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Manual de manejo en cautividad del lince ibérico (Lynx pardinus)
Abstract
Manual de trabajo del Programa de Conservación Ex-situ del Lince Ibérico que contiene las descripciones, los protocolos y las medidas para asegurar un correcto manejo de los ejemplares de lince ibérico pertenecientes al programa de cría en cautividad.
... Nevertheless, juvenile lynxes are largely day-active in their 1st year, so day monitoring was imperative during our study (Beltran 1988). An ethogram with behavior types for captive felids (MacKinnon 2008;Fazio 2010;Stanton et al. 2015) and from Iberian lynx Captivity Breeding Program (Rivas et al. 2016) was used (Table 2). Data was collected every 2 min, using an instantaneous scan sampling method, and then converted into frequencies (Zuberbühler and Wittig 2011), allowing a continuous sampling of either behavioral states or events (Fazio 2010). ...
... Ethogram with behavioral definitions and codes for Iberian lynx(adapted from MacKinnon 2008;Fazio 2010; Stanton et al. 2015;Rivas et al. 2016) a Behaviors that were added after observation and that do not fit into one of the descriptions provided in the Stanton et al.(2015)listBehavioral statesSitting SIT Cat is in an upright position, with the hind legs flexed and resting on the ground, while front legs are extended and straight Climbing CLB Cat ascends and/or descends an object or structure Standing ST Cat is in an upright position and immobile, with all four paws on the ground and legs extended, sup- ...
Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) reintroductions are part of this species’ conservation program to ensure its re-establishment and survival in areas of historical presence. Release protocols include hard-release, directly in the field, and soft-release, allowing reintroduced animals to acclimatize to the new environment site, which may lead to higher survival and reproductive rates. During soft-release reintroductions in Extremadura (Spain), we recorded individual and social behaviors of four released Iberian lynxes in a 1.5-ha enclosure, divided into three longitudinal strips to simplify behavioral data collection: zone 1, or releasing area, containing an additional feeding point; zone 2, or central zone, with rocks and natural rabbit refuges; and zone 3, or the farthest zone from the releasing area, of abundant arboreal vegetation. Our results showed that “pacing”, “lying” and “patrolling” were the most common behaviors observed in the four lynxes. Social interactions such as “approach”, and “lordosis” were the most common and indicated significant differences between individuals. Concerning sexes, males exhibited the behavior “showing indifference,” unlike females that never presented it. Data collected revealed that the lynx had a preference for zone 3 of the enclosure. Pre-release behavior monitoring is critical I n Iberian lynx soft-release reintroductions in order to ensure their acclimatization to the new site, identify their survival skills and allow their establishment in the reintroduction areas.
... In the following years, the implementation of various conservation projects, both in situ and ex situ, led to a remarkable recovery, with the population of free-ranging Iberian lynxes exceeding 2000 individuals by 2023 (Vargas, 2009;MITECO, 2024). Despite these positive trends, transmissible diseases have continued to pose significant threats to Iberian lynx populations, and health surveillance has become a cornerstone of ongoing conservation efforts (Nájera et al., 2021;Rivas, 2016). Clinical cases and/or mortality due to endemic pathogens, some of those shared with sympatric species such as feline leukaemia virus, Aujeszky's disease virus, Mycobacterium bovis or Sarcoptes scabiei, have been reported in this species (Briones et al., 2000;Masot et al., 2017;Meli et al., 2009;Oleaga et al., 2019). ...
... During post-surgery quarantine, the male Iberian lynx showed hunting skills (e.g., stalking, ambush, pursuit, and capture) in accordance with the species (Rivas et al., 2016). After release, we did not register any challenges in the individual's hunting skills once the feeding station was no longer in use. ...
Severe musculoskeletal diseases, such as those associated with congenital or traumatic events, that result in missing limbs may compromise the fitness and survival of free‐living felids. Here we report the space use of four amputee individuals from three felid species captured from 2017 to 2022 in Missouri (USA), Toledo and Badajoz (Spain), and Suitai Khairkhan Mountain (Mongolia). We describe home ranges and daily travel distances post‐release of free‐living felids that had either suffered a traumatic amputation or following a surgical amputation. We compared these data with those reported in the literature for felids without amputations. Forelimb or hindlimb amputation did not affect the hunting, mating, or territory patrolling behavior of any of the individuals. However, we recorded significant differences in the daily movement before and after the traumatic event of the Iberian lynx forelimb amputee. We attribute this difference to the physical impairment, although we consider other variables that may have played a role. Nevertheless, all animals appeared to cope well with their limb loss, showing home ranges and daily distances within those recorded for their sex and species. Unless amputee felids represent a threat to domestic livestock or humans, our data suggest these individuals may remain free‐living as they contribute to local population persistence and appear to maintain good general health and welfare.
... We show that the Iberian Lynx is capable to adapt to a wider prey spectrum than previously assumed by Ferrer & Negro (2004) and Ferreras et al. (2011). Based on the described pattern, we think that Iberian Lynxes can profit from an increase in prey diversity provided in enrichment programmes carried out at captive breeding centres (Rivas et al. 2016). Familiarising them with a broader prey diversity may enhance the ability of reintroduced individuals to colonise and survive in new territories. ...
Understanding predator-prey relationships is fundamental to develop effective conservation plans. Between 2015 and 2018, we combed 21 transects, each 7km long, searching for Iberian Lynx Lynx pardinus scat within the province of Madrid in central Spain. In order to minimise inherent subjectivity of visual identification as much as possible, we performed a double specific nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) followed by a primer extension assay addressed to two Iberian Lynx diagnostic single nucleotide polymorphisms. Forty-six scat samples were positively identified as belonging to Iberian Lynx through genetic analysis. From these, we extracted remains of consumed prey, which we determined to the lowest possible taxonomic level, mainly through hair identification. Identified prey was divided into four types: lagomorphs, small mammals, birds, and ungulates. The species’ diet composition was described based on the frequency of occurrence (FO) of each prey and niche breadth, and also compared with prior knowledge of the species using four prior studies as a comparative reference through the calculation of the niche overlap value. The FO of lagomorphs (39%) was the lowest, while the FO of small mammals (54%) was the highest recorded to date. The niche breath (0.36) was higher than recorded in prior studies, but still showing the specialist character of the Iberian Lynx. Niche overlap was low (C = 0.49), showing differences in trophic niche between the population in our study area and the one studied in southern Spain. This indicates that the Iberian Lynx is adept at switching its main prey, an ability that has previously been firmly rejected. It is, however, capable of adapting to alternative prey more often than recorded to date, which could be a behavioural response to the patchy distribution of European Rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus in the study area.
... The lynxes were daily monitored and data was collected every 2 minutes, using an instantaneous scan. Behaviors were evaluated using an ethogram, based on the ones previously recorded in captive felids [3,4]. ...
Iberian Lynx (Lynx pardinus) reintroductions are part of this species conservation program to ensure its re-establishment and survival in areas of its historical presence. Release protocols include hard-release, directly in the field, and soft-release, allowing reintroduced animals to acclimatize to the new environment site, which may lead to higher survival and reproductive rates. Although recognized, post-release distress is a reality with negative effects on the establishment and survival of reintroduced animals, which are enhanced due to the absence of pre-release monitoring. During soft-release reintroductions in Extremadura (Spain), we recorded individual and social behaviors of four released Iberian lynxes in a 1.5 ha enclosure, divided into three longitudinal strips to simplify behavioral data collection: zone 1, or release area, containing an additional feed point; zone 2 or central zone with rocks and natural rabbit refuges; and zone 3 or the farthest zone from the liberation area, of abundant arboreal vegetation; the first two zones containing water points. Our results showed that “pacing”, “lying” and “patrolling” were the most common behaviors observed in the four lynxes. Social interactions as “approach”, and “lordosis” were the most common, indicating significant differences between individuals. Concerning the sex, males exhibited the behavior ”show indifference”, unlike females that never presented it. Data collected revealed lynx preference by zone 3 of the enclosure (χ2= 13.907, p = 0.001). Pre-release behavior monitoring is critical in Iberian lynx soft-release reintroductions, in order to ensure their acclimatization to the new site, access their survival skills and allow their establishment in the reintroduction areas.
El lince ibérico es una de las especies de mamífero más amenazada del mundo. Su cría en cautividad es una de las medidas puestas en marcha para la conservación de esta especie. Esta Tesis Doctoral tiene como objetivo describir la ontogenia física y del comportamiento de los cachorros de lince ibérico nacidos en cautividad, y conocer los factores que van a influir en su desarrollo, para mejorar el manejo de la especie en cautividad. Se realizó el seguimiento del comportamiento de los cachorros de lince ibérico nacidos en los centros de cría "El Acebuche" (Huelva, España) y "La Olivilla" (Jaén, España) entre los años 2005 y 2013, mediante un sistema de video vigilancia remota que permitía obtener los registros del comportamiento evitando las alteraciones derivadas de la presencia del observador cerca de los animales.
El lince ibérico es una especie semi-altricial. Los cachorros nacieron en el interior de las parideras y no eran capaces de caminar, su desarrollo sensorial era relativamente atrasado y dependían de la madre para alimentarse. Durante el primer mes de vida, se produjo la maduración sensorial y motora, lo que permitió a los cachorros abandonar la paridera, propiciando los principales cambios en el comportamiento. El crecimiento de los cachorros se ajustó a la función de von Bertalanffy. Los machos crecieron más rápido que las hembras, de forma que eran un 8% más grandes de adultos; mientras que el método de crianza (criados con sus madres/crianza artificial) modificó la tasa de crecimiento, pero no el tamaño de adulto. La lactancia ocupó gran parte del tiempo de los cachorros durante las primeras semanas de vida, pero decreció rápidamente conforme crecieron. El destete, periodo en el que se alimentan tanto de comida sólida como de leche materna, ocurrió durante el último tercio del total del periodo lactante, por lo que el papel principal de la lactancia en el lince ibérico parece ser la nutrición de los cachorros. Una vez fuera de la paridera, la actividad diaria se incrementó hasta el tercer mes de vida, a partir del cual permaneció constante en torno al 50%. El patrón circadiano bimodal con máximos en los crepúsculos surgió en el segundo mes de vida y quedó completamente establecido a partir del tercer mes.
El incremento en la actividad diaria vino acompañado de la aparición de nuevos comportamientos como el juego y la depredación. Se pudieron observar cuatro categorías de juego en los cachorros de lince ibérico. El juego social fue el primero en aparecer al mes de vida y ocupó la mayor parte del tiempo de juego de las crías. Los juegos de tipo locomotor se vieron por primera vez a los 55 días, los juegos con objetos a los 59 días y los juegos con la presa a los 61 días. El juego alcanzó su máxima prevalencia entre las semanas 11 y 14, descendiendo posteriormente, aunque sin desaparecer por completo al final del estudio. Por su parte, el proceso de aprendizaje de la caza comenzó al mes de vida, cuando la madre les llevó una presa a sus cachorros por primera vez. Las primeras etapas del aprendizaje dependieron de la iniciativa materna, que les facilitó la tarea de ingestión y captura de la presa, hasta que las crías eran capaces de cazar sin ayuda a las 15 semanas. La secuencia básica del etograma de la depredación estuvo constituida por la búsqueda, el ataque, la captura, el mordisco, el traslado de la presa y la ingesta; viéndose alterada en ocasiones por juegos o peleas. Durante el ataque, los cachorros emplearon cuatro técnicas de caza, en orden de prevalencia: acoso, rececho, acecho y persecución. El éxito total de captura fue del 53%.
A partir de los resultados obtenidos se estima que la duración de las cuatro etapas del desarrollo en especies altriciales para el lince ibérico es: periodo neonatal (semanas 0 a 3); periodo de transición (semanas 4 y 5), periodo de socialización (semanas 6 a 15) y periodo juvenil (semana 16 hasta la maduración sexual).
Se han identificado los restos duros de conejo, Oryctolagus cuniculus, hallados en 165 excrementos de lince, Lynx pardinus, y zorro, Vulpes vulpes, con el objeto de discutir qué piezas serían idóneas para determinar la edad de los conejos depredados a través de estudios morfométricos. Veintisiete piezas en el caso del lince y siete en el caso del zorro aparecen como las más adecuadas dadas sus características morfológicas, su frecuencia de aparición y su grado de con servación. Se corresponden con los dientes y los huesos de las manos del conejo. Estas piezas se pueden encontrar en el 92% de los excrementos de lince con conejo y en el 42% de los de zorro. El 75% y el 95% de las veces, respectivamente, se encuentran bien conservadas.
A new Strategy for the Conservation of the Iberian Lynx (Lynx pardinus) has recently been approved by the Spain’s maximum authorities in Environmental Policy at the Sectorial Conference for the Environment. The new Strategy has been developed in a different working framework from the one that led to the first Strategy for the Conservation of the Iberian Lynx in 1999. The demographic situation of the Iberian lynx has never been worse. However, there have never been so many human and financial resources available, and the species has never been the focus of so much public attention and concern. The ultimate goal of the Strategy is to ensure that the Iberian lynx becomes a functional part of the Mediterranean scrubland habitat again. To this end, the recovery of the species involves both successfully managing the remaining populations and choosing and restoring areas to carry out reintroduction projects that will lead to the establishment of new wild populations. The new Strategy has set a roadmap for the conservation and recovery of the Iberian lynx, as well as specific numerical targets that must be met in a given period of time. These targets include: 1) Stabilize the populations by combating
the causes of threat to the species; 2) Increase the number of individuals in the wild
populations so that the Iberian lynx can be downlisted from Critically Endangered
(CR) to Endangered (EN) by 2011; and 3) Increase the number of wild populations, so that the species can be downlisted from Endangered (EN) to Vulnerable (VU) by 2020. According to the Spanish system, the first target should be achieved through Regional Recovery Plans, which must adopt the guidelines established in the National Strategy and develop them fully and efficiently. Achieving the second goal requires increasing the number of individuals in the lynx populations until at least one of them has more than 50 mature individuals, which must not amount to more than 90% of all the wild mature individuals. If necessary, “Restocking” and “Population Exchange Projects” are recommended to help increase the abundance of lynxes in the existing populations. To achieve the third target, the combined wild populations must comprise at least 250 mature individuals and not show signs of decline. This could only be attained through “Habitat Restoration and Reintroduction Projects” carried out in all the Autonomous Communities of Spain where the Iberian lynx occurs or occurred until recent times.
We report the first case of bovine tuberculosis in a free-living Iberian lynx (Lynx pardina), an extremely endangered feline, from Donana National Park in Spain. The isolate (Mycobacterium bovis) correlates by molecular characterization with other isolates from wild ungulates in the park, strongly suggesting an epidemiologic link.
Between 1991 and 1995 fresh fecal samples from Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus), wildcats (Fells silvestris), red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), and other carnivore species were collected in two areas of central Spain for isolation of parasite eggs and larvae. Twenty-three gastrointestinal coccidia, cestoda and nematoda species were identified. Common (≤20% prevalence) species were Isospora felis, I. rivolta, Ancylostoma spp., Toxascaris leonina, Toxocara carl, Aelurostrongylus spp., and Physaloptera spp. for the wildcat, I. fells, Taenia spp., Ancylostoma spp., T. leonina, and Toxocara canis for the Iberian: lynx, and I. canis, I. vulpis, and Physaloptera spp. for the red fox. In contrast to the pattern found in most similar studies, the distribution of parasitic forms among individual hosts was not overdispersed. Differences in prevalence between host populations were only detected for Physaloptera spp. in the wildcat. Sexual differences in occurrence, prevalence and intensity were not found in any host. The number of parasite species per individual was significantly higher in adult than in subadult hosts, and negatively correlated with a rough index of host body condition. The consistence of parasite species across samples of the same individual host taken at different times was low. In this paper we provide the first data on intestinal parasites for the rare Iberian lynx.