-Atlantic coasts of Maryland and
Virginia (Collins et al. 2013:526; Lothrop et al.
2016; Stanford and Bradley 2012:100-102).
Those that have been found in good dated
context are older than the likely date of the Lord
specimen, possibly indicating a spread of the
form up the coast as the glaciers retreated.
End scraper
The small end scraper (Figure 18) found by G.
Collins is fairly typical of Paleoamerican
33
The Lord-Collins Site (Site 3.12): A Late Pleistocene Site in Sanford, Maine
Figure 19. Surface chemistry of the endscraper,
indicating manganese enrichment along the internal flaw
or crack (from Williams 2013, in Bradley 2013).
(Paleoindian) forms from all over North Amer-
ica, including New England and the Maritime
Provinces. It exhibits a recent fracture splitting
it longitudinally. It is a dark red stone (match-
ing Munsungun chert macroscopically, Spiess
personal observation) on the surface, but the
interior face of the crack (along a material flaw)
is black (Figure 18 b and c). The color differ-
ence (red to black) is caused by the replacement
of iron by manganese (Figure 19) (Williams
2013). The endscraper surface is also lightly
smoothed all over, yet the working edge is still
relatively sharp. While this demonstrates
weathering, either abrasive or chemical, it does
not indicate that the scraper had been in the surf
for any length of time nor washed down a river.
Its origin and possible relationship to the
bipointed biface are unknown.
Conclusions
Based on the find of an unusual
bipointed flaked stone artifact and a
small stone scraper, archaeological
test investigations were undertaken
at a location in Sanford, Maine,
USA; funded by the British Acad-
emy. It was hoped that additional
archaeological materials would be
encountered in an undisturbed con-
text and that the context could be
dated. Unfortunately, no additional
archaeological materials were encountered
(Figure 20). However, geological deposits at
the locality were studied. It is likely that the
artifacts did indeed indicate prehistoric use of
the location, probably after 12,500 radiocarbon
years ago. This is when the location and a
sandy delta surface had recently been lifted
above the retreating shore (sea level) by iso-
static rebound. It could have been deposited at
the interface between the land, consisting main-
ly of glacial deltaic outwash deposits, and
reworked sand present as a beach at the time.
(There was enough exposed sand and silt to
have built a dune or wind-blown deposit a few
dozen meters up hill from the find spot.)
The stone knife had not suffered extensive
weathering, indicating that it had neither been in
the ocean surf nor washed down a glacial river.
Flaking on the still sharp edges of the knife was
fairly abrupt, indicating resharpening. This
34
The Lord-Collins Site (Site 3.12): A Late Pleistocene Site in Sanford, Maine
Figure 20. Consulting about a stone fragment from the site. Left to right: Arthur Spiess,
Michael Johnson, and Bruce Bradley.
retouching was done in such a way that it pro
duced a distinctive twisting of the form. This
form of knife is rare in the Maritime provinces,
although similar pieces have been recovered
from inundated locations in the region. Similar
artifacts have also been found, in larger num-
bers along the mid-Atlantic seaboard of Mary-
land and Virginia, some in contexts dated be-
tween 22,000 and 17,000 years old. The small
fragmentary stone scraper is typical of late
Pleistocene Paleoindian tools found in the New
England-Maritimes area (for example, Goodby
et al. 2014).
Acknowledgments
All of this effort and learning stemmed from a
contact with the first author by L. Lord, a resi-
dent of Sanford, Maine. She generously made
me aware of the interesting stone knife and
related the story of its find and location. She
and her husband contacted the current owner of
the property (Mr. Collins) of the find location
and arranged for a visit. They very generously
loaned the knife to the author for detailed study
with the only proviso that it someday be do-
nated to a museum in Maine. Funding for the
excavation and analyses was provided by the
British Academy, and I was supported by the
35
The Lord-Collins Site (Site 3.12): A Late Pleistocene Site in Sanford, Maine
University of Exeter, UK during the study. I am
greatly indebted to Mr. G. Collins who allowed
us to invade his territory, dig up his lawn and
make general nuisances of ourselves for a week.
Along with access, he provided us with drinks
on hot days and several times fed us. Finally,
several colleagues generously volunteered their
time to help with the excavations including Dr.
Michael Johnson and Mr. C. D. Cox from
Virginia, Dr. Darrin Lowery from Maryland and
Dr. Arthur Spiess. All provided more than just
labour and good humor. Mike brought along
equipment and organized the ill-fated auguring.
C.D. was our go-to screener and Darrin contrib-
uted his knowledge of things geological. Arthur
provided equipment, labor, local and regional
knowledge and encouragement.
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The Lord-Collins Site (MAS#3.12): A
Late Pleistocene Human Use of South-
eastern Maine, USA? Report on file,
Maine Historic Preservation Commis-
sion.
38
