Control of Avian Coccidiosis: Present and Future Strategies for Natural Alternatives of Therapeutics

Abstract

Avian coccidiosis has great economic impacts on poultry enterprise. Coccidiosis is caused by Eimeria species mostly affecting epithelium of the birds intestines causing enteric problems. Prominent clinical outcomes are bloody diarrhoea, poor FCR, weight gain and growth rate with high morbidity and mortality rate. For the control of coccidiosis various strategies have been adapted including chemical agents and feed additives. But due to their repeated use, drug resistance to Eimeria species emerged thus badly affecting their efficacy. Moreover, these chemical agents have adverse effects on birds health and meat quality. Therefore, alternatives are used nowadays including natural and herbal products having the desired efficacy without harmful effects. Natural products and their anticoccidial activity have been reviewed in this study. This group comprises herbal extracts, fatty acids, fungal extracts, probiotics and immune response immunomodulators with proven anticoccidial activity. Additionally, poultry industry and economic cost of coccidiosis as well as classical strategies used in the control of avian coccidiosis are also reviewed.

Full text

Introduction
Commercial poultry farming is one of the most flouri-
shing industries in the world and it provides the cheapest
source of animal proteins to human beings (Ahmad
et al., 2011). In Pakistan, out of total meat production,
19% is contributed by poultry (Ahmad et al., 2010).
Poultry farming is increasing day by day at commercial
level however, due to certain diseases like coccidiosis,
its development is affected in Pakistan and other
countries of the world (Saima et al., 2010). Coccidiosis
is mainly caused by single celled protozoan of genus
Eimeria of phylum Apicomplexa with complex life
cycle. In commercial poultry farming, the incidence of
coccidiosis ranges from 5 to 70% (Du and Hu, 2004).
Eimeria species mostly affect the epithelial cells of
birds intestine, resulting in enteric problems leading
to bloody diarrhoea, poor growth rate and high mortality
with heavy economic losses up to three billion dollar
per annum worldwide (Dalloul and Lillehoj, 2006). So
far seven species of genus Eimeria (E. mitis, E. maxima,
E. acervulina, E. necatrix, E. brunetti, E. tenella and
E. praecox) have been identified that are responsible
for coccidiosis in chickens by residing in different parts
of their intestines. The most devastating specie is
E. tenella that causes ceacal coccidiosis in chickens.
Ceacum is the predilection site for E. tenella sporozoites
that invades its mucosa through villi of epithelial cells
and results in severe damage to epithelium, reduced
weight gain, blood in feaces, poor feed efficiency and
ultimately death of birds that leads to heavy economic
losses (Zaman et al., 2012). Sub-clinical form of avian
coccidiosis manifests as immunosuppressant in the
birds that result in outbreak of secondary bacterial
diseases. During rainy seasons, there is high incidence
of coccidiosis (Etuk, 2010). The hot and humid weather
positively hastens prevalence of disease by providing
favourable conditions to the infective oocyst.
Various strategies in the past have been adopted to
overcome avian coccidiosis including use of synthetic
chemicals and anticoccidial feed additives. However,
with the passage of time and repeated use of these drugs
there is emergence of anticoccidial drug resistance in
Eimeria species (Abbas et al., 2012). Along with this
Nogueira et al. (2009) has also reported that harmful
effects of these chemicals on birds health status and
Control of Avian Coccidiosis: Present and Future Strategies for
Natural Alternatives of Therapeutics
Muhammad Jamila, Muhammad Mansoora*, Arsalan Khanb,
Rizwan ul Haqb and Fawad Anwara
aArid Zone Research Centre-PARC, Dera Ismail Khan - 29050, Pakistan
bUniversity of Agriculture, Faisalabad-38040, Pakistan
(received February 29, 2016; revised June 9, 2016; accepted July 12, 2016)
Pak. j. sci. ind. res. Ser. B: biol. sci. 2017 60(1) ...............
Abstract. Avian coccidiosis has great economic impacts on poultry enterprise. Coccidiosis is caused by
Eimeria species mostly affecting epithelium of the birds intestines causing enteric problems. Prominent
clinical outcomes are bloody diarrhoea, poor FCR, weight gain and growth rate with high morbidity and
mortality rate. For the control of coccidiosis various strategies have been adapted including chemical
agents and feed additives. But due to their repeated use, drug resistance to Eimeria species emerged thus
badly affecting their efficacy. Moreover, these chemical agents have adverse effects on birds health and
meat quality. Therefore, alternatives are used nowadays including natural and herbal products having the
desired efficacy without harmful effects. Natural products and their anticoccidial activity have been
reviewed in this study. This group comprises herbal extracts, fatty acids, fungal extracts, probiotics and
immune response immunomodulators with proven anticoccidial activity. Additionally, poultry industry
and economic cost of coccidiosis as well as classical strategies used in the control of avian coccidiosis are
also reviewed.
Keywords: coccidiosis, natural alternatives, poultry, probiotics, herbal extracts
*Author for correspondence; E-mail: joyadkpk@googlemail.com
Review

consumption of affected meat by humans are the
major constraints. Another technique for the control of
coccidiosis is the use of live vaccines but this practice
may lead to development of clinical disease in the
broiler under poor management (Chapman, 2000).
Owing to increasing drug-resistant parasite strains, the
use of these chemical agents proved ineffective and
there is need of time to introduce alternatives for the
control of disease (Abbas et al., 2012; Tacconelli, 2009).
Resistance development in target parasites, high cost,
and toxic effects of chemotherapeutic drugs are the
main constraints. Therefore, for the prevention of coc-
cidiosis, current circumstances demands alternatives.
Natural and synthetic biological compounds considered
as appropriate agents (Patwardhan and Gautum, 2005),
to sustain bird health without affecting performance.
Plant based biological active compounds are thought
to be promising candidates due to their availability and
powerful efficacy with no or minimal residual effect in
consumers (Patwardhan and Gautam, 2005). To cure
health related issues almost 64% of human population
use plant based drugs worldwide (Farnsworth, 1999).
During last decade, various authors have reported that
plant and herbal products have protective and therapeutic
effects against experimental coccidial infections in birds
(Lorrain et al., 2010; Nweze and Obiwulu, 2009). It
has been reported that 50% synthetic drugs have been
made from compounds of plants. In this regard, one of
the important source is cereals. In humans and other
animal models, studies have shown that dietary cereal
fibres may have a great effect on different physiological
parameters. Cereals based carbohydrates are mainly
reported as antitussive, antioxidant, antimutagenic, anti-
inflammatory, anti-cancerous and immunomodulators
(Zhou et al., 2010). Cereals, fungi and yeast cell wall
contain b-glucans as principle structural components
with molecular weight 2000 kDa approximately. These
polysaccharides enable the host to develop resistance
against viral, parasitic, fungal and bacterial diseases by
enhancing immune system, lysosomal enzyme activity,
phagocytosis and IL-1 production (Estrada et al., 1997).
Botanicals may act as best and safe alternative source
to anticoccidial drugs for the prevention of coccidiosis
(Abbas et al., 2012). A variety of botanicals including
Triticum aestivum, Hordeum vulgare, Emblica officinalis,
Aloe vera and Avena sativa have shown effective bio-
logical responses. Oryza sativa also known as Asian
rice, belonging to family Poaceae is an annual plant,
which has shown immunostimulant effect through
increased allergic reactions, inhibited mast cell degra-
dation in rat (Ghatak and Panchal, 2012; Oka et al.,
2010), increased nitric oxide, TNF-a and interleukins
in murine macrophages (Park et al., 2013) as well as
increased lymphocytic proliferation, TNF-a and
interferon-g (Ghoneum and Jewett, 2000). The denatured
bran of this plant results in arabinoxylan by means of
enzymatic hydrolysis, a polymer of xylose and arabinose
(Ghoneum, 1998). Alternatives are not only natural
products but they also contain valuable molecules to
which resistance has not yet developed. Herbal and
medicinal plants, fungal extracts and probiotics could
have additional significant benefits such as palatabi-
lity, low cost, low toxicity and non-residual properties
(Table 1-3). Currently interest has been developing in
the use of these natural products to reduce the chances
of coccidiosis.
Review of literature. Favourable results have been
obtained by using natural alternatives in avian coccidiosis
as described in the following review literature:
Antioxidants. Fats and oils. Deficiency of vitamin A
in poultry increases susceptibility to coccidiosis and
other enteric infections. Alterations in intraepithelial
lymphocytes due to vitamin A deficiency increase
susceptibility of birds to coccidiosis (Dalloul et al.,
2003). Fats contained higher concentrations of linolenic
acid, eicosapentanoic acid and reduced severity of
coccidiosis in young broilers. Feed supplemented with
10% linseed oil, 10% flax seed oil and 10% fish oil
markedly reduced ceacal lesions. Fats decreased
parasitic infestation and provided immunity against
Eimeria (Allen et al., 2000). Antioxidants have been
divided into two categories; i.e., fat soluble (Vitamin
E and carotenoids) and water soluble (Vitamin C, uric
acid, glutathione and lipoic acid). Fat soluble antioxi-
dants hinder lipid peroxidation and protect cell
membranes while water soluble reacts with free redicals
existing in cytosol and blood plasma (Surai, 2007).
Utilisation of botanical antioxidants is correlated in
control of coccidiosis because coccidial infections
are associated with lipid peroxidation of mucosa of
intestines and antioxidants prevent such lipid peroxi-
dation (Naidoo et al., 2008). Coccidiosis infections
promote lipid peroxidation in broilers and dietary
alpha tocopherols at 316 mg/kg improved oxidant/

antioxidant system in victim birds (Masood et al., 2013).
Antioxidant nature of ground corn showed that corn
inhibited generation of lipid hydro peroxides and their
secondary products. This activity was assumed due to
bound hydroxyl-cinnamates like p-coumaric acid and
ferulic acid (Bauer et al., 2013).
Antioxidant potential of corn bran. Corn husk derived
arabinoxylans have been reported to possess an immuno-
stimulatory effect, characterised by increased cytokines
production and natural killer cells activity (Ogawa
et al., 2005; Zhang et al., 2004). Bauer et al. (2013)
reported the antioxidant potential of ground untreated
corn fibre and wheat bran against lipid oxidation based
on oxidative products inhibition. It was concluded that
corn fibre had higher antioxidative effect at 800 mg/kg
emulsion concentration which inhibited lipid hydro-
peroxides formation than wheat bran based on molar
formulated oligosaccharides products through enzymatic
treatment and methanolic extraction.
Herbal extracts and medicinal plants. Cereals derived
b-glucans not only have antitussive and adipogenic
activity, but they are also very important in tumor regres-
sion. Morikawa et al. (1985) conducted a study on
wheat derived b-glucans. Results of their study showed
about 100% increased polymorphonuclear leukocytes
activity against tumor cells. Immuno-modulatory pro-
perties of oat derived b-glucans are not new, about two
decades earlier a study was conducted by Estrada et al.
(1997), that investigated the role of b-glucans on mice
immune system. Results of their study revealed the
release of TNF-a, IFN-g, IL-4, IL-2 and IL-1 from
peritoneal macrophages. Oat is an important plant that
has an extensive list of biological effects. It contains
proteins, fats, total digestible nutrients, minerals and
vitamin (thiamine). Oat is one of the beneficial grains,
which is used as nutritional compound in both humans
and animals. Oat can be used as an antioxidant com-
pound due to abundant amount of two main enzymes;
alcalase and tryptic that actively transform proteins into
peptides and these peptides perform antioxidant activity
(Hussain et al., 2002). In emergency circumstances and
scarcity period oat can be used to form hay or silage.
Due to this reasons it is commonly used in the diet of
young animals, poultry, dairy cows and horses (Hussain
et al., 2002).
In another study, Yun et al. (2003) reported that oat
b-glucans were dynamically responsible for the enhance-
ment of resistance in mice, against E. vermiformis and
S. aureus. To support his idea he conducted in vitro and
in vivo studies that enabled the immune system to
increase phagocytic activity. Results of their study were
satisfactory that fecal oocyst shedding reduced by
28% in intragastric and 39% in intraperitoneal group
of mice (C57BL/6) that were initially infected with
E. vermiformis as compared to control group. Moreover,
oat cell wall polysaccharide, arabinoxylans and
b-glucans are much important regarding health point
of view. These carbohydrates are mainly effective against
tumor growth and stimulate immune system (Vetvicka,
2011). Avena sativa locally known as jodar, javi or jai
is an important cereal grain that has positive impact on
consumers health. Regarding their chemical structure,
in recent years Havrlentova et al. (2011) reported that
oat contained an important polysaccharides, b-glucans.
It was concluded that one of the characteristic feature
was their chemical structure b, 1-4 linkage due to which
these were effective against bacteria, viruses and other
pathogens. Additionally, these had anti-tumor activity
and also act as free radical scavengers. Oat derived
b-glucans may have some additional properties. A
study was conducted by Vetvicka (2011), investigating
the immunomodulatory and adipogenic activity of oat
b-glucans. Moreover, it was found that these were
helpful in wound healing process and also decreased
the skin irritation.
Beta vulgaris. Beta vulgaris belongs to the family
Chenopodiaceae and commonly known as red beet.
B. vulgaris is a traditional plant in India and many
countries including Pakistan and extensively used to
treat as a therapeautic agent in hypertension, in diabetes
and cancer due to its antioxidant properties. Roots of
B. vulgaris have also been reported to be rich in anti-
oxidant compounds (Shrishailappa et al., 2007). Its
juice has been found to reduce the xenobiotic-oxidative
stress in rats by rejuvenating the activity of the majority
of antioxidant enzymes in liver (Kujawska et al., 2009).
The active compounds present in B. vulgaris root include
folic acid (15.8 mg/g), betacyanins and betaxanthines
prevent active oxygen-induced, free radical scavengers
and help in radical-mediated oxidation of biological
molecules. B. vulgaris methanolic extract bears anti-
cancerous and immunomodulatory activities (Tripathy
and Pradhan, 2013).
Camellia sinensis. Camellia sinensis (green tea) is
an important plant which contains natural flavonoids.

These flavonoids are known to have antioxidant
properties due to which it can be used as an excellent
anticoccidial agent. Furthermore, it also contains lipids,
volatiles compounds, amino acids (especially l-theanine),
carbohydrates, alkaloids, carotenoids and minerals
which are helpful against several diseases. It reduced
fecal oocyst shedding and improved weight gain when
supplemented in feed of broilers (Jang et al., 2007).
Camellia sinensis also has anti-inflammatory antipro-
liferative anticancer antibacterial, antiviral trypanocidal
agent and also showed inhibitory effect against ovine
Babesia (Chen et al., 2008).
Eclipta alba. Eclipta alba which is also known as
Eclipta prostate having white flowers is renowned to
use as diuretic and tonic agent in treatment of various
hepatic diseases. In an experiment, there was appreciable
weight gain observed in broiler birds infected with
Eimeria which were orally treated with Coumestans
obtained from Eclipta alba at the rate of 120 ppm. It
also resulted in 80% reduction in excretion of oocysts
and treated birds did not show any signs of toxicity
such as hepatic and muscular lesions but, at higher dose
rate (180 ppm), signs of toxicity were observed in birds
(Michels et al., 2011).
Aloe vera. Aloes are known medically most important
plants and are used to treat many disease conditions
due to their therapeutic properties. More than 360 species
of aloes are identified but A. excelsa is well known
species that has excellent anticoccidial properties,
comparable with sulphachlopyrazine sodium monohy-
drate. Supplementation of A. excelsa in feed improved
mean weight gain and reduced oocysts expulsion in
broiler birds (Gadzirayi et al., 2005). Another important
species of aloe plant is Aloe vera which is also known
to have anticoccidial properties. Recently, Akhtar et al.
(2012) has conducted a study to evaluate the anticoccidial
and immunomodulatory effects of both aqueous and
ethanolic Aloe vera extracts against coccidiosis in broiler
birds and reported excellent results of Aloe vera in terms
of improved immune response and increased weight
gain in birds against mixed Eimeria infection. So, it
can be effectively used as an immunomodulatory agent
against avian coccidosis. In a study, supplementation
of A. vera in feed showed remarkable effect in lowering
gut lesions and oocyst excretion of Eimeria in faeces
of broiler chickens (Yim et al., 2011).
Pinus radiata. Pinus radiata belongs to family Pinaceae
which is commonly used as Monterey pine or radiata
pine, has phenolic compounds due to which it has been
as traditional medicinal plant in various countries such
as Europe and North America. Molan et al. (2009)
evaluated the in vitro efficacy of Pinus radiata aqueous
extracts on prevention of oocysts sporulation of different
Eimeria species. Inhibition bioassay was used to
investigate the effect of PBE on the sporulation of
Eimeria oocysts. The results of study revealed that
incubation of unsporulated oocysts in water containing
500 mg PBE per mL caused the prevention of sporulation
of these oocysts by 28-84% as compared to control
tubes. Furthermore, 12% of Eimeria oocysts showed
abnormal sporocysts in size, shape and number. This
study suggests that pine bark extract can be used for
control of coccidiosis in broiler birds.
Ageratum conyzoides. The Asteraceae or Compositae
(referred to as the aster, daisy, sunflower family) is a
widespread family of flowering plants having phenolic
compounds. Due to this property it has been used against
ceacal coccidiosis as well as acute toxicity and given
orally at dose rate (250-300 mg/kg to 500-1000 mg/kg).
Reportedly increased weight gain and increased red
blood cell count (Nweze and Obivulu, 2009).
Curcuma longa. Turmeric (Curcuma longa) is a rhizo-
matous herbaceous perennial plant of ginger family.
Effectiveness of turmeric (C. longa) crude powder and
salinomycin sodium against occurrence of coccidiosis
in broiler has been reported that feed consumption,
body weight gain and feed conversion ratio were better
in birds supplemented with 3% turmeric powder than
untreated group (Mashhadan, 2015). Reduction in oocyst
excretion and bloody diarrhoea was almost similar to
the anticoccidial drug salinomycin sodium (Abbas
et al., 2010).
Saccharum officinarum. Sugarcane (Saccharum
officinarum) belonging to the genus Saccharum is one
of the several species of tall perennial true grasses of
warm temperate to tropical regions of South Asia
Melanesia. The effectiveness of sugar cane juice and
baggase were reported to counter broiler coccidiosis.
Water and ethanolic extracts were used to evaluate the
therapeutic efficacy of sugar cane. It showed good
results in terms of reduced oocyst shedding and mortality
rate was also low (Akhtar et al., 2012). Similarly, higher

weight gain and antibodies response observed in
challenged birds but relative lymphoid organ weight
ratio was not significant. However, ethanolic extract
was more effective than water extract (Awais et al.,
2011).
Ocimum basilicum. Plants belonging to genus Ocimum
have 50-150 species of shrubs and herbs found in
different sub-tropical and tropical areas of Africa, Asia,
South and Central America. Among these species,
Ocimum basilicum has over 50 therapeutic activities
and has been reported to treat large number of disease
conditions. It is antiseptic, antibacterial, febrifuge and
aneurostimulant (Onwurah et al., 2011). Another study
was conducted to determine the effect of basil in broiler
coccidiosis. The study revealed that provision of this
plant extract to diseased birds showed good results with
respect to feed conversion ratio, live weight gain, oocyst
count and hematological parameters. However, the
effect on mortality and daily feed intake were not statis-
tically significant. This study recommended prophylactic
and curative dose as 5 and 15 g, respectively in feed
and water (Onwurah et al., 2011).
Artemisia annua. Artemisia annua, also known as
sweet wormwood or sweet annie. The dietary effect of
Azadirachta indica and Artemisia annua has been
observed on broilers performance and anticoccidial
potency against E. tenella post infection trial. Three
parameters; feed conversion ratio, average body weight
gain and feed intake were focused for the evaluation
of anti-coccidial activity of both plant extracts in
challenged groups. Significant results were observed
in orally infected birds group with A. indica (10%) or
A. annua (5%) incorporation in broiler diet (Hady and
Zaki, 2012).
Thonningia sanguinea. Thonningia sanguinea is a
renowned plant used as traditional medicine in African
countries. Antioxidant and antiprotozoal activity of this
plant has been observed against different diseases in
birds. The results of study showed that dose more than
2.5 mg/mL significantly inhibited the invasion of bovine
kidney cells by the sporozoites of E. necartix and
E. tenella. This study demonstrated that Thonningia
sanguinea can be effectively used in feed for the control
of coccidiosis in broiler birds (Severin et al., 2012).
Immune response modulators. Immunostimulatory
and therapeutic potential of rice bran. Rice is also
known as an important immunostimulant and therapeutic
agent against avian coccidiosis. Martinez et al. (2015)
described the increased cytotoxic potential of natural
killer (NK) cells by means of rice bran derived
Arabinoxylans (MGN-3) against murine neuroblastoma.
For this study, NK cells activity by means of MGN-3
addition was evaluated for their phenotypic, cytotoxic
and cytometric bead potential on cultured cell lines
both in vivo and in vitro, respectively for two weeks.
MGN-3 showed significantly increased activity for
CD25 and CD69 receptors without alteration of induced
self antigens and other non-catalytic receptors. Moreover,
carcinoma cells growth was also inhibited due to
increased NK cells cytotoxicity. These results concluded
the immunoregulatory efficacy of NK cells and their
beneficial remedial application for neural carcinoma.
Fang et al. (2012) elaborated the anti-inflammatory and
therapeutic results of acid hydrolysed feurloylated
oligosacchrides (FO) from rice bran at dose rate of
0.1-100 µg/mL through increased TNF-a, IL-1b,
IL-6 and PGE2 production in RAW264.7 macrophages.
Ani et al. (2013) concluded that feeding rice milling
waste (RMW) improved growth rate through increased
feed intake in broiler chicks. Rice is also known as
an important immunostimulant and therapeutic agent
against avian coccidiosis. Choi et al. (2014) reported
the immunomodulatory activity of rice bran derived
arabinoxylans through increased natural killer (NK)
cell activity and modulated cytokine production in
humans. Ghoneum et al. (2014) evaluated anticancer
effects of rice bran derived arabinoxylan on cultured
nonmetastatic MCF-7 human and metastatic 4T1 mice
breast cancer cells. MGN-3 increased apoptosis, DNA
damage and inhibition of cellular proliferation in
4T1cells. It was also concluded that rice bran derived
arabinoxylans have a potent chemotherapeutic effect
against metastatic breast cancer.
Ani et al. (2013) conducted a study to evaluate compara-
tive effects of feeding rice milling waste (RMW) and
Roxazyme G2® enzyme on the performance of broiler
chicks. Enzyme supplementation significantly reduced
feed intake and improved the performance of birds in
terms of average daily weight gain, protein efficiency
ratio and feed cost. Enzyme supplementation signi-
ficantly reduced feed intake and improved the perfor-
mance of birds in terms of average daily weight gain,
protein efficiency ratio and feed cost. These results

concluded that feeding rice milling waste (RMW)
improved growth rate through increased feed intake
in broiler chicks. Rohman et al. (2014) described the
nutritional significance of rice for diabetic patients in
Asia. Besides other cereals, there is an increased dietary
intake of rice due to glucose rich contents. Similarly,
rice derivatives including its bran and oil in traces have
also been reported to exhibit beneficial effects on health.
Fat free rice bran would be resulted on further processing
of rice husk. Fat free fraction of rice bran contained
carbohydrates rich contents. These contents of rice
derivatives exhibit their therapeutic potential against
cardiac diseases and cancer in terms of hypocholes-
trolemic and hypoglycemic effects.
Immunomodulatory potential of barley. Yun et al.
(1997) evaluated the immunostimulant potential of oat
derived b-glucans (1®3, 1®4) at dose rate of 0.2 mL
intraperitoneally in CD-1 mice in terms of increased
number of macrophages in peritoneal fluid and improved
survival in 3 days pre-exposure to S. aureus. Moreover,
its subcutaneous dose of 0.l mL or administered intra-
gluteally 0.3 mL daily for 10 days in immunosuppressed
and infected C57BL/6 mice with coccidiosis reduced
fecal oocyst output by 23 and 34%, as well as increased
total antibody titers against sporozoites and merozoites.
On the whole oat b-glucans showed immunostimulatory
effects in terms of increased humoral and cellular
immune responses against E. verniformis infection in
mice.
These results suggested an immunostimulant potential
of oat b-glucan against coccidiosis. Pelizon et al. (2005)
evaluated the immunostimulatory effect of Sacchromyces
cerevisiae derived b-glucans at dose rate of 20 µg I.P.
in female C57BL/6 mice by increased IL-12, TNF-a
and natural killer spleen cells. b-glucans are soluble
non-starch and complex polysaccharides abundantly
found in bacterial, fungal, oats and barley cell walls
which play their vital role in anti-microbial immunomodu-
lation. Angeli et al. (2009) examined the mutagenicity
of barley derived b-glucans in hep G2 hepatocytes at
concentrations of 100 and 200 mg/mL, respectively.
Chan et al. (2009a) concluded the receptor based mode
of action of b-glucans with respect to natural or acquired
immunity in terms of lymphocytic proliferation and
differentiation in reticuloendothelial system (RES).
Talati et al. (2009) suggested that barley supplementation
could reduce total cholesterol, triglycerides and the low
density lipoprotein levels in humans. Takeshi and John
(2010) described anti-inflammatory and immunostimulant
potentials of 1 g barley derived arabinoxylans against
irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) in humans in terms of
improved gastrointestinal symptoms and increased NK
cell activity. Samuelsen et al. (2011) concluded the low
immunomodulatory response of barley derived arabi-
noxylans and b-glucans in vitro. Besides other cereals,
barley is also known to have immunomodulatory
potential against various diseases. Khoury et al. (2012)
concluded the therapeutic significance of oats and barley
derived b-glucans against obesity and metabolic
syndrome through maintenance of enteric health in
humans. Jacob and Pescatore (2012) reported the
improved feeding values of barley litter through reduced
intestinal viscosity while poultry farming. Gao et al.
(2012) suggested that oat derived b-glucans supple-
mentation decreased cholesterol level of serum and less
enteric microbial activity with low immunomodulation
in humans.
Immunomodulatory and therapeutic potential of
wheat bran. Vahouny et al. (1985) evaluated an incre-
ased intestinal goblet cell secretary potential through
10% wheat bran dietary supplementation. Kruis et al.
(1986) evaluated the supportive therapeutic efficacy of
wheat bran in terms of superior symptomatic effect
against human irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). Watzl
et al. (1990) evaluated the phagocytic stimulant potential
of wheat bran derived polysaccharides extract at dose
rate of 10-2 mg/mL for human polymorphonuclear
leukocytes. Roccatello et al. (1990) examined an incre-
ased in vitro cytotoxic activity of human peripheral
blood mononuclear cells particularly of neutrophil
chemokinesis by means of gliadin and glyc-gali at dose
rate of 5 and 50 µg/mL, respectively. Takahashi et al.
(1999) examined the inhibitory effect of microfibril
wheat bran on azoxy-methane at dosage rate of 20%
(w/w) and 10 mg/kg against colon carcinogenesis in
female CF1 mice, respectively. Neyrinck et al. (2008)
suggested the therapeutic value of wheat bran derived
arabinoxylans against obesity and metabolic disorders
at dose rate of 10% with decreased macrophages,
IL-6 and CD68 mRNA in adipose tissues in mice. Cao
et al. (2011) reported the antitumor effect of wheat bran
arabinoxylans in S180 mice by promoting cell mediated
immunity with peripheral leukocytosis and increased
haemopeisis. Among these cereals wheat is an important

Table 1. Overview of the anticoccidial effect of botanicals against avian coccidiosis
Botanical and English names Active ingredients Dose Mode of action Species studied Affected parameters Sources
Agele marmelos (Bael) Unknown Orally @ 2 mL for Unknown Mixed infection OC¯, FC
¯
, WG
¯
Khan et al., 2008
5 consecutive days
Ageratum conyzoides (Ageratum) Flavonoids Orally 500-1000 mg/kg Oxidative stress E.t OC¯, WG
¯
, PCV
¯
, Nweze and
b.w. RBC
¯
, OC
¯
Obiwulu, 2009
Carica papaya (Papaw) Papaine Dry leaf powder 15% Sporozoits digestion E.t - Al-Fifi, 2007
of feed in the caeca
Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (Guar) Glacactomannans 5% of feed Binding with sterol E.t OC¯, BD¯Hassan et al., 2008
and saponins molecules present on
protozoal cell membrane
surfaces
Eclipta alba (Bhringaraj) Coumestans 120 pp in feed Unknown E.t OC¯, FC
¯
, WG
¯
Michels et al., 2011
Linum usitatissimum (Flaxseed) N-3 fatty acids 15% of feed Oxidative stress E.t LS¯, degree of Allen et al., 1997
parasitization¯
Lentinus edodes and Tremella Polysaccharide 1 g/kg feed Immune stimulation E.t WG
¯
Guo et al., 2004;
fuciformis (Mushrooms) extracts 2005
Musa paradisiacal (Banana) Unknown Methanolic extract @ Unknown E.t OC¯, CS¯, PCV
¯
Anosa and Okoro,
1,000 mg/kg b.w. 2011
Olea europaea (Olive tree) Maslinic acid (2-a, 3-b- 90 ppm of maslinic Anti-inflammatory E.t OC¯, LS¯, De Pablos
dihydroxiolean- acid in feed & antioxidant properties WG
¯
et al., 2010
12-en-28-oic acid)
Pinus radiate (Monterey pine) 35% condensed Oocysts exposed to Damage of cytoplasm E.t; E.m; E.a Sporulation¯Molan et al., 2009
tannins 500-1000 mg pine bark/mL (sporont)
Pasum sativum (Pea plant) Antibody fragments - Inhibition of E.t Sporozoite infectivity Khalafalla and,
sporozoites reproduction and reproduction¯Daugschies 2010
Sophora flavescens aiton (Sophora) Unknown 6-30 g/L Drinking water Unknown E.t M¯, LS¯, OC¯, WG
¯
Youn and Noh, 2001
Tulbaghia violacea Antioxidant compounds Aqueous extract Oxidative stress Mixed infection FCR
¯
, OC¯Naidoo et al., 2008
(Society garlic, sweet garlic) (S-
(methylthiomethyl)
35
mg/kg feed
Cysteine sulphoxide
(marasmine), bis[(methylthio)
methyl]disulphide and
various derivatives)
Vitis vinifera (Grape seed) Tannins 10-20 mg/kg Feed Oxidative stress E.t M¯, LS¯, WG
¯
Wang et al., 2008
Vernonia amygdalina (Vernonia tree) Vernoside Dry leaf powder Oxidative stress E.t OC¯Al-Fifi, 2007
@ 15% of feed
¯
= improvement/increase/higher; ¯ = decrease/lower; E.t = Eimeria tenella; E.a = Eimeria acervulina; E.m = Eimeria maxima; E.b = Eimeria brunetti; E.n = Eimeria necatrix;
E.miv = Eimeria mivati; WG = body weight gain; FC = feed consumption; FCR = feed conversion ratio; LS = lesion scores; OC = oocyst count; BD = bloody diarrhea; M = mortality;
PCV = packed cell volume; RBC = red blood cells; CS = clinical signs.

immuno-modulator against various diseases. Singh
et al. (2015) described the immunomodulation of potent
prebiotic, xylooligosacchrides (XOS) resulting from
hydrolysis of agricultural byproducts. These XOS impro-
ved gut epithelial health for microflora and regulated
antioxidant activity. Akhtar et al. (2012) evaluated the
Table 3. Some natural products commercially available for prevention and treatment of coccidiosis
Product Ingredients Supplier
Avihicox Clove and Bocconia cordata extract Centaur
Nutrimin Apple cider vinegar Chicken lickin
Kocci Free Olive leaf, mustard seed, black seed, cloves, grapefruit seed extract Amber Technology
Oil of oregan Oregan extra virgin olive oil (80% carvacrol) Natural factors
Oilis Natural vegetal extracts Engormix
Oreganico Oregan oil and essential oils Flyte so fancy
Garlic granules Garlic Flyte so fancy
Poultry Provita Probiotics and prebiotic inulin Vets Plus
CitriStim Mannan oligosaccharides and beta glucans ADM
Orego Stim Carvacrol (82%) and Thymol (2.4%) Saife vetmed
Herban Etheric oils, soya oils, oregan oils Uncle Ted Organics Ltd
Herb n thrive Concentrated blend of herbs and essential oils Chicken lickin
Eimericox Several essential oils Phytosynthese/Trouw Nutrition
Natustat Several essential oils and yeast cell walls Alltech
Enteroguard Garlic and cinnamon Orffa
Xtract Immunocox Spanish pepper and turmeric Pancosma
Coxynil Allium sativum Linn 15%, Cinnamonum camphora Nees & Eberum 15%, Growell India
Elephantopus scaber Linn 15%, Valeriana wallicgii DC 15%, Sulphur dioxide 25%
and NaCl 15%.
Ropadiar solution Oregan oil (on diatomite) Ropapharm
Table 2. Overview of the anticoccidial effect of herbal complexes against avian coccidiosis
Herbal complex Composition Dose Mode of Species Affected Sources
action studied parameters
Herbal Uncariae ramulus cum 2 g/mL Unknown E.t LS¯Du and Hu, 2004
complex Uncis, Agrimoniae herba, Sanguisorbae drinking WG
¯
radix, Eclipta prostrate herba, Pulsatillae water &
radix, Sophorae feed flavescentis radix, 10 g/kg
Rehmanniaea radix, Glycyrrhizae radix
Muscadine By-product of the production of wine and 0.5-2.0% Unknown E.a; M¯, LS¯, McDougald
pomace juice from Vitis rotundifolia of feed E.m; E.t WG
¯
et al., 2008
Herbal Solanum nigrum (35%), Aloe vera 10% in feed Unknown E.t LS¯, WG
¯
, Chandrakesan
complex (15%), Moringa indica (35%) and for 7 days FCR
¯
et al., 2009
Mentha arvensis (15%) continuously
Herbal Allium sativum 4 g, Zingiber officinale 6 g, Treated Unknown Mixed OC¯Nidaullah
complex Azadirachta indica 3 g and Berberis water for 14 infection et al., 2010
lyceum 10 g mixed per liter drinking water days
Herbal Azadirachta indica, Nicotiana tabacum, Orally (2-6 g Unknown E.t M¯, LS¯, Zaman et al.,
complex Calotropis procera and Trachyspermum once a day) WG
¯
, FCR
¯
, 2011
ammi for 7 Days OC¯
LS = lesion score; WG = weight gain; FCR = food consumption ratio; OC = oocyst count; M = mortality.

immuno-stimulatory and anticoccidial potentials of wheat
(Triticum aestivum) bran derived arabinoxylans (AXs)
in chickens. These showed an improved daily weight
gain, organ body weight ratio for thymus and cecal tonsils
with lower oocyst count and lesion scores and higher
antibody titers against sheep red blood cells.
Fungal extracts. Fungal, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum
derived beta glucans are used to treat many disease
conditions due to their therapeutic effects. Suzuki
et al. (1989) conducted a study in mice and found that
fungal derived b-glucans were responsible to modu-
late immune system. Higher spleen cell proliferation
was noted in response to concanavalin A (T-cell mitogen)
and lipopolysaccharide (B-cell mitogen) with compari-
son to control group of mice. Moreover, oral adminis-
tration of S. sclerotiorum glucans also improved the
function of NK (natural killer) cells and lysosomal
enzyme that actively fight back against numerous
pathogens. In addition to these, antitumor activity was
also observed.
This study suggests that S. sclerotiorum derived
beta glucans can be used to enhance immune system.
Saccharomyces cerevisiae is an important fungus that
may have immunostimulatory effect by increasing
different interleukins and cytokines production. In a
study, Pelizon et al. (2005) investigated that S. cerevisiae
derived -b glucans were responsible for increasing the
fungicidal and natural killer cell activity. Moreover,
increased cytokine production, IL-12 and TNF-a was
also observed. Among bodys complex system one is
the immune system that is broadly categorized into
adaptive and innate immune system. It is proved experi-
mentally that both these system can be modulated by
b-glucans. Chan et al. (2009b), suggested that these
polysaccharides initiated their response through immune
receptors. These receptors included CR3 (complement
receptor), TLR-2/6, Dectin-1 and activated a set of
immune cells including dendritic cells, monocytes,
neutrophils, NK cells and macrophages. These poly-
saccharides with specific linear backbone 1®3 beta-
glycosidic chain could not be digested orally. Some
beta glucans were initially internalized by macrophages
and then fragmented inside the cells. After that these
fragmented b-glucans were released and eventually
picked up by other immune cells. Moreover, b-glucans
with variable branching patterns and sizes had different
immune potency.
In recent years, an experiment was performed by
Mahdi and Al-Abass (2012), and they concluded that
S. cerevisiae derived b-glucans had immunomodu-
latory effect in broilers. Results of their study showed
that administered group had faster clearance rate of
carbon particles than untreated control group. The fast
clearance rate might be due to increased phagocytic
activity. Moreover, it was also observed that b-glucans
administered group had improved their body weight
gain than control group. Conclusions of their study
suggested that b-glucans can be used to improve weight
gain in broilers.
Conclusion
Over a time, anticoccidial drugs development has
increased in response to the urgent need to control avian
coccidiosis. Today, we have many strategies available,
many of which currently widely used in chickens farms.
Moreover, new alternatives are emerging, as is the case
with anticoccidial is obtained from plants, fungal or
microorganisms. One of advantages of using natural
extracts is the lower risks of developing resistance, such
as that observed with chemical drugs. It is widely known
that availability of raw materials and cost of production
could be high in the development of natural extracts
alternatives. However, the cost is well worth it if we
consider that these alternatives are friendly to the
environment, producers and consumers.
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