The pastures of Spain

Abstract

Spain is a country with an extremely long history of pastoralism and with a high percentage of its territory covered by pastures. Pastures provide a wide variety of ecosystem services, and therefore significantly contribute to society wellbeing. They also support the essential sector of livestock farming and play a key role in Sustainable Rural Development. For almost 60 years, the Spanish Society for the Study of Pastures has been working with the aim of promoting the knowledge and improvement of Spanish pastures. The amount of information gathered after all those years is incredibly high. However, a document summarizing basic information about the Spanish pastures is still lacking. Following the idea of FAO´s Country Pasture Profiles, this work provides a broad overview of relevant information about the Spanish pastures and the livestock and wild ungulate rearing systems they support

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1. INTRODUCTION
Spain is a country with an extremely long history of pastoral-
ism. As a result, pastures cover a high percentage of its terri-
tory. Pastures provide a wide variety of ecosystem
(provisioning, regulating and cultural) services, and therefore
significantly contribute to the Spanish society well-being. They
also support important economic sectors (e.g. agriculture,
livestock, hunting) and play a key role in Sustainable Rural De-
velopment. Finally, some types of natural and semi-natural
pastures are considered Habitats of Community Interest by the
European Union.
The Spanish Society for the Study of Pastures (SEEP),
founded in 1959, has been working for almost 60 years with
the aim ofpromoting the knowledge and improvement of
SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA PARA EL ESTUDIO DE LOS PASTOS (SEEP) www.seepastos.es
THE PASTURES OF SPAIN
Alfonso San Miguel*, Sonia Roig and Ramón Perea
Departamento Sistemas y Recursos Naturales. ETSI Montes, F y MN. Universidad Politécnica de Madrid. Ciudad Universitaria s/n. 28040 Madrid.
LOS PASTOS DE ESPAÑA
Keywords:
Grassland, rangeland, meadow,
browse, livestock, wild ungulate,
Mediterranean.
Palabras clave:
Pastizal, pasto forestal, prado, ramón,
ganado, ungulado salvaje, Mediterráneo.
ABSTRACT
Spain is a country with an extremely long history of pastoralism and with a high percentage of its territory covered by
pastures. Pastures provide a wide variety of ecosystem services, and therefore significantly contribute to society well-
being. They also support the essential sector of livestock farming and play a key role in Sustainable Rural Development.
For almost 60 years, the Spanish Society for the Study of Pastures has been working with the aim of promoting the kno-
wledge and improvement of Spanish pastures. The amount of information gathered after all those years is incredibly high.
However, a document summarizing basic information about the Spanish pastures is still lacking.
Following the idea of FAO´s Country Pasture Profiles, this work provides a broad overview of relevant information about
the Spanish pastures and the livestock and wild ungulate rearing systems they support.
RESUMEN
España es un país con una muy larga historia de pastoralismo y con un alto porcentaje de su territorio cubierto por pas-
tos. Los pastos proporcionan una amplia variedad de servicios ecosistémicos y por tanto contribuyen de forma significa-
tiva al bienestar de la sociedad. También constituyen la base del sector esencial de la ganadería extensiva y juegan un papel
fundamental en el Desarrollo Rural Sostenido.
Durante casi 60 años, la Sociedad Española para el Estudio de los Pastos ha trabajado con el objetivo de promover el
conocimiento y la mejora de los pastos españoles. La cantidad de información acumulada después de tantos años es grande.
Sin embargo, faltaba un documento que resumiese la información básica sobre los pastos españoles.
Siguiendo la idea de FAO de los Perfiles de Pastos de Países, este trabajo proporciona una amplia revisión de la informa-
ción más relevante sobre los pastos españoles y los sistemas de gestión ganadera y de ungulados salvajes que sustentan.
REVISTA PASTOS. Nº 46(1): 6-39. JUNIO 2016
PASTOS
ISSN: 2340-1672
Disponible en: http://polired.upm.es/index.php/pastos
* Autor para correspondencia:
alfonso.sanmiguel@upm.es
Historial del artículo:
Recibido: 14/05/2016
Revisado: 18/07/2016
Aceptado: 08/03/2017
Disponible online: 06/04/2017

7
SAN MIGUEL et al. / PASTOS (2016) 46(1): 6-39 THE PASTURES OF SPAIN
Spanish pastures. SEEP aims to address every aspect related
to pastoral science: types, ecology and functions of pastoral
ecosystems; plant production; feeding value; animal produc-
tion; economics, sociology and agricultural policy, etc. How-
ever, until now a document summarizing basic information
about the Spanish pastures, a first step to integrate their
knowledge, was lacking.
Following the idea of FAO´s Country Pasture Profiles, this work
provides a broad overview of relevant information about the
Spanish pastures and the livestock and wild ungulate rearing
systems they support.
2. SPAIN
2.1. Location, government
and administration
Spain is located in southwestern Europe. It borders France and
Andorra to the north, Portugal to the west and Morocco to the
south. Part of its territory is comprised of islands (Canary Is-
lands in the Atlantic Ocean and Balearic Islands and some
other small islands in the Mediterranean Sea). There are also
two autonomous cities, Ceuta and Melilla, located in North
Africa (Figure 2.1).
Spain has an area of 505,992 km2, the second largest country
among the European Union member states. It is a democratic
country organized as a constitutional monarchy. For adminis-
trative purposes it is composed of 17 Autonomous Communi-
ties and two autonomous cities (Figure 2.2). Autonomous
Communities are subdivided into provinces, of which there are
50 in total.
2.2. History, population and land
ownership
Humans have inhabited Spain since some 1.2 Ma (Mega an-
nuum) (Homo antecessor, Atapuerca, northern Spain). In the
Neolithic period, Iberians and Celts populated most of the
Iberian Peninsula. After being submitted to strong influences
by the Phoenicians, Carthaginians and Greeks for around
seven centuries before Christ (BC), Iberia came under the rule
of the Romans around 200 yr BC. In the early Middle Ages
Iberia was conquered by Germanic tribes and later (in 711) by
Moorish invaders from northern Africa. After more than seven
centuries of war and peace (the Reconquista), the Christians
regained control of the Peninsula in 1492, under the reign of
the Catholic Monarchs, who unified Spain as a country for the
first time. They also promoted the “discovery” and colonization
of America. The powerful Spanish world empire of the XVI and
XVII centuries was followed by a period of decadence in the
XVIII and XIX centuries. The long lasting influence of the Re-
conquista (when fire was used as a weapon and a way to re-
move forests and therefore the risk of ambush) and the Mesta
(1273 – 1836), a powerful association of sheep holders, re-
sulted in a dramatic decrease of the forest cover of Spain, on
FIGURE 2.1. Satellite image of Spain. Source: Google Earth.

the one hand, and in a huge expansion of grazing lands, in-
frastructures (e.g. cañadas, or traditional rights-of-way for
transhumant herds) and pastoral traditions, on the other (Fig-
ure 2.3). Transhumance, aimed at efficiently using the tempo-
rary variable productions of Mediterranean and temperate
pastures, has been a major pastoral practice for centuries
(Montserrat and Fillat, 1990). Its ecological, economic, and so-
cial effects have been remarkable and still remain, even though
transhumance is today a marginal practice.
During the 20th century, Spain remained neutral in World War
I and II but suffered a terrible civil war (1936-1939) followed by
a dictatorship led by General Franco until his death in 1975.
After a peaceful transition to democracy and a rapid social and
economic modernization, Spain joined the European Eco-
nomic Community (renamed European Union in 1992) in
1986, which in turn has introduced deep changes in social,
economic and environmental structures and policies. A severe
economic recession that began in 2008 led the Spanish gov-
ernment to take measures with the aim of reducing a large
budget deficit and a very high (26%) unemployment rate.
The Spanish population, around 47 million people, is unevenly
distributed over its territory. While there are high population
densities (more than 500 people/km2) around the major cities
(Madrid, Barcelona, Bilbao) and almost all along the coast,
there are still large, thinly populated (less than 30 people/km2)
areas, mostly located in central Spain, whose population is ac-
tually decreasing. Some 62% of the population is dedicated
to the tertiary sector (increasing), 31% to the secondary sec-
tor (rather stagnating) and 7% to the primary activities (de-
creasing).
About 75% of the land in Spain is privately owned. The State,
Autonomous Communities and Municipalities own 20% of the
Spanish territory, most of it being non-cropped land: forest,
woodland, scrubland or permanent pasture. Common land in
Spain is usually permanent grasslands used as pasture for
livestock. The number of agricultural holdings has decreased
for the last decades, while their average individual area has
increased. According to the Spanish Ministry of Agriculture,
Food and Environment (MAGRAMA, 2015a), 9% of the Span-
ish territory is occupied by urban or industrial uses, 34% by
agricultural o arable areas and the rest (67%) by non-agri-
cultural areas: forest, woodland, scrubland, natural and semi-
natural grassland, rocky or sandy areas and water bodies
(Figure 4.1).
3. ECOLOGICAL CONDITIONS
3.1. Topography
Mainland Spain is a land of high plateaus and mountain areas.
Most mountain ranges, formed during the Alpine (or Alpide)
orogeny, some 25 Ma ago, are oriented in an east-west di-
rection. Therefore, they have resulted in serious obstacles for
animal and plant migrations in past climate changes, and es-
pecially during the glaciations of the Quaternary. The Pyrenees,
with some peaks over 3,300 m, and the Cantabric Mountains
(highest peak: 2,650 m) are located in northern Spain. The
Central and Iberic Systems, with peaks over 2,000 m are lo-
cated in Central Spain, as well as the Montes de Toledo and
Sierra Morena, with considerably lower summits, below 1,500
m. The Baetic Ranges, a complex group of mountain ranges,
are located in southeastern Spain. Their highest summit (also
the highest in the Iberian Peninsula) is the Mulhacén (3,478 m),
located in Sierra Nevada, the Penibaetic System. The highest
point in Spain is the Teide (3,718 m), in Tenerife, Canary Islands.
The Meseta is a broad, high plateau located in the centre of the
Iberian Peninsula, which is surrounded by mountain systems.
The Iberian Peninsula waters flow into two seas: the Atlantic
Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. The watershed line between
them crosses the Peninsula from north to south, being clearly
displaced eastward. As a result, the extent of both watersheds
is unequal, the Atlantic being much bigger (more than twice the
SAN MIGUEL et al. / PASTOS (2016) 46(1): 6-39 THE PASTURES OF SPAIN
8
FIGURE 2.3. Network of first and second level transhumance paths (cañadas),
covering more than 125,000 km in Spain. They are public domain lands.
Source: Wikipedia.
FIGURE 2.2. Spain´s Autonomous Communities and Cities. Source: Spanish
Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports.

SAN MIGUEL et al. / PASTOS (2016) 46(1): 6-39 THE PASTURES OF SPAIN
size) than the Mediterranean. There are several major rivers: the
Miño, Duero, Tagus, Guadiana and Guadalquivir flow westward
and end in the Atlantic Ocean; the Ebro flows eastward and
empties into the Mediterranean Sea (Figure 3.1).
3.2. Geology and soils
The Iberian plate is located between the Eurasian and the
African plates. The Iberian Peninsula has constituted an inde-
pendent secondary plate, segregated from the Eurasian plate
since the Cretaceous period (more than 100 Ma). After the
Alpine orogeny, it has remained united to the Eurasian plate
and is separated from the African plate by the narrow Strait of
Gibraltar. The Canary Islands have been formed by an intense
and almost continuous volcanic activity since the Miocene.
The Spanish geological substrate is highly diverse. Geological
surface layers cover all periods, from the Pre-Cambrian to the
Quaternary. Palaeozoic acidic materials, deformed by the
Hercinian orogeny, are the original components of the Iberian
plate and outcrop mostly on western Iberia in the so-called
Hesperian Shield, which is the core of the Iberian Peninsula.
Sedimentary (and alkaline) rocks from the Secondary and Ter-
tiary periods are dominant on eastern Spain and the Balearic
Islands. The Alpine orogeny of the late Mesozoic period led to
the formation of the mountain ranges of the Alpide belt, such
as the Baetic Cordillera, the Cantabrian Mountains and the
Pyrenees. There is also one more basic geologic assembly
constituted by more recently originated (mostly Quaternary)
and not deformed materials.
As a consequence of its mountainous nature and highly diverse
geological substrates, the pattern of soil types in Spain is ex-
tremely intricate, even within relatively small areas. And this, in
turn, contributes to the varied patterns of agriculture and land
use. Acidic nutrient-poor soils dominating in western Spain
have led to forest and pastoral landscapes, while fertile soils,
dominant on the Meseta and eastern Spain, have led to agri-
cultural landscapes, sometimes under the form of intricate
patchworks of cropland, forest and scrubland as a result of a
rough topography.
3.3. Climate
The climate of Spain is roughly determined by its geographical
position and topographic characteristics. The dominant winds are
the so-called westerlies: western winds. Thus, the most impor-
tant precipitations originate from the Atlantic Ocean and show a
strong seasonality, while being also affected by the distribution of
mountain ranges. They have less influence in eastern Spain,
where the influence of the Mediterraneasn Sea is greater. There-
fore, according to the Bioclimatic Map of Europe (Figure 3.2) and
the Worldwide Bioclimatic Classification System (Rivas-Martínez
and Rivas-Sáenz 2014), the dominant bioclimatic type is Mediter-
ranean pluviseasonal, with a minimum of two consecutive dry
summer months. Temperate bioclimates (without or with less
than two summer dry months), which dominate Central and
Western Europe, affect exclusively the northern part of the Iber-
ian Peninsula as well as the Central and Iberic Ranges. Areas with
summer drought under two months are considered as sub-
Mediterranean. Mediterranean xeric types are concentrated in
some areas of eastern Iberia, especially the low Ebro basin and
southeastern Iberia, and the Canary and Balearic Islands. The
only European areas affected by Mediterranean desertic types are
located in a few scattered locations in southeastern Spain.
The thermoclimatic belts represent the distribution of the ther-
mic regimes according to their influence on vegetation types.
They are determined through the thermicity index (Rivas-
Martínez and Rivas-Sáenz 2014). Their names are constituted
by a prefix (infra-, thermo-, meso-, supra-, oro- and cryoro-, ac-
cording to a scale of increasing cold) followed by the name of
the bioclimate type. Infra- and thermo- types are frost-free;
meso- is affected by light freezing and supra- by rather intense
freezing. Oro- is affected by such an intense cold that the po-
tential vegetation is taiga-like (coniferous forest) or shrub-like
(tundra). In the cryoro- thermoclimatic belt, the cold is so se-
vere that the potential vegetation is mountain grassland with or
without dwarf cushion-shaped woody plants. The distribution
of thermoclimatic belts in Spain is showed in Figure 3.3.
3.4. Biogeography
There are four Biogeographic Regions in Spain. The Alpine is
present only in the Pyrenees; the Atlantic, in northern and
northwestern Spain; the Mediterranean dominates over most
of the Iberian Peninsula and the Balearic Islands, and the
Macaronesian in the Canary Islands (Figure 3.4).
9
FIGURE 3.1. Physical map of mainland Spain, showing the most important
cities, rivers and mountain ranges. Source: Google Earth.

SAN MIGUEL et al. / PASTOS (2016) 46(1): 6-39 THE PASTURES OF SPAIN
10
FIGURE 3.2. Bioclimatic map of Europe. Spanish Bioclimates (Rivas-Martínez & Rivas-Sáenz, 2014).
FIGURE 3.3. Bioclimatic map of Spain. Thermoclimatic belts (Rivas-Martínez et al. 2004).

SAN MIGUEL et al. / PASTOS (2016) 46(1): 6-39 THE PASTURES OF SPAIN
3.5. Vegetation
The potential vegetation of Spain is mostly forest. Deciduous
forests (Quercus robur, Q. petraea, Fagus sylvatica, Betula,
Acer,…) dominate in northern Spain, and also sometimes in
mountain ranges of the centre and south of the Iberian Penin-
sula, where the bioclimate is temperate (Figure 3.5), but also
on valley bottoms, over deep and wet soils (Populus, Salix,
Fraxinus angustifolia,…) (Figure 3.6).
Sclerophyllous evergreen forests (Figure 3.7) grow under
Mediterranean bioclimates, being holm oak (Quercus rotundi-
folia) the most abundant tree species of the Iberian Peninsula.
On acidic soils and under less continental climate, cork oak
(Quercus suber) is another important Mediterranean tree
species, both in Spain and Portugal.
Semi-deciduous forests (Quercus pyrenaica, Q. faginea, Q. pu-
bescens,…) are present under sub-Mediterranean bioclimates
(Figure 3.8).
Conifers dominate immediately under the timberline, both in
oro-temperate (Pinus uncinata, P. sylvestris) and oro-
Mediterranean (P. nigra) thermo-climatic belts, but also un-
der dry or semi-arid ombro-types (P. halepensis), hard
continental climates (Juniperus thurifera) and over rocky,
sandy and ultra-acidic or ultra-basic soils (Pinus pinaster, P.
pinea, P. halepensis). P. canariensis sets the timberline in the
Canary Islands at some 2500 masl under meso-Mediterranean
thermo-climate (Figure 3.9).
However, the long history of human activity in Spain has resulted
in a dramatic decrease of the forest cover. As a consequence,
11
70°60°50°40°
30°
30°
20°
20°
10°
10°
0°
0°-10°-20°-30°
60°
50°
50°
40°
40°
30°
30°
0500 1000 1500 km
-20°
30°
Canary Is. -30°
40°
Azores Is.
Madeira Is.
Biogeographic regions
in Europe, 2011
Alpine
Anatolian
Arctic
Atlantic
Black Sea
Boreal
Continental
Macaronesia
Mediterranean
Pannonian
Steppic
Outside data
coverage
FIGURE 3.4. Biogeographic Regions of Europe. Source: European
Environment Agency. http://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-
maps/figures/biogeographical-regions-in-europe-1
FIGURE 3.5. On the left, deciduous forests in northern Spain: Pyrenean mixed forest with Fagus sylvatica, Abies alba, Sorbus aria,Pinus uncinata, Fraxinus
excelsior and Acer platanoides; on the right, Cantabrian forest with Quercus petraea, Betula pubescens and Sorbus aucuparia.

SAN MIGUEL et al. / PASTOS (2016) 46(1): 6-39 THE PASTURES OF SPAIN
the forest area with a canopy cover over 20% amounts only to
30% of the Spanish territory (mostly on terrain unsuitable for
agriculture), although it is recovering rapidly. A significant part
of the forest area is included in patchwork landscapes, alter-
nating forest and woodland patches with scrubland, grassland
and cropland.
Permanent scrub is the potential vegetation both in the upper
oro-temperate and oro-Mediterranean belts (high mountain
ranges) as well as under semiarid ombro-climates (Ebro de-
pression, South-eastern Spain and Canary and Balearic Is-
lands) (Figure 3.10).
The areas submitted to cryoro-temperate and cryoro-mediter-
ranean bioclimates show a potential vegetation constituted
12
FIGURE 3.7. Open Quercus rotundifolia woodland: dehesa (left) and Quercus suber forest (right).
FIGURE 3.8. Semideciduous oak (Quercus pyrenaica) coppice forest in the Spanish Central Range.
FIGURE 3.6. Willows (Salix salviifolia, S. fragilis, S atrocinerea) bordering a
mountain river in Central Spain.

SAN MIGUEL et al. / PASTOS (2016) 46(1): 6-39 THE PASTURES OF SPAIN
by graminoid and dwarf-camaephyte grassland-like com-
munities (Figure 3.11).
3.6. Biodiversity
Spain is most probably the European Union (EU) Member
State with the highest level of ecological and biological diversity
(European Commission, 2016). A significant part (28%) of its
territory (14.8 Mha) is protected under different legal figures,
most of them included in the European Nature 2000 network,
and flora has around 10,000 taxa, with a high percentage of
endemisms. Part of the Spanish biological diversity is due to
its location at intermediate latitude and between two conti-
nents, in addition to its natural ecological diversity and its long
history of climatic and topographic change for millions of years.
13
FIGURE 3.9. Upper mountain pine forests: Pyrenean Pinus uncinata forest (top left), Central Range Pinus sylvestris forest (top right) and Canarian Pinus
canariensis forest (bottom right). Pinus pinaster forest growing on dolomitic rocky slopes in southeastern Spain (bottom left).
FIGURE 3.10. Permanent mountain (orotemperate subMediterranean) scrubland with Juniperus communis and Cytisus oromediterraneus (left). Permanent
semiarid scrubland with Chamaerops humilis, Rhamnus oleoides subsp. angustifolia and Periploca angustifolia in Murcia, southeastern Spain (right).

SAN MIGUEL et al. / PASTOS (2016) 46(1): 6-39 THE PASTURES OF SPAIN
However, Spain has been deeply transformed by a long history
of human population and activity (fire, agriculture, livestock
grazing and browsing, etc.). As a consequence, much of its
current high biological diversity is dependent on traditional
land-use systems and the so-called cultural landscapes and
High Nature Value Farmland (Figure 3.12).
Spain holds 13 of the 31 Habitat Types of Community Interest
listed in Group 6 (Natural and semi-natural grassland forma-
tions) as well as many other included in Groups 1 (Coastal and
halophytic habitats), 2 (Coastal sand dunes and inland dunes),
3 (Freshwater habitats), 4 (Temperate heath and scrub), 5
(Sclerophyllous scrub) and 6 (Forests), which are also used for
livestock rearing through grazing and browsing.
Extensive livestock rearing has been an essential tool in mod-
elling Spanish cultural landscapes and in creating and pre-
serving most of its rich environmental and cultural heritage
(Montserrat, 2008). As a result, the preservation of much of the
terrestrial Mediterranean flora, fauna and habitats protected un-
der European Directives depends upon extensive livestock
management models (Caballero et al., 2011; San Miguel,
2016). Indeed, transhumant sheep herds have strongly con-
tributed to increase and preserve a strikingly high level of di-
versity in Spanish grasslands. Manzano et al. (2005) and
Manzano and Malo (2006), report figures of over 150,000
seeds being transported by each transhumant sheep every
year through both endozoochory and epizoochory. In addition,
pastoralism plays an essential role in fire prevention (Ruiz-Mi-
razo et al., 2009; Ruiz-Mirazo and Robles, 2012) and supports
major cultural, social and economic aspects that are essential
for Sustained Rural Development in Spain.
3.7. Agro-ecological zones
Many classifications have been made of the Spanish agro-
ecological zones. Almost all of them consider three essential
factors: climate (temperate, Mediterranean continental,
Mediterranean oceanic or Mediterranean xeric), soil fertility (fer-
tile soils or acidic nutrient-poor soils) and topography. As a re-
sult, a broad classification could be summarized as follows:
• Temperate: North-Northwest
Temperate climate, without or almost without dry season.
Natural forests (usually deciduous) and scrub (heath, gorse,
broom) prevail on mountainous areas, while cropland
(sometimes sustaining forage crops), permanent grass-
lands and forest plantations dominate on low, flat territo-
ries. The most important livestock species is cattle and, to
a much lesser extent, horses and sheep.
14
FIGURE 3.11. Permanent cryorotemperate grasslands dominated by Festuca eskia, Festuca scoparia and Nardus stricta in the Pyrenees (N Spain) over 2,200
m above sea level (masl) (left). Permanent cryoro-Mediterranean grasslands dominated by Festuca clementei and Nardus stricta (green patches) in Sierra Nevada
(SE Spain), over 3,000 masl (right).
0250 500 Km
High Nature Value (HNV)
farmland
Likelihood of HNV farmland
presence
Very low (0–5 %)
Low (6–25 %)
Medium (26–50 %)
High (51–75 %)
Very high (76–100 %)
HNV in PBAS
HNV in IBAS
HNV in Natura 2000
FIGURE 3.12. Distribution of High Nature Value Farmland in the European
Union. Source: JRC: http://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/

SAN MIGUEL et al. / PASTOS (2016) 46(1): 6-39 THE PASTURES OF SPAIN
• Mediterranean continental: central Spain
Mediterranean continental climate. The land-use pattern de-
pends on soil fertility. There are two broad possible situations:
Fertile soils: cropland dominates on plains and gently slop-
ing lands. Permanent Mediterranean semi-natural pastures,
scrublands and forests (perennial sclerophyllous, semi-de-
ciduous or coniferous) thrive on steep slopes or rocky areas,
unsuitable for agriculture, usually interspersed with crop-
lands. Dairy sheep (goats to a much lesser degree), usually
feeding on agricultural products and byproducts as well as
on nearby rangelands, are the most important livestock. Ex-
tensive beef cattle rearing is important on mountain areas,
while intensive cattle feedlots are usually located on well
communicated flatlands.
Acidic, poor-nutrient soils: cropping is usually possible
only on long (2-4 years) rotations. Pastoral landscapes, usu-
ally with scattered trees (extensive cattle or sheep dehesas)
occupy gently sloping lands and sometimes plains. Moun-
tains are covered by forests, scrub or, most frequently, patch-
works. Big game (red deer, wild boar and other wild
ungulates) is an important objective of large estates. Exten-
sive beef-cattle rearing is the most important livestock farm-
ing type on mountain areas. Dairy goat farms may use
scrubland pasture resources. Extensive Iberian swine farms
are important on less continental (oceanic) areas of western
and southwestern Spain, where acorn yields are higher.
• Mediterranean coastal border
Mediterranean maritime mild climate, with low-medium rain-
fall. Eastern Spain and Balearic Islands. Irrigated crops dom-
inate there where irrigation is possible, usually low river
basins. Extensive rain-fed croplands occupy those flatlands
where irrigation is not possible. Mosaics of scrub, Mediter-
ranean grasslands, woodlands and forests thrive on steep
slopes and rocky areas, unsuitable for agriculture, usually in-
terspersed with croplands. The most important livestock
systems are extensive sheep and goat farms on rangelands
and intensive feedlots in agricultural, well-communicated ar-
eas. Byproducts from intensively managed cropland may be
important for livestock feeding. Extensive livestock has de-
clined dramatically in recent decades.
• Warm (subtropical) areas (southeastern
Mediterranean coastal provinces and Canary
Islands)
Mediterranean subtropical climate, usually semiarid. South-
eastern Iberian Peninsula and Canary Islands. Intensively
managed cropland (sometimes cultivation under plastic) is a
major form of land use on plains. Dairy goat (sheep to a much
lesser degree) farms may use scrubland pasture resources
as well as agricultural byproducts. Intensive feedlots are
sometimes present on agricultural, well-communicated ar-
eas. Extensive livestock has declined dramatically in recent
decades.
4. THE PASTURE RESOURCE
4.1. Breakdown of the Spanish territory
by land uses
The Spanish territory can be separated into three broad classes
(Figure 4.1): urban areas and water bodies (purple), cropland
(orange) and natural or semi-natural areas (monte = terreno
forestal) (different shades of green). The area covered by urban
areas and water bodies amounts to 9% and shows a signifi-
cant increase over the last decades due to urbanization
processes, especially in coastal areas and on the outskirts of
large cities.
Cropland covers, approximately, 34 % of the territory and
shows a slight, although continuous, decrease. It comprises
both cultivated and fallow land. Fallow land can be defined as
land under a system of rotation, whether worked or otherwise,
not giving any harvest during the whole accounting year. Land
set aside and not cultivated is also included in this category as
well as set-aside lands with green cover (pastureland). The use
of fallow land and arable stubbles for grazing is a widespread
practice in Spain.
Natural and semi-natural land has been classified into five
types:
• Natural meadow (prado): natural or semi-natural grassland
often associated with the conservation of hay or silage. It
grows under humid climate and/or on moist soils (without or
almost without dry period) and may be harvested both by
mowing or grazing. The extent of this grassland category is
slightly, although continuously, decreasing.
15
FIGURE 4.1. Breakdown of the Spanish territory by land uses. Source:
MAGRAMA (2015a).

16
SAN MIGUEL et al. / PASTOS (2016) 46(1): 6-39 THE PASTURES OF SPAIN
• Rough grassland (pastizal): natural or semi-natural grass-
land growing under sub-humid, dry, semiarid or arid cli-
mates and dominated by annual or summer withering
perennial grasses. They cannot be harvested by mowing. Its
area is slightly, although continuously, decreasing.
• Rough grazing rangeland (erial a pastos): uncultivated
land covered by sparse rough grass and scrub vegetation
as a consequence of natural succession, following the aban-
donment of agricultural use, and absence, or near absence,
of grazing activity (stocking rate under 10 kg of live weight
per hectare). Its area is also slightly, although continuously,
decreasing.
• Scrubland: land dominated by multi stemmed woody plants
usually non exceeding 5 m in height. Its area has increased
significantly over the past decades.
• Forestland and Woodland: land covered by trees with a
canopy cover over 10%. Its area has increased significantly
over the past decades.
4.2. Pasture classification
Pastureland has been defined as land (and the vegetation
growing on it) devoted to the production of introduced or in-
digenous forage for harvest by grazing, cutting, or both (Allen
et al., 2011). Since Spain is a largely Mediterranean country
where green grass is scarce in summer, due to drought, and in
winter, as a result of cold temperatures, there are other signifi-
cant sources of food (apart from grass), both for livestock and
for wild ungulates, such as browse, mast and even flowers (Fer-
rer et al., 2001). Indeed, browse and mast are essential sources
of food for both wild ungulates and extensive livestock farming
in summer and winter all over Mediterranean (and also non-
Mediterranean) Spain. As a consequence, a classification of the
Spanish pasture is presented in Figure 4.2.
4.2.1. Natural and semi-natural grasslands
Natural grasslands (pasturelands might provide grass and/or
browse) have been defined as ecosystems dominated by in-
digenous or naturally occurring grasses and other herbaceous
species used mainly for grazing by livestock and wildlife (Allen
et al., 2011). Semi-natural grasslands are managed ecosys-
tems dominated by indigenous or naturally occurring grasses
and other herbaceous species (Allen et al., 2011). The differ-
ence between natural and semi-natural grasslands lies, there-
fore, on the management regime and may be quite subtle.
Consequently, they will be considered together in this section.
Herbaceous grasslands (meadows, rough grassland and rough
grazing rangeland) cover an area of 10.02 Mha (20% of the
Spanish territory). They are dominated by herbaceous species
but they usually include a significant woody component. Spain,
accounting for 33.3% of the total European Union permanent
grasslands, is indeed the most important contributor (Huyghe
et al., 2014). Most of it is used, to a greater or lesser degree,
for grazing by livestock and/or wild ungulates. However, it
also provides other highly valuable regulation and cultural
ecosystem services. Furthermore, a significant part of the
Spanish scrubland (9.34 Mha) and forestland and woodland
area (18.37 Mha) provide browse for livestock and wild ungu-
lates, especially in summer and winter.
FIGURE 4.2. Classification of Spanish pastures.

SAN MIGUEL et al. / PASTOS (2016) 46(1): 6-39 THE PASTURES OF SPAIN
17
The area of natural and semi-natural grasslands in Spain
shows a slight, albeit continuous, annual decline of about 1-2%
since the beginning of the millennium. The decrease is slightly
higher in meadows and rough grazing rangelands (erial a pas-
tos) (2%) than in rough grasslands (approximately 1%) (MA-
GRAMA, 2015a).
San Miguel (2001, 2016) describes four main types of herba-
ceous natural and semi-natural grasslands in Spain (Figure 4.2).
nNatural upland summer grasslands
Natural upland summer grasslands (pastos de puerto) (Figures
4.3 and 4.4) usually grow over the timber line (1800 - 2200
masl in the Iberian Peninsula) on high mountain summits and
slopes where neither sowing nor cultivating is possible. How-
ever, primary timber lines have been frequently brought down
to lower altitudes as a consequence of the combined effects
of grazing by wild ungulates and livestock and felling and
burning by humans. Thus, natural upland summer grasslands
may even be found at relatively low elevations (e.g. 1000-
1500 masl). Cold temperatures throughout most of the year re-
strict vegetative growth to summer, and consequently forage
is harvested only by summer grazing. The upper limit for cat-
tle grazing is usually defined by the limit between oro- and cry-
oro- thermotypes: around 2000 masl in northern and central
Spain and 2700 in Sierra Nevada, south eastern Spain. There-
fore, sheep grazing is almost the only possibility under cryoro-
thermotypes, and is rapidly decreasing due to the disappear-
ance of traditional shepherds. However upland grasslands are
not mere productive systems. They also sustain high levels of
biodiversity and endemisms and provide highly valuable regu-
lation and cultural ecosystem services, especially recreation,
outdoor sports and tourism (Fillat et al., 2008; Montes, 2012).
As a consequence, most natural upland summer pastures
are considered habitat types of Community interest, and there-
fore protected by the European Union (EU) Habitats Directive
(92/43/EEC).
The most important natural upland summer grasslands in
Spain are represented by the following vegetation types (phy-
tosociological classes) (see Rivas-Martínez, 2011):
• Caricetea curvulae: acidophile grasslands (they also thrive
on calcareous rock materials when snow cover, and hence
soil leaching, is rather intense: e.g. leeward slopes), with Eu-
rosiberian (Alpine) flora. Pyrenees, over 1800 masl. The
most conspicuous species are Festuca eskia, Festuca
airoides and Carex curvula. Included in the 6140 Habitat
Type of Community Interest by the EU Habitats Directive
(92/43/EEC).
• Festucetea indigestae:acidophile grasslands rich in dwarf
chamaephytes, with Mediterranean flora: southern, central
and northern (Cantabrian) Spanish mountain ranges. The
most conspicuous species is Festuca indigesta (also F. sum-
milusitana in central mountain ranges and F. clementei and
F. pseudoeskia in Sierra Nevada). Included in the 6160 Habi-
tat Type of Community Interest by the EU Habitats Directive
(92/43/EEC).
• Festuco hystricis-Ononidetea striatae: short and rough
basophile grasslands rich in dwarf chamaephytes, growing
on soils with ephemeral snow cover, often with cryoturbation
phenomena. However, their nutritional quality is rather high
since legumes are usually abundant. Elevation may vary be-
tween 1000 and more than 2400 masl. Eurosiberian (Festu-
cion gautieri) or Mediterranean (Festuco hystricis-Poetalia
ligulatae) flora. Festuca gautieri, F. hystrix and Poa ligulata are
amongst the most conspicuous species. Included in the
6170 Habitat Type of Community Interest by the EU Habitats
Directive (92/43/EEC).
FIGURE 4.3. Climate diagram (left) and yearly distribution of vegetative
growth (right) in natural upland summer pastures. Red line: mean monthly
temperature; blue line: mean monthly precipitation in a two-fold scale (30ºC
- 60 mm); green line: vegetative growth.
FIGURE 4.4. Natural upland summer pastures from the Pyrenees, northern
Spain, oro-temperate thermotype 2000 masl (top), and Sierra Nevada,
southeastern Spain, oro-Mediterranean thermotype 2,200 - 2,700 masl (bottom).

SAN MIGUEL et al. / PASTOS (2016) 46(1): 6-39 THE PASTURES OF SPAIN
18
• Kobresio myosuroidis-Seslerietea caeruleae:basophile
dense grasslands, sometimes enriched by dwarf chamaep-
hytes, growing on slopes with medium or long-lasting long
snow cover. Pyrenees and Cantabrian mountains. Lotus
alpinus, Myosotis alpestris and Leontopodium alpinum are
amongst their characteristic species. Included in the 6170
Habitat Type of Community Interest by the EU Habitats Di-
rective (92/43/EEC).
• Carici rupestris-Kobresietea myosuroidis:basophile
graminoid and grass communities with dwarf cushion-
shaped chamaephytes growing on summits exposed to high
mountain winds exposed summits. Pyrenees and Cantabrian
mountains. Kobresia myosuroides, Carex rupestris and Dryas
octopetala are amongst their most conspicuous species. In-
cluded in the 6170 Habitat Type of Community Interest by the
EU Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC).
• Nardetea strictae:dense grasslands thriving on long-last-
ing snow areas with strongly acidic organic mineral or peaty
mineral soils that are damp in summer. Eurosiberian or
Mediterranean flora. Northern, central and southern Spanish
mountain ranges. Nardus stricta is the most conspicuous
and usually dominant species. Included in the 6230 Habitat
Type of Community Interest (* priority habitat) by the EU
Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC).
nMesophytic (humid) perennial grasslands
Mesophytic (humid) perennial grasslands grow under tem-
perate bioclimates and over moist soils (Figures 4.5 and
4.6). Potential vegetation is usually deciduous or mountain
conifer forests. They are considered semi-natural grasslands
since their presence requires grazing and/or mowing. Since
there is not a summer dry period, vegetative growth is lim-
ited by winter cold. However, summer temperatures over
20ºC might result in a decrease of vegetative growth (dotted
line in Figure 4.5). Harvest can be carried out by grazing,
mowing or both. The usual livestock type is cattle. Produc-
tion is usually high or very high. The highest yield is achieved
in thermo-temperate well-managed meadows.
The most important mesophytic perennial grasslands in Spain
are represented by the following vegetation types (phytosoci-
ological classes) (see Rivas-Martínez, 2011):
• Nardetea strictae (Violion caninae and Campanulo her-
minii-Nardion strictae):dense grasslands thriving on
strongly acidic (sometimes organic mineral or peaty mineral)
soils: Agrostis-Festuca (Violion) and Nardus rough grazing
types. Eurosiberian or Mediterranean flora. Nardus stricta is
the most conspicuous species in Nardus grasslands.
Agrostis capillaris, Festuca gr. rubra, Danthonia decumbens
are usually abundant in Agrostis-Festuca rough grazing
types. Included in the 6230 Habitat Type of Community In-
terest (* priority habitat) by the EU Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC).
• Festuco-Brometea (Brometalia erecti):highly diverse, ba-
sophile and humid grasslands, not deeply transformed by
grazing. Intense grazing and/or mowing would transform
them in Molinio-Arrhenatheretea communities. The most
conspicuous species are Bromus erectus, Festuca ni-
grescens, Brachypodium pinnatum and Trifolium mon-
tanum. Included in the 6210 Habitat Type of Community
Interest (* priority habitat) by the EU Habitats Directive
(92/43/EEC), as important orchid sites.
• Molinio-Arrhenatheretea:meadows and humid grasslands
growing on deep and moist soils, widely transformed and spread
by grazing and/or mowing all over the world, but with Eurasiatic
optimum and origin: typical meadows (Arrhenatheretalia), wet
FIGURE 4.5. Climate diagram (left) and yearly distribution of vegetative growth
(right) in mesophytic semi-natural perennial grasslands. Red line: mean
monthly temperature; blue line: mean monthly precipitation in a two-fold scale
(30ºC - 60 mm); green line: vegetative growth. The dotted line describes the
pattern of variation for the thermo-temperate thermo-climate; the solid one
shows that pattern for the supra-temperate thermo-climate (colder).
FIGURE 4.6. Two typical aspects of mesophytic (humid) semi-natural perennial
Spanish grasslands: meadows.

SAN MIGUEL et al. / PASTOS (2016) 46(1): 6-39 THE PASTURES OF SPAIN
19
meadows (Molinietalia caeruleae), nitrophile, trampled mead-
ows (Plantaginietalia majoris) and Mediterranean summer
green rush communities and grasslands (Holoschoenetalia).
Some types have been included in the 6410, 6420, 6510 and
6520 Habitat Types of Community Interest by the EU Habi-
tats Directive (92/43/EEC).
nMediterranean perennial grasslands
Mediterranean perennial grasslands thrive under different types
of Mediterranean climate: from thermo- to supra-Mediter-
ranean thermotypes. Annual rainfall may be higher or lower, but
there is always a rather long (usually over 3 months) summer
drought period (Figure 4.7). The sward is dominated by peren-
nial grasses whose vegetative growth period is concentrated
mainly in spring and secondarily in autumn (Figure 4.7). As a
consequence of the summer dry period perennial grasses dry
out, but remain alive, until the arrival of autumn rains. The for-
age is rough and shows a high cellulose content for most of the
year, so harvest is only possible by grazing (Figure 4.8). The
usual livestock types are sheep, goats and beef cattle.
The most important Mediterranean perennial grasslands in
Spain are represented by the following vegetation types (phy-
tosociological classes) (see Rivas-Martínez, 2011):
• Stipo giganteae-Agrostietea castellanae:acidophile Mediter-
ranean tall perennial grasslands growing on deep cambisols,
with or without gleyic properties. Agrostis castellana, Stipa gi-
gantea and Festuca merinoi are the most conspicuous
species.
• Festucetea indigestae (Jasiono sessiliflorae-Koelere-
talia crassipedis):acidophile rough Mediterranean grass-
lands rich in woody chamaephytes often interspersed with
scrub patches. The most conspicuous species are Festuca
indigesta, F. summilusitana, Koeleria crassipes and Plantago
radicata.
• Festuco hystricis-Ononidetea striatae (Festuco hystri-
cis-Poetalia ligulatae):short and rough basophile grass-
lands rich in dwarf chamaephytes, growing on soils with
ephemeral snow cover, often with cryoturbation phenom-
ena. Their nutritional quality is rather high since legumes are
usually abundant. F. hystrix and Poa ligulata are the most
conspicuous species.
• Festuco-Brometea (Brachypodietalia phoenicoidis):ba-
sophile Mediterranean, but not xerophile, perennial grass-
lands. They usually grow on sub-Mediterranean environments
or on deep clayey soils, which allow a longer growing season,
drying out in late summer. The most conspicuous species is
Brachypodium phoenicoides.
• Lygeo sparti-Stipetea tenacissimae:basophile and xerophile
Mediterranean perennial grasslands: pseudo-steppes. Stipa
tenaccissima, Lygeum spartum, Festuca scariosa, Brachypodium
retusum and Hyparrhenia hirta are amongst the dominant
species. Brachypodium retusum communities have been in-
cluded in the 6220 Habitat Type of Community Interest (* pri-
ority habitat) by the EU Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC).
• Poetea bulbosae:Dense, short and nutritive Mediterranean
perennial grasslands created by intense and continuous
grazing, that dry out in summer. They include dwarf peren-
nial grasses, but also annuals. Legumes (genera Trifolium,
Astragalus, Medicago) are usually abundant. Included in the
6220 Habitat Type of Community Interest (* priority habitat)
by the EU Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC).
FIGURE 4.7. Climate diagram (left) and yearly distribution of vegetative
growth (right) in Mediterranean perennial grasslands. Red line: mean monthly
temperature; blue line: mean monthly precipitation in a two-fold scale (20ºC
- 40 mm); green line: vegetative growth. The dotted line describes the pattern
of variation for the thermo-Mediterranean thermo-climate; the solid one
shows the pattern for the supra-Mediterranean thermo-climate (colder).
FIGURE 4.8. Two types of Mediterranean perennial grasslands: Stipa (= Celtica)
gigantea with subMediterranean semi-deciduous oak (Quercus pyrenaica)
woodlands in Central Spain (top) and Stipa (= Macrochloa) tenacissima with
dispersed Pinus halepensis individuals, in Eastern Spain (bottom).

SAN MIGUEL et al. / PASTOS (2016) 46(1): 6-39 THE PASTURES OF SPAIN
20
nAnnual grasslands
Annual grasslands thrive mostly under Mediterranean climate
where cropping or other human or natural perturbations prevent
the development of perennial communities. Rainfall may be
higher or lower, but there is always a summer dry period (Figure
4.9). As a consequence of the long summer drought, grasses
disperse their seeds and die in late spring or summer. Subse-
quently, with the start of the rainy season in September-Octo-
ber, seeds germinate and begin their vegetative growth, which
is soon inhibited by winter cold. The sward is dominated by an-
nual grasses whose vegetative growth period is concentrated
mainly in spring (60-70% of the annual DM yield) and second-
arily in autumn (10-25% of the annual yield, according to the vari-
able starting date of the rainy season) (Figure 4.10). The forage
quality is very low after flowering if the legume abundance is not
high, which is the usual situation. Even though the annual DM
yield may be rather high (1,500-2,500 kg/ha) the most important
management problem is its strongly unbalanced distribution
throughout the year. The usual livestock types are sheep, goats
and native breeds of beef cattle.
The most important annual grasslands in Spain are repre-
sented by the following vegetation types (phytosociological
classes) (see Rivas-Martínez, 2011):
• Tuberarietea guttatae:Pioneer plant communities domi-
nated by non-nitrophilous annual short herbs and grasses,
usually interspersed with shrub patches. They may thrive on
acidic, basic or sandy soils. Basophile annual communities
(Trachynietalia distachyae) have been included in the 6220
Habitat Type of Community Interest (* priority habitat) by the
EU Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC).
• Stellarietea mediae:annual ephemeral weed, ruderal, ni-
trophilous and semi-nitrophilous communities. The most im-
portant grassland types are those growing on fallow land:
barbecho, posío.
4.2.2. Scrublands, woodlands and forests
Browsable biomass is an important source of forage both for
livestock and wildlife in times of lack or shortage of green
grass. This is the case in summer (as a result of drought) in
Mediterranean Spain and winter (as a consequence of low
temperatures) almost everywhere. Furthermore, in arid and
semiarid territories woody plants are much more important for
livestock and wildlife feeding than grasses. Therefore, scrub-
lands, woodlands, open forests and agroforestry systems play
an essential role for extensively managed livestock and wild un-
gulate rearing systems in Spain. These land uses cover ex-
tensive areas (53%) of our territory and most of them are
managed through grazing and/or browsing.
In most cases, the edible parts of the plant are its leaves and twigs.
However, in other cases, only its flowers are edible (Figure 4.11).
Although browsable biomass is usually taken directly by brows-
ing, branch pruning is sometimes necessary to make brows-
able biomass accessible to livestock, as in the dehesa system
(Figure 4.12).
Some types of shrub communities (temperate heath and
scrub, sclerophyllous scrub (matorral) and some other) are con-
sidered habitats types of Community interest, and are there-
fore protected by the EU Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC). Fire
and browsing are usually necessary for their conservation.
Overabundance of wild ungulate populations has been de-
scribed as an important problem for woody plant communities
FIGURE 4.9. Climate diagram (left) and yearly distribution of vegetative
growth (right) in Mediterranean annual grasslands. Red line: mean monthly
temperature; blue line: mean monthly precipitation in a two-fold scale (20ºC
- 40 mm); green line: vegetative growth. The dotted line describes the pattern
of variation for the thermo-Mediterranean thermo-climate; the solid one
shows the pattern for the supra-Mediterranean thermo-climate (colder).
FIGURE 4.10. Two types of Mediterranean annual grasslands: under scattered
holm oak (Quercus rotundifolia) trees (typical Spanish dehesa) (top) and
without tree cover (bottom).

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SAN MIGUEL et al. / PASTOS (2016) 46(1): 6-39 THE PASTURES OF SPAIN
all over Spain, but especially in natural protected areas and for
some highly preferred and threatened shrub and tree species
(San Miguel et al., 1999, 2010; Perea et al., 2014, 2015). The
lack or scarcity of green grass in summer and winter and the
opportunistic (mixed-feeder) feeding behavior of most wild
ungulates, combined with high stocking rates, lead to unsus-
tainable browsing intensities on highly preferred woody
species, especially when they are not abundant.
4.3. Cultivated pastures
Cultivated, or sown, pastures provide food for both exten-
sively and intensively managed livestock as well as, some-
times, for wild ungulates (Muslera and Ratera, 1991). Cultivated
pastures may be aimed at producing forage as a direct and
valuable product. However, stubble and other by-products
are also important for extensively managed livestock in
Spain. The green cover of fallow land is also considered as
an agricultural pasture even though it is the result of germi-
nation of the soil seed bank, mostly composed by sponta-
neous species.
Fodder crops cover a small part of the Spanish territory: 1.08
Mha, 2% of the total area and slightly over 6% of the agricul-
tural land (MAGRAMA, 2015a) (Figure 4.13). Legumes are the
most important group, with 36% of the area, with lucerne
(Medicago sativa) (Figure 4.14) being by far the most important
species, both for irrigated and rain-fed systems, with 260,531
ha. Cultivated grasses contributed to 33% of the area, being
winter cereals (192,456 ha) and maize (Zea mays, 96,444 ha)
(Figure 4.15) the most important species. Roots, tubers and
other monophyte crops cover only less than 6% of the fodder
crop area, while multi-species forage crops (praderas) (Figure
4.16) cover, approximately, 26%: 279,178 ha.
Only 19% of the fodder crop area is harvested for fresh con-
sumption. The rest is conserved as hay (27%), silage (24%)
(Martínez-Fernández et al., 2014) or through dehydration (30%)
(MAGRAMA, 2015a).
Grain cereal croplands (approximately 6 Mha, or 35% of the
agricultural land) provide stubble for grazing of extensively
managed livestock and/or straw, a resource of increasing
importance for livestock feeding.
FIGURE 4.11. Goat browsing on a wild olive tree (Olea europaea var. sylvestris), on the left, and “segureña” sheep nibbling Genista versicolor flowers in Sierra
Nevada, southeastern Spain (2,700 masl), on the right.
FIGURE 4.12. “Avileña negra iberica” cattle browsing on previously pruned holm oak (Quercus rotundifolia) branches in a typical Spanish dehesa (left). Iberian
ibex (Capra pyrenaica) browsing directly on a holm oak tree (center), and red deer stag standing on its hind legs with the aim of reaching the lower branches
of a Quercus faginea tree with its antlers and, subsequently, eating their leaves and twigs.

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SAN MIGUEL et al. / PASTOS (2016) 46(1): 6-39 THE PASTURES OF SPAIN
FIGURE 4.13. Breakdown of the Spanish forage cropland area in 2012
(MAGRAMA, 2015a).
FIGURE 4.15. Maize (Zea mays) (left) and Italian ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum) (right) are the most important fodder crop grasses in Spain.
FIGURE 4.14. Lucerne (Medicago sativa) is the most important fodder crop legume in Spain, both in irrigated and rain-fed systems. It requires calcareous soils
and is usually conserved as hay or through dehydration.

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SAN MIGUEL et al. / PASTOS (2016) 46(1): 6-39 THE PASTURES OF SPAIN
Fallow land covers 3.55 Mha, 20% of the Spanish agricultural
land. Its green cover (barbecho) contributes substantially to ex-
tensively managed livestock rearing.
The extent of cultivated pastures in Spain seems to have re-
mained steady or to have increased slightly since the beginning
of the millennium.
5. UNGULATE REARING SYSTEMS
5.1. Brief history and current situation
From the beginning of the Neolithic period until the 1960s, live-
stock activity increased both in range and intensity. In contrast,
wild ungulate populations decreased dramatically, since some
species have been extirpated by humans through intensive
hunting and land transformation, while the rest of their popu-
lations have been reduced to minimal densities consigned to
marginal upland territories.
Extensive livestock rearing has been an essential activity in the
Iberian Peninsula for, at least, 4-5 millennia. It has been both
an engine for economic and social development and an es-
sential tool for landscape modeling. Sheep have been the
most important species due to their short gestation period and
grazing behaviour that best fits the strong seasonality of
Mediterranean grasslands. The arrival of the merino sheep
breed in the Middle Ages, with the finest wool known all over
the world, substantially contributed to the welfare of the Span-
ish Kingdom and resulted in a huge increase of sheep num-
bers. Indeed, the Mesta, a powerful association of transhumant
herders, was created in 1273 and protected by Spanish Kings
until 1836. It was given the privilege of herding throughout
the Spanish territory with some exceptions, such as culti-
vated fields, meadows, vineyards and deffesas (later known
as dehesas, areas devoted to the sustenance of draught and
pack animals of the villagers).
Until the beginning of the second half of the 20th Century, ex-
tensive livestock rearing was, by far, the usual management
model (Montserrat and Fillat, 1990). Sheep management sys-
tems were divided into two types: one associated with arable
land (sometimes oriented towards milk and cheese production)
and the other one consisting of transhumant herds associated
to dehesas, rough grasslands and summer upland grass-
lands, aimed at wool and meat production. Goat herds were
also distributed throughout Spain with the aim of taking ad-
vantage of scrubland, rough grasslands and rough grazing
rangeland for milk and meat production (the goat was con-
sidered “the poor man´s cow”). Due to their long gestation and
lactation periods, which poorly fitted the strong seasonality of
Mediterranean grasslands, cows were mostly used as draught
animals, with a few exceptions in northern Spain and moun-
tain areas. Finally, some indigenous pig breeds, such as the
Iberian pig, were also managed through extensive herding,
mostly to take advantage of the abundant and valuable mast
(forest fruits) such as acorns, chestnuts and beechnuts.
The second half of the 20th Century was a period of strong eco-
nomic and social improvement in Spain. Supplementary feed-
ing with concentrates became a widespread alternative for
livestock feeding, thus allowing an increase in cattle rearing for
meat and milk production and the introduction of new livestock
breeds with the aim of increasing meat and milk yields. Meat
and milk demand increased considerably as a consequence of
social and economic progress, while the price of wool also
dropped dramatically. On the other hand, shepherds became
increasingly scarce and transhumance was gradually aban-
doned. Moreover, Spain´s integration in the European Union
from 1986, and hence in the Common Agricultural Policy
(CAP), resulted in deep changes in livestock management
models. Nowadays, extensive livestock management is de-
creasing due to social and economic reasons and lack of
shepherds, while intensive management aimed at meat pro-
duction has increased substantially. Intensive management is
also widespread for milk production even though the numbers
of dairy cattle farms have decreased considerably while their
individual size and production have actually increased.
The reduction of extensive livestock farming in Spain is result-
ing in severe conservation problems. These include shrub en-
croachment, increase risk of wildfire, reduction of biodiversity
levels, degradation or disappearance of protected grassland
habitat types, homogenization of landscapes (the so-called
green desert), conservation issues for endangered flora and
fauna, lack of food for insectivorous birds and carrion-eating
animals, loss of cultural heritage and difficulties for achieving
Sustained Rural Development. As a consequence, many LIFE-
Nature Projects have been carried out with the aim of recov-
ering these habitat types through the preservation or recovery
FIGURE 4.16. Multi-species fodder crops (praderas) have become an
interesting alternative for increasing both DM yields and forage nutritional
quality in Spain. The one shown in the picture is protected from grazing by a
solar-powered electric fence.

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SAN MIGUEL et al. / PASTOS (2016) 46(1): 6-39 THE PASTURES OF SPAIN
of traditional extensive livestock management. Table 5.1 and
Figure 5.1 summarize the evolution of livestock numbers in
Spain since 1750.
Unlike extensive livestock farming, wild ungulate populations
have vastly increased over the last five decades as a result of
three major causes: an outstanding growth of big game de-
mand (wild ungulates have become a major economic re-
source), rural abandonment and a parallel increase of protected
areas (Figure 5.2).
5.2. Livestock
5.2.1 Sheep
As a consequence of the dominant Mediterranean climate
and the resulting strong seasonality of green grass availabil-
ity in Spain, small livestock (with short periods of high nutri-
ent requirements in the lactation and late gestation phases)
has prevailed over cattle and horse for centuries. According
to their foraging preferences, sheep have been used for
grazing, either through transhumance or by being associated
to agricultural landscapes, products and byproducts, while
goats have been aimed at scrubland browsing.
Sheep have been reared as a multipurpose species. For cen-
turies, and especially after the selection of the Merino breed, the
most important product was wool. Indeed, wool from Merino
sheep was a major pillar of the powerful Spanish empire of the
15th -17th centuries (Phillips and Phillips, 1997). Lamb has been
another major product, especially for transhumant or transter-
minant (shorter seasonal movements) grazing systems, while
milk, usually for cheese making, was important mostly for
breeds associated with cultivated landscapes and products.
However, since the 1990s wool prices suffered a dramatic
drop, which resulted in revenues that did not cover shearing
costs (current prices are beginning to reverse the trend). The
lack of shepherds resulted in substantial changes in sheep
herding: partial substitution of shepherds by fences, shifting to
semi-intensification and a dramatic decrease of sheep grazing
on large areas of rough grassland, rough grazing rangelands
and upland summer pastures, especially over 2,000 m above
FIGURE 5.1. Evolution of livestock numbers (in thousands) in Spain since 1750. Source: MAGRAMA (2015a).
TABLE 5.1. Evolution of livestock numbers (in thousands) in Spain since 1750. Source: MAGRAMA (2015a).
Year 1750 1865 1905 1925 1950 1975 1985 2000 2010
Sheep 24350 22469 13026 20067 16344 15200 16954 24400 18552
Cattle 3535 2967 2075 3794 3112 4300 4930 6216 6075
Goats 6543 4552 2386 4750 4135 2293 2584 2876 2904
Pigs 3350 4352 1744 5267 2688 8700 11960 22149 25704
Equine 1738 2997 1928 3061 2463 831 540 321 318

25
sea level. On the other hand, as a consequence of the dwindling
of lamb demand and prices, some sheep farming systems are
now shifting more towards milk and cheese production, which
seems to have a more promising future, especially when they
are supported by quality labels and/or denominations of origin
or geographic indications.
The current number of sheep is almost 20 million head, with
a slightly decreasing trend in the past decade (Table 5.1; Fig-
ure 5.1). The number of dairy ewes is fairly stable or increas-
ing while the number of flocks for meat is declining. The
distribution of sheep numbers throughout Spain is shown in
Figure 5.3. A major part of sheep farms depends on dehesa
systems, rough grasslands (marginal areas) and crop byprod-
ucts and products, mostly in areas where cattle farming is not
possible or not profitable. Figure 5.4 summarizes sheep farm-
ing types, according to the main final product, in Spain.
Most sheep flocks aimed at lamb production use extensive
management systems. They usually belong to one of two
types of lambing strategies (Figure 5.5). The first one (one
lambing per year) is aimed at reducing supplementary feed-
ing to a minimum. Autumn lambing is usually preferred, since
lamb prices are much higher in winter (Christmas) than in
spring, the natural lambing season. The second one (three
lambing periods within two years) is aimed at maximizing
lamb yield even at the expense of increasing supplementary
feeding (one lambing period occurs in summer, the worst
season regarding available forage quality and thus requiring
more supplementary feeding).
While beef and pork consumption has increased for the last
decades and now remains more or less stable, sheep meat
has suffered a sharp drop, of about 50%, since 2000. Per
capita consumption of sheep and goat meat is usually between
2 and 3 kg per year, around 4% of the total meat consumption
(MAGRAMA, 2015a). Lambs may be sold approximately 45
days after lambing, weighing less than 8 kg (suckling lambs),
or at around 4 months of age, weighing 11-16 kg (light lamb,
the most consumed type in Spain). Some of them are also in-
tended for fattening up to 6-12 months of age, when they
weigh over 16 kg.
The most important native sheep breeds for meat production
are Merino, Castellana, Churra, Segureña, Rasa, Ojalada, and
Mallorquina (Figure 5.6).
Sheep milk amounts to 8% of the Spanish milk annual yield (MA-
GRAMA, 2015a). Most dairy sheep farms are aimed at cheese
production, usually under quality labels and/or Protected
Denominations of Origin (PDO) or geographic indications. Some
SAN MIGUEL et al. / PASTOS (2016) 46(1): 6-39 THE PASTURES OF SPAIN
FIGURE 5.2. Trend in the number of wild boar, red deer and other big game
harvests between 1972 and 2007 in Spain. Adapted from Herruzo and
Martínez-Jauregui (2013).
FIGURE 5.3. Distribution of sheep numbers throughout Spain. Figures in
head numbers. Source: MAGRAMA (2015a).
FIGURE 5.4. Mayor sheep farming types in Spain.

26
of them are associated with arable landscapes and products, like
the Manchego cheese, while others depend upon grazing on
meadows, forage crops or even rough grasslands, like the Idiaz-
abal or Ronkal cheeses from northern Spain. Others might be
classified as intermediate types, like the Torta del Casar cheese
from Extremadura.
Although there are significant variations between breeds and
management systems, dairy ewes usually produce between
150 and 200 kg of milk in 150-180-days lactation periods.
The most important sheep breeds for milk production are
Manchega, Latxa, Carranzana, Castellana (native breeds,
Figure 5.7), Assaf and Lacaune (foreign breeds).
5.2.2. Cattle
Due to their long gestation and lactation periods, which
poorly fit the strong seasonality of Mediterranean grasslands,
cattle in the past were mostly used as draught animals, with
few exceptions in northern Spain and mountain areas, where
meadows are available. In those areas cows were also aimed
at milk and beef production. However, since the beginning of
the second half of the 20th Century, the use of supplementary
feeding and the introduction of foreign breeds selected for
beef production changed dramatically the management of
cattle in Spain.
Dairy cow breeds behave as grazers. However, most Spanish
beef cattle breeds behave as mixed feeders: they graze when-
ever green nutritive grass is available, but might browse, even
intensively, when green grass is scarce or show a low nutritional
value. They may even bring down small trees (up to some 20
cm in diameter at breast height) with the aim of browsing their
leaves and twigs.
The number of cows has increased greatly since the 1950s, and
now remains around 6 million head showing a rather stable
trend (Table 5.1; Figure 5.1). The number of dairy cows has de-
creased since Spain joined the European Union. Over a period
of a few decades, the number of farms dropped dramatically
while those that remain are much bigger in head numbers and
milk production. The average milk production per cow has also
increased by many folds, through genetic selection and im-
provement of infrastructures and feeding management. On the
other hand, the number of beef cattle has increased substantially
over the same period (Figure 5.8), presumably because they are
supported by CAP subsidies and because, unlike sheep and
goat farms, shepherds are not needed in beef cattle farms.
The distribution of cow numbers throughout Spain is shown in
Figure 5.9. A major part of beef cattle farms depends on
meadows (northern Spain and mountain areas), but also on the
dehesa system (sparsely wooded pastures of western and
southwestern Spain), rough grasslands (marginal areas) and
upland summer pastures.
There are many Spanish native breeds of beef cattle, each one
adapted to the particular ecological conditions of their home
range through centuries of careful selection. However, since
they were not aimed at beef production until the 1960s, today
they are usually crossed with Charolais and Limousin (French)
breeds in order to increase the live weight and growth of beef
suckler calves and thus maximize meat production. Most
SAN MIGUEL et al. / PASTOS (2016) 46(1): 6-39 THE PASTURES OF SPAIN
FIGURE 5.5. Major calving strategies of sheep farms aimed at lamb production in Spain. Solid lines indicate the availability of green grass throughout the year
and bars show the ewe’s nutritional requirements.

27
farms are located in rural areas and specialize in rearing suck-
ler calves which are sold at 5-6 months of age and later fat-
tened to an optimum slaughter weight with concentrate feeds
in specialist fattening farms. Fattening farms are usually lo-
cated in well communicated agricultural areas, often far from
beef cattle farms. Beef cows are usually fed through extensive
management low-cost systems on natural and semi-natural
grasslands. In northern Spain they usually require a limited
winter housing and feeding on hay or silage. However, their
dependence on supplementary feeding has increased over the
last decades, especially in Mediterranean Spain, where win-
ter housing is not needed. Most beef cattle farmers depend
for their income on a combination of livestock sales and sup-
port payments, CAP subsidies from the European Union.
SAN MIGUEL et al. / PASTOS (2016) 46(1): 6-39 THE PASTURES OF SPAIN
FIGURE 5.6. Some of the most important Spanish sheep breeds for meat production: Merino (top left), Churra (top right), Segureña (bottom left) and Castellana
(bottom right).
FIGURE 5.7. Two of the most important Spanish sheep breeds for milk production: Manchega (left), from central Spain, and Latxa (right), from northern Spain.

28
Some of the principal breeds of beef cattle in Spain are Rubia
gallega, Asturiana de los valles, Tudanca, Pirenaica and Parda
de montaña in northern Spain; Morucha and Avileña negra
ibérica in central Spain and Retinta, Lidia and Berrenda in
southern Spain (Figure 5.10). However, some traditional breeds
are currently managed for new desired traits, often linked to
market demands. Cattle feeding is mainly based upon grazing
during the season of vegetation growth: (April) May - October
(November) in northern Spain and October - May in Mediter-
ranean Spain.
Cow milk amounts to 86% of the Spanish annual milk yield.
Dairy cows are now mainly located in northern Spain (one
third in Galicia, NW Spain), where the largest dairy industries
are located (MAGRAMA, 2014). Their individual size is rather
variable: from 14 cows/farm in Extremadura, W Spain, to 202
in Valencia, E Spain, with a mean of 37 cows/farm, every-
where showing a clear increasing trend for the past decades
(MAGRAMA, 2015a). Dairy cattle facilities often show high
levels of technology to ensure welfare for animals as well as
efficiency and a suitable environment to improve health and
prevent diseases. The usual breed is Holstein-Friesian. The
number of dairy cows was around 855,000 in 2014, show-
ing a negative trend (MAGRAMA, 2015a). Feeding is mainly
based on annual forage crops (often silage in northern Spain)
and concentrates. Genetic improvement of cattle for milk
production has been practised for many years. The average
milk yield per cow has shown a steady growth for the last
decades and now is 8,000 kg for a lactation period of ap-
proximately 280 days (MAGRAMA, 2015a).
5.2.3. Goats
Goats have been reared almost everywhere in Spain, as a multi-
purpose species, since the beginning of the Neolithic period.
They are among the most efficient domestic animals in their use
of water. In addition, their short period of high nutritional re-
quirements (late gestation and usually a 45-day lactation) fits per-
fectly the seasonal offer of green forage of Mediterranean
ecosystems. They are also opportunistic feeders, with a large
spectrum of food sources, usually including browse as a major
component of their diet. Finally, as their milk yield per unit of live
weight is higher than that of cows and sheep, they were con-
sidered the poor man´s cow. As a consequence, herded goats
have been widespread all over Spain for millennia.
The number of goats was over 6 M head in the 18th century.
Its lowest level was reached in the 1980s, with some 2 M head,
probably due to the lack of shepherds and the strong com-
petition of other livestock species: cattle and sheep. Over the
past decades it has increased slightly to reach, today, 2.7 M
head (MAGRAMA, 2015a).
The distribution of goat numbers throughout Spain is shown in
Figure 5.11. Most goat farms are located in Mediterranean
scrublands, rough grazing rangelands and rough grasslands
(marginal areas). Figure 5.12 summarizes goat farming types,
according to the main final product, in Spain.
SAN MIGUEL et al. / PASTOS (2016) 46(1): 6-39 THE PASTURES OF SPAIN
FIGURE 5.8. Evolution of beef cows and dairy cows, in thousands of head, since 1960. Source: MAGRAMA (2015a).
FIGURE 5.9. Distribution of cattle (beef and dairy cows) throughout Spain.
Figures in head numbers per province. Source: MAGRAMA (2015a).

29
SAN MIGUEL et al. / PASTOS (2016) 46(1): 6-39 THE PASTURES OF SPAIN
Per capita consumption of goat meat has dropped for the last
decades and nowadays is slightly under 2 kg/year. Suckling
kids represent 82% of the goat meat consumption in Spain
(MAGRAMA, 2015a). On the other hand, goat cheese is rather
highly appreciated and priced, mostly under Protected De-
nominations of Origin (PDO). Therefore, goat farms primarily
aimed at meat production have almost disappeared and today
most goats are reared for milk production, with kids becom-
ing something similar to a by-product. Goat milk currently ac-
counts for 6% of the Spanish milk annual production
(MAGRAMA, 2015a).
Some dairy goat farms are associated with agricultural land-
scapes and purchased feed (intensive management), but most
depend, to a greater or lesser degree, upon scrubland and
rough grassland browsing and grazing (semi-intensive man-
agement). Semi-intensive management results in milk yields of
150-300 kg/goat for lactation periods of about 200 days,
while intensive management usually results in milk yields of
400-800 kg/goat for the same period (Daza et al., 2004; MA-
GRAMA, 2015a).
The most important goat breeds for milk production are Mur-
ciano-Granadina, Malagueña, Payoya, Majorera, Tinerfeña
and Palmera. The most important goat breeds for mixed
meat/milk production are Pirenaica, Verata, Blanca andaluza,
Blanca celtiberica and Guadarrama (Figure 5.13).
5.2.4. Iberian pig
Although most Spanish natural pastures are devoted to rumi-
nant rearing systems, some pig breeds have also been used
to take advantage of forest fruits, such as oaks (Quercus spp.)
and beech (Fagus sylvatica) masts, and grass, through exten-
sive herding. The most important one is the Iberian pig, a tra-
ditional breed resulting from wild boar (Sus scrofa)
domestication and selection in southwestern Europe. It is
closely linked to the dehesa (Spain) - montado (Portugal) sys-
tem: a traditional agro-silvo-pastoral extensive and efficient
management system that links production and biodiversity
conservation (Montero et al., 1998; Olea and San Miguel,
2006). Their link is so close that the outbreak of the African
swine disease in the first half of the 20th century resulted in the
uprooting of vast areas of Spanish dehesas.
Its colour may be black or dark red, with little or no hair and black
hooves; that is why it is called pata negra (Figure 5.14). Iberian
pigs show a striking capacity to accumulate intramuscular and
FIGURE 5.10. Some of the most important Spanish breeds for beef production: Asturiana de los valles (top left) and Tudanca (top right), from Northern Spain,
and Retinta (bottom left) and Avileña-negra ibérica (bottom right), from Mediterranean Spain.

30
epidermal fat. This retards meat oxidization processes and
makes their taste so special. The Iberian pig is a good exam-
ple of a high quality, highly prized meat product which can also
contribute to the conservation of traditional and endangered
cultural landscapes such as the Spanish dehesa and the Por-
tuguese montado, especially under quality designations of
Protected Denominations of Origin (PDO). Indeed, some Iber-
ian pig dehesas have been certified under the FSC Forest Cer-
tification System.
Some traditional Iberian pig breeds were on the verge of ex-
tinction in the 1960s as a result of cross breeding with Duroc
breeds. Indeed, some of them disappeared. However, the
Spanish Institute for Agrarian Research (INIA) succeeded in
SAN MIGUEL et al. / PASTOS (2016) 46(1): 6-39 THE PASTURES OF SPAIN
FIGURE 5.11. Distribution of goat numbers throughout Spain. Figures in head
numbers. Source: MAGRAMA (2015a).
FIGURE 5.13. Some of the most important Spanish goat breeds: Murciano-Granadina (top left), Palmera (top right), Blanca andaluza (bottom left) and Verata
(bottom right).
FIGURE 5.12. Major goat farming types in Spain.

31
the conservation of some pure-bred lineages. Today, the
Spanish regulation requires different labelling for products
from pure-bred (100%) Iberian pig and cross-bred Iberian pig
(50-75%).
Iberian pigs may be fattened in enclosures through concen-
trate feeding (intensive management). Indeed, most Iberian
pigs are fattened with concentrates until they reach the age
of one year. However, some of them are managed through
extensive herding in dehesas for the last 3-4 months of their
life: October-January, when acorns are easily available on the
ground under the trees. This last phase is called montanera.
Over the montanera period Iberian pig herds move freely
throughout the dehesa system and feed on acorns (rich in
carbohydrates and fats) and green grass (rich in protein and
saturated acids: oleic, linoleic and some others). During that
period they may gain 60-70 kg of live weight while produc-
ing a highly valuable and appreciated meat. To do so, animals
should reach the age of one year and a live weight of 70-100
kg. Not less, but also not more, because they would not be
able to gain more weight in such a short period of time (Fig-
ures 5.15 and 5.16). These animals are called shearlings.
They are also castrated and nose-ringed, with the aim of
avoiding damages to grassland by rooting. Acorn consump-
tion per animal is related to its weight, with an average of 6-
10 kg of acorns per animal and day, with an additional intake
of, at least, 3 kg of grass. It is usually necessary to consume
10-15 kg of acorns for each 1 kg gain in live weight, and the
daily weight gain is typically 0.5-1 kg/day (Benito et al., 2006).
The usual acorn consumption over the montanera phase is
500-800 kg. Therefore, stocking rates usually vary between
0.5 and 1 shearlings/ha. The final product of this extensive
highest quality system is labelled as bellota (acorn) Iberian pig.
However, the amount of acorns available is, in many cases,
insufficient to obtain commercial weights in the herd of pigs.
In these cases an alternative method, known as “recebo”, is
used. This consists of giving the pig a supply of an additional
specific feed (Benito et al., 2006). In 2012, the number of Iber-
ian pigs in Spain was 4.17 Million (M): 0.52 M were pure Iber-
ian breed and 3.65 M cross-breed (with Duroc). Around 0.96
M head were fed on the dehesa system: bellota and recebo
(MAGRAMA, 2015a).
Best quality acorns are provided by holm oak (Quercus rotun-
difolia, or Quercus ilex subsp. ballota). However, other Mediter-
ranean Quercus species, which may form mixed woodland
with holm oak, also provide acorns (Gea et al., 2006). The ear-
liest acorn yield comes from Quercus faginea while the widest
seasonal distribution of acorn yield is provided by cork oak
(Quercus suber). Quercus pyrenaica, a sub-Mediterranean
oak, may also contribute to the acorn yield in somewhat cold
dehesas.
SAN MIGUEL et al. / PASTOS (2016) 46(1): 6-39 THE PASTURES OF SPAIN
FIGURE 5.14. Detail of an Iberian pig shearling feeding on acorns and grass in a typical Spanish holm oak dehesa.

32
The distribution of Iberian pig numbers is concentrated in
southwestern Spain: 60% in Extremadura, 30% in Andalusia
and 10% in other Autonomous Communities (MAGRAMA,
2015a).
The increase of concentrate prices has resulted in a more ex-
pensive fattening transition from piglet to shearling, and that sit-
uation, together with the recent economic crisis, has led the
Iberian pig sector to a steady decline over recent years.
5.2.5. Equids
Equids include horses, donkeys and mules. Equus hydrunti-
nus, also known as zebro, was an Iberian wild horse that
might have become extinct as late as the 16th Century. Equids
are not ruminants. They are monogastric animals: have a sin-
gle stomach and small intestine layout, and a ruminant-like fi-
bre fermenting, large volume hindgut for microbial digestion.
That is why they may feed on low-nutrient fibre-rich
roughages and show different feeding preferences than ru-
minants: they behave as grazers and might be considered as
grassland improvers since they may feed on rough grass re-
jected by other livestock species. They are also extremely re-
sistant to severe climatic conditions and are probably the only
livestock species able to survive by itself throughout the year
in upland pastures of Spain (Figure 5.17). That is also why
they are the livestock type with the highest percentage of wolf
attacks in northwestern Spain.
In Spain, equids have been used for millennia as draught ani-
mals. However, horse meat is not generally eaten in Spain.
Their use for meat production is only marginal: 11,096 t (car-
cass weight) and 46,400 slaughtered animals with a decreas-
ing trend (MAGRAMA, 2015b). This is why their numbers have
dropped so dramatically (some 90%) over the last century
(Table 5.1., Figure 5.1). However, Spain exports meat horses
(both live animals and slaughtered meat) for other European
markets, mostly from its northern provinces.
5.3. Wild ungulates
Many studies have documented the extinction of several
Mediterranean wild ungulate species and the intense popu-
lation decrease of the remnants due to human causes along
the Holocene, and especially during certain periods (Blondel
and Aronson, 1999; Tsahar et al., 2009). However, that trend
changed dramatically in Spain during the last decades of the
20th century. Since then, the numbers of most wild ungulate
species increased significantly as a result of both increase in
density and range expansion (Gordon et al., 2004; Milner et
al., 2006; San Miguel et al., 2010; Herruzo and Martínez-Jau-
regui, 2013; Perea et al., 2014). The most important causes
for this shift are related to social and economic changes. One
of them was the abandonment of traditional landscape man-
agement models and the sudden decrease of human density
in rural areas. That situation promoted natural succession,
shrub encroachment, expansion of forest land and, hence, a
higher availability of shelter and food for wild ungulates. The
result was both the recovery of native populations and the
SAN MIGUEL et al. / PASTOS (2016) 46(1): 6-39 THE PASTURES OF SPAIN
FIGURE 5.17. Horse herds grazing freely on summer upland pastures in the
Cantabrian mountains (northern Spain).
FIGURE 5.16. Iberian pig herd roaming freely and feeding on acorns and grass
in November in a typical Spanish dehesa.
FIGURE 5.15. Iberian pig traditional extensive management in the dehesa
system.

33
spontaneous re-colonization of long lost ranges. Another
major cause was an exponential increase in the demand for
wild ungulate hunting and watching throughout most Euro-
pean countries (Milner et al., 2006). Thus, wild ungulates
suddenly became a major economic resource for many Eu-
ropean regions, and in particular for Spain (Gordon et al.,
2004; Herruzo and Martínez-Jauregui, 2013). As a result,
many landowners contributed to the increase of their num-
bers both through re-introduction and through habitat and
population management (sometimes quite sophisticated and
intensive), with the main goal of increasing both animal den-
sity and trophy quality.
We lack sufficient knowledge about regional censuses for
every wild ungulate species in the Mediterranean region. How-
ever, wild boar (Sus scrofa) (Figure 5.18) is probably the
species showing the highest increase both in numbers and in
range; and both at a European and at a Mediterranean scale.
Its common Spanish name is jabalí (derived from the Arabic
language ( ) ( ), which means mountain
pig. It is an omnivore and is well adapted to an extremely wide
range of ecological conditions. In addition, wild boars may
breed twice a year, producing litters of 4-6 piglets, so their
populations may grow very quickly. In Spain the annual har-
vest of wild boar has increased tenfold during the last 35 years
(Figure 5.2), and the species is now found in nearly all envi-
ronments: from the high Pyrenees, on alpine pastures over
2,400 m asl, to Europe’s most arid environments located in SE
Spain, where the species thrives in esparto (Stipa tenacissima)
grasslands. As a consequence, wild boar overpopulation is a
growing problem, causing many different conflicts: severe
damages to agricultural crops, natural grasslands (Bueno et
al., 2009), biodiversity, parasites and diseases, traffic collisions
and many other aspects. Indeed, severe concerns have been
raised about wild boar sanitary status within the One Health
Initiative (http://www.onehealthinitiative.com/) since it is con-
sidered a major reservoir and agent of transmission of infec-
tious diseases (tuberculosis, brucellosis, Aujeszky, foot and
mouth disease, anthrax and some others) that also affect
livestock (epizootic diseases) and, even, humans (zoonoses).
Prevalence of tuberculosis in wild boar populations in south-
central Spain has increased over the last decade and is cur-
rently affecting over 63% of individuals (Gortázar et al., 2006;
Vicente et al., 2013; Barasona et al., 2014).
Red deer (Cervus elaphus)is also a very important big
game species in Spain (Figure 5.19). Its common Spanish
name is ciervo. Its populations reached a minimum in the
early 20thcentury, when it was only present in south-central
Spain with very low densities: under 1 ind/km2. However, the
species has recovered long lost ranges over the last decades
and red deer numbers have also increased dramatically (Fig-
ure 5.2). Its annual harvest has increased by eightfold during
the last 35 years (Herruzo and Martínez-Jauregui, 2013). In
much of Mediterranean Spain deer populations have be-
come overabundant and ecologically unsustainable due to
their impact on flora and vegetation (San Miguel et al., 1999;
Perea et al., 2014) and its condition of wild host of parasites,
SAN MIGUEL et al. / PASTOS (2016) 46(1): 6-39 THE PASTURES OF SPAIN
FIGURE 5.18. Wild boar (Sus scrofa): the most abundant and important big game species in Spain.

34
causing major epizootic and zoonotic diseases (Gortázar et
al., 2006). Red deer behave as opportunistic feeders: they
graze when green nutritive grass is available but may browse
heavily during hunger periods: summer and winter. Due to the
lack of natural predators, deer populations usually grow some
20% each year. Usual densities are around 30-50 ind/km2
(sometimes even more) in south-central Spain, where big
game estates are frequently fenced, and 4-10 in northern
Spain, where they are not fenced (Acevedo et al., 2008). Red
deer population management is becoming more and more ar-
tificial (e.g.: supplementary feeding and watering, genetic
selection and improvement, habitat management and sanitary
practices) each year with the aim of achieving ever better tro-
phies, especially in Mediterranean Spain. Indeed, there is
concern about the loss of genetic purity of the Spanish red
deer: Cervus elaphus subsp. hispanicus, so analyses of mi-
tochondrial DNA are being carried out with the aim of certi-
fying hunting trophies.
Roe deer (Capreolus capreolus)is a small forest ungulate
native to Spain (Figure 5.20). The species is known as corzo
in Spanish. Its range and population densities have also in-
creased over the last decades as a consequence of the
abandonment of rural areas and the reduction in hunting
pressure. Maximum densities, over 20 ind/km2, have been
recorded in the Cantabrian Mountains (Fandos and Burón
2013). However, they have dropped dramatically over the last
five years, probably due to a mortality increase related to a fly
parasite (Cephenemyia stimulator). Roe deer females may
give birth to 1-3 offspring each year. However, as a result of
its territorial behaviour, small size, competition with red deer
and presence of natural predators, there seems to be no
problem of overabundance. Roe deer mostly behave as gen-
eralistic browsers, although they may consume substantial
SAN MIGUEL et al. / PASTOS (2016) 46(1): 6-39 THE PASTURES OF SPAIN
FIGURE 5.19. Red deer (Cervus elaphus) stag in the rutting season in central Spain.
FIGURE 5.20. Roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) young male.

35
quantities of grasses in open landscapes (Abbas et al. 2013).
In fact, roe deer have recently colonized agricultural lands,
particularly in the Spanish plateaus, where densities are in-
creasing significantly (Fandos and Burón 2013).
Fallow deer (Dama dama)are also wild ruminants belong-
ing to the family Cervidae (Figure 5.21). Its common Spanish
name is gamo. They were present in the Iberian Peninsula un-
til the last Ice Age. However, the species disappeared and
was re-introduced in ancient and recent times. Today, its
populations are widespread all over Spain, from the Pyrenees
to southwestern Spain (i.e. Doñana National Park). However,
their densities are seldom very high. Fallow deer mostly be-
have as grazers, even though it may compete with red deer
for limited feeding resources, such as acorns.
The Iberian ibex (Capra pyrenaica)is the most important
big game species belonging to the Family Bovidae in Spain
(Figure 5.22). Its common Spanish name is cabra montés. It
is indeed the most highly valued big game trophy in Spain.
The species is endemic of the Iberian Peninsula, with four
subspecies. Two of them (C. p. lusitanica and C. p. pyre-
naica) became extinct in recent times, the latter very re-
cently, in the year 2000. The other two subspecies (C. p.
victoriae and C. p. hispanica) were also on the verge of ex-
tinction but currently have healthy populations in mountain
ecosystems all over the Iberian Peninsula: C. p. victoriae usu-
ally thrives on acidic lithologic substrates and C. p. hispan-
ica on basic soils. Indeed, C. p. victoriae was also introduced
in the French Pyrenees in 2014. The Iberian Ibex is an op-
portunistic feeder that may browse heavily during hunger pe-
riods. That is why high densities (over 20 ind/km2) may result
in serious impacts on threatened flora and woody vegetation
(Perea et al., 2015). Adult females usually give birth to one
kid in late May or June, so annual population growth is usu-
ally around 20%.
FIGURE 5.22. Spanish Ibex (Capra pyrenaica victoriae): male herd (top) and
female with young kid (bottom).
Chamois (Rupicapra pyrenaica) is another small wild bovid
species native to high mountains of northern Spain (Figure
5.23). There are two subspecies: R. p. parva in the Cantabrian
Mountains and R. p. pyrenaica in the Pyrenees. Their common
Spanish names are rebeco in the Cantabrian Mountains and
sarrio in the Pyrenees. Both subspecies behave as grazers and
contribute to the conservation of natural upland grasslands
(Aldezábal et al., 2002). Females give birth to 1(2) kids in late
May or June. However, annual population growth is uncertain,
and usually low, as a consequence of high natural mortality due
to accidents and predation on youngsters. Population densi-
ties usually vary between (2) 5 - 10 (20) ind/km2.
The mouflon (Ovis orientalis musimon)is a wild sheep na-
tive to Asia (Figure 5.24). It was introduced in Corsica, Sardinia
and Cyprus in ancient times where it became a feral species.
It was then introduced in Spain in the 20th century as a big
game species. Its typical habitat is low mountains and open
woodlands. The horns of mature rams are curved, sometimes
in almost one full revolution. Adult females produce one to two
offspring and may lamb twice a year, even though it is not fre-
quent. Their annual population growth may be over 30%.
However, natural mortality and predation on youngsters com-
pensate for a significant part of that growth. The species
mostly behaves as a grazer and population densities are
rarely over 20 ind/km2.
SAN MIGUEL et al. / PASTOS (2016) 46(1): 6-39 THE PASTURES OF SPAIN
FIGURE 5.21. Fallow deer (Dama dama) male (buck).

36
The aoudad or Barbary sheep (Ammotragus lervia) (Fig-
ure 5.25) is a wild caprine native to arid and semi-arid en-
vironments of northern Africa, where the species has been
listed as Vulnerable in the IUCN Red List of Endangered
Species. Adult males may weigh up to 160 kg. The aoudad
was introduced in Murcia (southeastern Spain) in 1970
and later in La Palma, Canary Islands, with the aim of in-
creasing the diversity of big game species. Today, it is con-
sidered an alien invasive s pecies in Spain. It behaves
mostly as a grazer, even though it may browse in times of
green grass shortage (Fernández-Olalla et al. 2016). Ewes
may produce one, two or even three offspring each year,
so their annual population growth may be around 30%.
Their current population density in Sierra Espuña, Murcia,
is around 7 ind/km2(San Miguel, 2015).
SAN MIGUEL et al. / PASTOS (2016) 46(1): 6-39 THE PASTURES OF SPAIN
FIGURE 5.24. Mouflon (Ovis orientalis musimon).
FIGURE 5.23. Spanish Chamoix (Rupicapra pyrenaica): R. p. parva (left) and R. p. pyrenaica (right).
FIGURE 5.25. Aoudad (Ammotragus lervia): ram and ewe.

37
SAN MIGUEL et al. / PASTOS (2016) 46(1): 6-39 THE PASTURES OF SPAIN
6. CONCLUSIONS
As a consequence of its high ecological diversity and long his-
tory of human activity, pastures cover a high percentage of
Spain´s land.
Natural meadows, different types of rough grasslands and
rough grazing rangelands cover about 18% of the Spanish ter-
ritory: 9 Mha. However, since Spain is a Mediterranean coun-
try where green grass is scarce in summer and winter, browse
is also an important source of forage for both livestock and
wildlife. Therefore, scrubland, woodland and forestland (20
Mha), are also widely used by livestock and wild ungulate
rearing systems. Cultivated pastures (fodder crops, stubble,
by-products and fallow land) provide food for both extensively
and intensively managed livestock as well as, sometimes, for
wild ungulates. Lucerne and other legumes are the most im-
portant fodder crop type followed by winter cereals and maize.
Extensive livestock rearing has been an essential activity in the
Iberian Peninsula for, at least, 4-5 millennia. It has been both
an engine for economic and social development and an es-
sential tool for landscape modeling. Sheep have been the
most important livestock species. Goat herds were also used
particularly to take advantage of scrubland, rough grasslands
and rough grazing rangeland for milk and meat production.
Cows were mostly used as draught animals and some in-
digenous pig breeds, such as the Iberian pig, were also man-
aged through extensive herding, mostly to take advantage of
forest fruits.
Since the second half of the 20th century, supplementary
feeding with concentrates became a widespread alternative
for livestock feeding. This allowed an increase in cattle rear-
ing for meat and milk production and favored the introduction
of highly productive livestock breeds, increasing meat and milk
yields. Moreover, Spain´s integration in the Common Agricul-
tural Policy (CAP) resulted in deep changes in livestock man-
agement regimes. Nowadays, extensive livestock management
is decreasing due to social and economic reasons and lack of
shepherds, while intensive management aimed at meat pro-
duction has increased substantially. Intensive management for
milk production is now facing a difficult time because of mar-
ket globalization.
The reduction of extensive livestock farming in Spain is caus-
ing severe conservation problems. These include shrub en-
croachment, risk of wildfire, reduction of biodiversity levels,
degradation or disappearance of protected grassland habitat
types, and homogenization of landscapes.
Unlike extensive livestock farming, wild ungulate populations
have vastly increased over the last five decades as a result of
three major causes: an outstanding growth of big game demand
(wild ungulates have become a major economic resource),
rural abandonment and a parallel increase of protected areas.
Although they contribute to Sustainable Rural Development,
wild ungulate populations are also raising conflicts related to
overabundance and animal and human health (epizootics and
zooneses) since ungulates may act as disease vectors and
reservoirs.
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