ArticlePDF Available

Abstract and Figures

Forensic age estimation research based on skeletal structures focuses on patterns of growth and development using different bones. In this work, our aim was to study growth-related evolution of the manubrium in living adolescents and young adults using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), which is an image acquisition modality that does not involve ionizing radiation. In a first step, individual manubrium and subject features were correlated with age, which confirmed a statistically significant change of manubrium volume (Mvol: p < 0.01, = 0.50) and surface area (Msur: p < 0.01, = 0.53) for the studied age range. Additionally, shapes of the manubria were for the first time investigated using principal component analysis. The decomposition of the data in principal components allowed to analyse the contribution of each component to total shape variation. With 13 principal components, ∼ 96 % of shape variation could be described (Mshp: p < 0.01, = 0.60). Multiple linear regression analysis modelled the relationship between the statistically best correlated variables and age. Models including manubrium shape, volume or surface area divided by the height of the subject (Y ∼ Mshp Msur / Sh: p < 0.01, = 0.71; Y ∼ Mshp Mvol / Sh: p < 0.01, = 0.72) presented a standard error of estimate of two years. In order to estimate the accuracy of these two manubrium-based age estimation models, cross validation experiments predicting age on held-out test sets were performed. Median absolute difference of predicted and known chronological age was 1.18 years for the best performing model (Y ∼ Mshp Msur / Sh: p < 0.01, = 0.67). In conclusion, despite limitations in determining legal majority age, manubrium morphometry analysis presented statistically significant results for skeletal age estimation, which indicates that this bone structure may be considered as a new candidate in multi-factorial MRI-based age estimation.
Content may be subject to copyright.
A preview of the PDF is not available
... Compared to ultrasonography, MRI has advantages of accurate visualization of the tiny cartilage around the bone epiphysis, good contrast and signal-to-noise ration of images, and easy data storage. Thus, MRI analysis of many different anatomical structures has been increasingly studied, including the third molars [4][5][6], wrist and hand [7][8][9][10][11][12], the medial clavicle sternal end [13,14], knee [15][16][17][18][19], ankle [20][21][22][23], the iliac crest [24], shoulder [25][26][27], and the manubrium [28]. However, the results of previous studies have not met the high-level requirements of AGFAD's recommendations [29] and large-scale population-specific MRI-type studies are needed. ...
... In the present study, the highest R 2 value was 0.807 in males and 0.820 in females. Comparatively, the highest value of R 2 ranged from 0.478 to 0.848 in different anatomical site in previous MRIs studies [17,23,28,39,40]. By comparison, the result of our study was not the best. ...
... Not all researches have calculated the MAD values. By comparison, the lowest MAD value was 1.16 years with the manubrium [28], 0.793 years in males and 0.988 years in females with knees [18], 1.97 years with clavicles [14], 2.15 years in males, and 1.67 years in females with calcaneus [23]. In the current study using shoulder MRIs, the MAD value for T1-TSE was 2.09 years in males and 2.42 years in females while for T2-FS it was 1.49 years and 2.19 years. ...
Article
Full-text available
Forensic age estimation in living individuals is mainly based on radiological features, but direct radiography and computed tomography lead to a rise in ethical concerns due to radiation exposure. Thus, the contribution of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to age estimation of living individuals is a subject of ongoing research. In the current study, MRIs of shoulder were retrospectively collected from a modern Chinese Han population and data from 835 individuals (599 males and 236 females) in the age group 12 to 30 years were obtained. A staging technique based on (Schmidt et al. Int J Legal Med 121(4):321-324, 2007) and (Kellinghaus et al. Int J Legal Med 124(4):321–325, 2010) was used and all images were evaluated with T1-wieghted turbo spin echo (T1-TSE) sequence and T2-weighed fat suppression (T2-FS) sequence. One-sided images were assessed because data from both sides were considered coincidental, as no significant differences were found (P > 0.05). Two MRI sequences were evaluated separately and subsequently compared. Regression models and supportive vector classification (SVC) models were established accordingly. The intraobserver and interobserver agreement levels were good. Compared with T1-TSE sequence, the R² values of T2-FS sequence were generally higher, while the mean absolute deviation (MAD) values were slightly lower. For T2-FS sequence, the MAD value was 1.49 years in males and 2.19 years in females. With two MRI sequences incorporated, the SVC model obtained with 85.7% correctly classified minors and 96.2% correctly classified adults in males, while 83.3% and 98.0% respectively in females. In conclusion, T2-FS sequence may slightly outperform the T1-TSE sequence in shoulder MRI analysis for age estimation, while shoulder MRIs could be a reliable prediction indicator for the 18-year threshold and two MRI sequences incorporated are encouraged.
... In the enhancement of MRI hand and wrist bone features phase, we created a Skeletal Graph-based Feature Enhancement (SGFE) module to enhance the expressive power of key epiphyseal features in the hand and wrist. The MAE of 1.24 years for the MRIbased regression results of age assessment of hand and wrist bones was higher than that of other researchers, which may be due to the small sample size [12,[26][27][28][29][30][31][32]. Compared with Tang et al. [26]. ...
Article
Full-text available
In Chinese criminal law, the ages of 12, 14, 16, and 18 years old play a significant role in the determination of criminal responsibility. In this study, we developed an epiphyseal grading system based on magnetic resonance image (MRI) of the hand and wrist for the Chinese Han population and explored the feasibility of employing deep learning techniques for bone age assessment based on MRI of the hand and wrist. This study selected 282 Chinese Han Chinese males aged 6.0–21.0 years old. In the course of our study, we proposed a novel deep learning model for extracting and enhancing MRI hand and wrist bone features to enhance the prediction of target MRI hand and wrist bone age and achieve precise classification of the target MRI and regression of bone age. The evaluation metric for the classification model including precision, specificity, sensitivity, and accuracy, while the evaluation metrics chosen for the regression model are MAE. The epiphyseal grading was used as a supervised method, which effectively solved the problem of unbalanced sample distribution, and the two experts showed strong consistency in the epiphyseal plate grading process. In the classification results, the accuracy in distinguishing between adults and minors was 91.1%, and the lowest accuracy in the three minor classifications (12, 14, and 16 years of age) was 94.6%, 91.1% and 96.4%, respectively. The MAE of the regression results was 1.24 years. In conclusion, the deep learning model proposed enabled the age assessment of hand and wrist bones based on MRI.
... Radiological assessment can be performed rapidly and noninvasively without any bone preparation or dissection. As a result, radiological analysis of the sternum has been increasingly studied including X-rays [16], CT [19], and MRI [20]. Compared to other imaging types, CT has the advantage of accurate visualization, and good contrast of images, independent of soft tissue, and multi-reconstruction parameters. ...
Article
Full-text available
This study aimed to explore and develop data mining models for adult age estimation based on CT reconstruction images from the sternum. Maximum intensity projection (MIP) images of chest CT were retrospectively collected from a modern Chinese population, and data from 2700 patients (1349 males and 1351 females) aged 20 to 70 years were obtained. A staging technique within four indicators was applied. Several data mining models were established, and mean absolute error (MAE) was the primary comparison parameter. The intraobserver and interobserver agreement levels were good. Within internal validation, the optimal data mining model obtained the lowest MAE of 9.08 in males and 10.41 in females. For the external validation (N = 200), MAEs were 7.09 in males and 7.15 in females. In conclusion, the accuracy of our model for adult age estimation was among similar studies. MIP images of the sternum could be a potential age indicator. However, it should be combined with other indicators since the accuracy level is still unsatisfactory.
... 236 Skeletal parameters derived from X-ray images were also used for estimations of both dental age and skeletal age. [237][238][239][240][241] However, these are used to estimate chronological age for forensic practices rather than to reflect biological ageing. [242][243][244] 5 | OTHER CLINICAL MEASURE-BASED AGEING BIOMARKERS ...
Article
Full-text available
Abstract Given the unprecedented phenomenon of population ageing, studies have increasing captured the heterogeneity within the ageing process. In this context, the concept of “biological age” has been introduced as an integrated measure reflecting the individualized ageing pace. Identifying reliable and robust biomarkers of age is critical for the accurate risk stratification of individuals and exploration into antiageing interventions. Numerous potential biomarkers of ageing have been proposed, spanning from molecular changes and imaging characteristics to clinical phenotypes. In this review, we will start off with a discussion of the development of ageing biomarkers, then we will provide a comprehensive summary of currently identified ageing biomarkers in humans, discuss the rationale behind each biomarker and highlight their accuracy and clinical value with a contemporary perspective. Additionally, we will discuss the challenges, potential applications, and future opportunities in this field. While research on ageing biomarkers has led to significant progress and applications, further investigations are still necessary. We anticipate that future breakthroughs in this field will involve exploring potential mechanisms, developing biomarkers by combining various data sources or employing new technologies, and validating the clinical value of existing and emerging biomarkers through comprehensive collaboration and longitudinal studies.
... In the current study, there were also individual cases in which it was difficult to make a clear distinction and the evaluators' classifications differed widely. In these cases, it is helpful to consider the thickness of the clavicular cartilage and the shape and structure of the surrounding bones, such as the manubrium or the first rib, since there are also age-related changes, as noted by Martínez Vera et al. [39] for the manubrium. The comparison of the descriptive stage values of this study with the study done by Schmidt et al. [7] who investigated a similar sample with a comparable MR sequence showed overall slightly younger mean values with lower values for the standard deviation in the current study. ...
Article
Full-text available
Increasing cross-border migration has brought forensic age assessment into focus in recent decades. Forensic age estimation is based on the three pillars: physical and medical constitution, bone age, and tooth age. Part of the bone age examination includes the assessment of the medial end of the clavicles when the hand bones are already fully developed and a minority must be excluded. Recent research has brought MRI to the forefront as a radiation-free alternative for age assessment. However, there exits only a few studies with large sample size regarding the clavicles and with controversies about staging, motion artifacts, and exclusion based on anatomic norm variants. In the current prospective study, 338 central European male individuals between 13 and 24 years of age underwent MRI examination of the sternoclavicular region. Development was assessed by three blinded raters according to the staging system described by Schmeling et al. and Kellinghaus et al. and related to age by descriptive statistics and transition analyses with a cumulative probit model. In addition, reliability calculations were performed. No statistically significant developmental difference was found between the left and right clavicles. Inter-rater agreement was only moderate, but intra-rater agreement, on the other hand, was good. Stage 3c had a minimum age of 19.36 years and appears to be a good indicator of proof of majority. The minimum age of stage 4 was lower compared with other studies, 20.18 years, and therefore seems not to be an indicator of age of 21 years. In conclusion, we confirmed the value of clavicular MRI in the age estimation process. The transition analysis model is a good approach to circumvent the problems of age mimicry and samples that are not fully equilibrated. Given the moderate agreement between raters, a consensus reading is recommended.
... However, the performance of age prediction was not improved when both distal femoral epiphysis and proximal tibial epiphysis were incorporated in the model. While there have been no reports about the accuracy evaluation of age prediction based on ossification stages of knee MRI, the performances were in close proximity to shoulder MRI (2.09 years in males and 2.42 years in females) [30], calcaneus MRI (2.15 years in males and 1.67 years in females) [31], and manubrium MRI (1.16 years) [32]. Of note, lower MAD values have been obtained in recent studies based on knee MRI using deep learning [33][34][35]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Objectives To assess the performance of knee MRI for forensic age prediction and classification for 12-, 14-, 16-, and 18-year thresholds. Methods The ossification stages of distal femoral epiphyses and proximal tibial epiphyses were assessed using an integrated staging system by Schmeling et al. and Kellinghaus et al. for knee 3.0T MRI with T1-weighted turbo spin-echo (T1-TSE) in sagittal orientation among 852 Chinese Han individuals (483 males and 369 females) aged 7–30 years. Regression models for age prediction were constructed and their performances were evaluated based on mean absolute deviation (MAD) values. In addition, the performances of age classification were assessed using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analyses. Results The intra- and inter-observer agreement levels were very good (κ > 0.80). The complete fusion of those two types of epiphyses took place before 18.0 years in our study participants. The minimum MAD values were 2.51 years (distal femur) and 2.69 years (proximal tibia) in males, and 2.75 years (distal femur) and 2.87 years (proximal tibia) in females. The specificity values of constructed prediction models were all above 90% for the 12-, 14-, and 16-year thresholds, compared to the 74.8–84.6% for the 18-year threshold. Better performances of age prediction and classification were observed in males by distal femoral epiphyses. Conclusions Ossification stages via 3.0T MRI of the knee with T1-TSE sequence using an integrated staging system could be a reliable noninvasive method for age prediction or for age classification for 12-, 14-, and 16-year thresholds, especially in males by distal femoral epiphyses. However, assessments based on the full bony fusion of the distal femoral epiphysis and proximal tibial epiphysis seemed not reliable for age classification for the 18-year threshold in the Chinese Han population.
... The literature ascertains the precise measurements obtained using scanned data and can aid in determination of age and sex; thus aid in developing accurate biological profiles 29,46 . Volumetric imaging of living and dead can also aid in sexual dimorphism by analysis of para-nasal sinuses thus offering a solution for age estimation of the living 47 . Pattern analysis such as fingerprints, foot prints can be done by using laser scanners 48 . ...
Article
Full-text available
Three-dimensional (3D) modalities are frequently applied in forensic practice as it tends to give complete information of the evidence merely by touching which has resulted in increased usage in legal medicine and forensic sciences. A number of sub-disciplines of forensic science utilises 3D modalities in an inter-disciplinary manner viz. forensic anthropology, forensic archaeology, forensic odontology, crime-scene investigation, pattern analysis and recovery, courtroom visualisation and ballistic comparison. With appropriate knowledge and utilisation of 3D scanning, modelling and printing technologies, innovative approaches can be implemented for identification in forensic cases. Given that these technologies are evolving rapidly and changing the face of forensic science, the present article collates current developments, working and applications of non-contact scanning techniques, modeling and 3D printing techniques.
... The literature ascertains the precise measurements obtained using scanned data and can aid in determination of age and sex; thus aid in developing accurate biological profiles 29,46 . Volumetric imaging of living and dead can also aid in sexual dimorphism by analysis of para-nasal sinuses thus offering a solution for age estimation of the living 47 . Pattern analysis such as fingerprints, foot prints can be done by using laser scanners 48 . ...
Article
Full-text available
Three-dimensional (3D) modalities are frequently applied in forensic practice as it tends to give complete information of the evidence merely by touching which has resulted in increased usage in legal medicine and forensic sciences. A number of sub-disciplines of forensic science utilises 3D modalities in an inter-disciplinary manner viz. forensic anthropology, forensic archaeology, forensic odontology, crime-scene investigation, pattern analysis and recovery, courtroom visualisation and ballistic comparison. With appropriate knowledge and utilisation of 3D scanning, modelling and printing technologies, innovative approaches can be implemented for identification in forensic cases. Given that these technologies are evolving rapidly and changing the face of forensic science, the present article collates current developments, working and applications of non-contact scanning techniques, modeling and 3D printing techniques.
Article
This study investigates the trends within the published research up to 2019 in relation to skeletal and dental age estimation in living individuals by using a novel bibliometric analysis which utilizes a specialist, open‐source R script. The analysis was performed on a total of 644 papers (627 articles, fifteen conference papers, and two reviews) retrieved using the online database Scopus. The analysis included an investigation of publication trends, authors’ affiliations, citation, Open Access publications, authors’ keywords, and index keywords. An additional investigation was conducted to study the relation between the methodologies developed and the specific populations that have been tested. The relation between imaging techniques and areas of the body used in these studies was also examined.
Article
Full-text available
Three-dimensional(3D) scanning and printing technologies has proved to be a boon and revolutionized Indian society in recent years. 3D printing is slowly gaining popularity in the fields of forensics due to its capability to provide information in all three axis (x, y and z) when compared to 2D photographs.The technology is actively being used in the fields of forensic medicine, anthropology, ballistics and odontology.3D printing allows better visualisation, interpretation, preservation and analysis of the evidence. The present article highlights the applications of 3D printing and presents current needs to develop and incorporate 3D printing technology in Indian forensics.
Conference Paper
Full-text available
State of the art anatomical landmark localization algorithms pair local Random Forest (RF) detection with disambiguation of locally similar structures by including high level knowledge about relative landmark locations. In this work we pursue the question, how much high-level knowledge is needed in addition to a single landmark localization RF to implicitly model the global configuration of multiple, potentially ambiguous landmarks. We further propose a novel RF localization algorithm that distinguishes locally similar structures by automatically identifying them, exploring the back-projection of the response from accurate local RF predictions. In our experiments we show that this approach achieves competitive results in single and multi-landmark localization when applied to 2D hand radiographic and 3D teeth MRI data sets. Additionally, when combined with a simple Markov Random Field model, we are able to outperform state of the art methods.
Article
Full-text available
The health, fitness and other advantages of youth sports participation are well recognised. However, there are considerable challenges for all stakeholders involved-especially youth athletes-in trying to maintain inclusive, sustainable and enjoyable participation and success for all levels of individual athletic achievement. In an effort to advance a more unified, evidence-informed approach to youth athlete development, the IOC critically evaluated the current state of science and practice of youth athlete development and presented recommendations for developing healthy, resilient and capable youth athletes, while providing opportunities for all levels of sport participation and success. The IOC further challenges all youth and other sport governing bodies to embrace and implement these recommended guiding principles. Published by the BMJ Publishing Group Limited. For permission to use (where not already granted under a licence) please go to http://group.bmj.com/group/rights-licensing/permissions.
Book
Developmental Juvenile Osteology was created as a core reference text to document the development of the entire human skeleton from early embryonic life to adulthood. In the period since its first publication there has been a resurgence of interest in the developing skeleton, and the second edition of Developmental Juvenile Osteology incorporates much of the key literature that has been published in the intervening time. The main core of the text persists by describing each individual component of the human skeleton from its embryological origin through to its final adult form. This systematic approach has been shown to assist the processes of both identification and age estimation and acts as a core source for the basic understanding of normal human skeletal development. In addition to this core, new sections have been added where there have been significant advances in the field. Identifies every component of the juvenile skeleton, by providing a detailed analysis of development and ageing and a detailed description of each bone in four ways: adult bone, early development, ossification and practical notes. New chapters and updated sections covering the dentition, age estimation in the living and bone histology. An updated bibliography documenting the research literature that has contributed to the field over the past 15 years since the publication of the first edition. Heavily illustrated, including new additions.
Article
Context: Information on methods of age estimation in physical anthropology, in particular with regard to age-at-death from human skeletal remains, is widely available in the literature. However, the practicalities and real challenges faced in forensic casework are not always highlighted. Objectives: To provide a practitioner's perspective, regarding age estimation in forensic anthropology (both in the living as well as the dead), with an emphasis on the types of cases, the value of such work and its challenges and limitations. Methods: The paper reviews the current literature on age estimation with a focus on forensic anthropology, but it also brings the author's personal perspective derived from a number of forensic cases. Results and conclusions: Although much is known about what methods to use, but not always how to apply them, little attention has been given in the literature to the real practicalities faced by forensic anthropologists, for example: the challenges in different types of scenarios; how to report age estimations; responsibilities; and ethical concerns. This paper gathers some of these aspects into one overview which includes the value of such work and the practical challenges, not necessarily with the methods themselves, but also with regard to how these are applied in the different cases where age estimation is required.
Article
There is widespread concern over the use of maturity indicators to estimate chronological age in children. To review the definition of maturity indicators, the criteria governing their identification and use and the problems of their interpretation. The development of maturity indicators, the criteria for their selection and the relationship of maturity to chronological age is critically reviewed. Maturity indicators are not related to the passage of chronological time, but to the progression of the individual from an immature to a mature state. They are discrete events in a continuous process or a series of processes (e.g. skeletal, sexual, dental, etc.) that highlight uneven maturation within the individual, the independence of maturational processes, sexual dimorphism and the relationship of maturity to size. The use of a timescale of development causes considerable problems in translating biological maturity into a developmental scale. One "year" of maturational time does not equate to 1 year of chronological time and, thus, the passage of time determined by developmental rather than temporal landmarks is both variable and inconsistent. Chronological age determination was not the aim of maturational assessment and, thus, its widespread use as an age determinant poses considerable interpretive challenges.