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Manufacturing energy analysis of lithium ion battery pack for electric vehicles
Abstract
Lithium ion batteries (LIB) are widely used to power electric vehicles. Here we report a comprehensive manufacturing energy analysis of the popular LMO-graphite LIB pack used on Nissan Leaf and Chevrolet Volt. A 24 kWh battery pack with 192 prismatic cells is analysed at each manufacturing process from mixing, coating, calendaring, notching till final cutting and assembly, with data collected and modelled from real industrial processes. It is found that 29.9 GJ of energy is embedded in the battery materials, 58.7 GJ energy consumed in the battery cell production, and 0.3 GJ energy for the final battery pack assembly.
... In other words, without binder or solvent, the electrode preparation process can be drastically simplified, and both the cost and environmental pollution will diminish sharply. Current research work regarding binder-free [16]. (b) Process schematic for the drying and recovery of the cathode solvent NMP [17]. ...
... However, there have been studies [26,27] showing that solvent-free (SF) electrode preparation techniques can enable commercialized production. For example, the method of polymer fibrillation [28][29][30], with low cost and mass production capability, has been considered as one of the mainstream Materials 2023, 16, 7232 3 of 24 methods for the preparation of dry electrode membranes. The binders commonly used for polymer fibrillation include polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), copolymers of PTFE with other monomers (e.g., ethylene, hexafluoropropylene), etc. [31]. ...
... Currently, most electrodes using PVDF as a binder use the SC process. Nevertheless, the rapid evaporation of the solvent NMP could consume more than 51% of the total energy required for battery manufacture [16]. Meeting the urgent requirements for the green production of batteries is compulsory to create a functional binder for triggering the emergence of a new battery fabrication process. ...
Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have recently become popular for energy storage due to their high energy density, storage capacity, and long-term cycle life. Although binders make up only a small proportion of LIBs, they have become the key to promoting the transformation of the battery preparation process. Along with the development of binders, the battery manufacturing process has evolved from the conventional slurry-casting (SC) process to a more attractive solvent-free (SF) method. Compared with traditional LIBs manufacturing method, the SF method could dramatically reduce and increase the energy density due to the reduced preparation steps and enhanced electrode loading. Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), as a typical binder, has played an important role in fabricating high-performance LIBs, particularly in regards to the SF technique. In this paper, the development history and application status of PTFE binder was introduced, and then its contributions and the inherent problems involved in the SF process were described and analyzed. Finally, the viewpoints concerning the future trends for PTFE-based SF manufacturing methods were also discussed. We hope this work can inspire future research concerning high-quality SF binders and assist in promoting the evolution of the SF manufacturing technology in regards to LIBs.
... The lack of this information severely hinders traceability of data, which compromises the transparency and reliability of these studies. This is due to the fact that energy consumption in cell manufacturing is a critical factor when determining the environmental profile of LIBs (Emilsson and Dahllöf, 2019;Dai et al., 2019;Ellingsen et al., 2014;Davidsson Kurland, 2019;Erakca et al., 2021;Yuan et al., 2017). ...
... Values represented with a triangle (Thomitzek et al., 2019a;Jinasena et al., 2021;Erakca et al., 2021;Yuan et al., 2017;Deng et al., 2019;Pettinger and Dong, 2017;Thomitzek et al., 2019b;von Drachenfels et al., 2021;Wessel et al., 2021) were determined using B-U approach, values symbolized with a square (Chordia et al., 2021;Dai et al., 2019;Ellingsen et al., 2014;Davidsson Kurland, 2019;Philippot et al., 2019;Sun et al., 2020) relate to a T-D approach. Whenever the modeling approach was not clearly identifiable, the values were symbolized with a diamond (Philippot et al., 2019). ...
... Overall, 19 energy demand values have been identified. Only one study (Erakca et al., 2021) revealed the energy demand for LIB cell production on lab-scale and seven studies (Thomitzek et al., 2019a;Erakca et al., 2021;Yuan et al., 2017;Deng et al., 2019;Thomitzek et al., 2019b;von Drachenfels et al., 2021;Wessel et al., 2021) are related to pilot scale. Accounting for 11 values (Chordia et al., 2021;Dai et al., 2019;Jinasena et al., 2021;Ellingsen et al., 2014;Davidsson Kurland, 2019;Pettinger and Dong, 2017;Philippot et al., 2019;Sun et al., 2020), the majority of literature sources relate to production on industrial scale. ...
Battery storage systems have become an important pillar in the transformation of the energy and transportation sector over the last decades. Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are the dominating technology in this process making them a constant subject of analysis regarding their sustainability. To assess their environmental performance, several Life Cycle Assessments (LCA) of LIBs have been performed over the last years. Yet, the amount of available primary data on their production remains low, leading to recurrent reliance on a few disclosed datasets, mostly at industrial scale. Thus, there is a need for new LCA studies at different scales (lab, pilot, industrial) using transparent datasets to facilitate more reliable and robust assessments. This work presents a screening of recent environmental assessments for LIBs at different production scales aiming at identifying remaining gaps and challenges, and deriving a detailed LCA of a lab-scale battery cell production. For the first time the environmental impact of a lab-scale battery production based on process-oriented primary data is investigated. The results are flanked by sensitivity analyses and scenarios and compared with literature values. The hotspots identified in this study, cathode paste, anode current collector, as well as the energy demand of the dry room and coating process, are consistent with the literature, although the absolute values are an order of magnitude larger. The main reason for this are the inefficiencies inherent in lab-scale production. In order to analyze the effects of production scale, an upscaling to the pilot scale is performed.
... The humidity conditions that are continuously maintained in a dry room are very low, typical dew point temperatures (DPT) are between -40 • C to -60 • C, which corresponds to relative humidity well below 1%. Maintaining such an air condition continuously requires energyintensive TBS, which are among the most significant energy consumers in battery cell production (Yuan et al., 2017). The central part of TBS in battery cell production consists of individually planned HVAC systems and numerous factors such as weather conditions, occupation profile and waste heat load profiles have to be taken into account. ...
... There have been various studies published in the past focusing on the manufacturing energy demands and associated environmental impacts of battery manufacturing. However, only a few studies provide detailed and comprehensible information about energy demand associated with battery cell manufacturing, which is repeatedly declared to be one of the main sources of environmental impacts associated with the manufacturing of battery (Yuan et al., 2017;Erik Emilsson, 2019;Davidsson Kurland, 2020). Energy demand associated with the mining and processing of raw materials for batteries are found to be in reasonable agreement between most of the published studies, whereas the energy required for module and pack assembly contribute minimally to the overall energy demand Dunn et al. (2012). ...
... In most of the reviewed literature, for the battery cell production the electrode drying step is found to be the most energy intensive process, followed by the dry room facility energy use (Yuan et al., 2017). Despite the high functional and energetic relevance of a dry room in battery cell manufacturing, the studies that provide detailed information about the calculation of energy use in dry rooms are very scarce and the values reported in these studies vary significantly. ...
Heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems in battery production are a main component of the technical building services (TBS) and ensure the required low moisture conditions in dry rooms for battery cell assembly. In fulfilling these functions, they contribute significantly to the overall energy demand and are among the main energy consumers in battery production. In this context, model-based approaches to support the sizing and planning of these systems are increasingly interesting, as they enable the consideration of the system dynamics of the involved components. Furthermore, few data with regard to energy requirements of TBS in the context of battery cell production is available. We propose in this paper a 5-step planning procedure to address both of these problems. The planning procedure structures the planning process for the design of relevant TBS components in the context of battery cell production by using an inside-out planning approach. Moreover, we publish in this paper comprehensive data sets to evaluate the energy demand of battery cell production in dry rooms at 22 different locations and 10 different plant size with three different internal loads of moisture and heat per size and explain how to use the proposed procedure in this case. Our planning procedure enables planners to better size HVAC systems and evaluate alternative system designs in the context of battery cell production. We illustrate the application of the planning procedure with a case study. The goals of the case study are to asses, whether the air or cooling supply should be centralised or decentralised and to correctly dimension the TBS to supply the two dry rooms using the proposed planning procedure. The results of the case study show that the supply of the dry room with conditioned air via the HVAC system should be realized using two decentralized HVAC system, which saves up to 7.4% of final energy compared to the centralized variant. However regarding the cooling supply, constant base loads of min. 15 % occur trough-out the year and since modern chillers usually have high efficiencies at partial load, a central supply is preferable for the cooling supply. The provided data sets of the 660 considered simulation cases can be used to assess the energetic demand to operate dry rooms for battery production at different locations, scales and internal loads, which is a considerable added value in the context of life-cycle assessment of the battery production. With the data sets, supply air volume flows of 5500 m3/h - 99000 m3/h can be considered, which covers plant sizes from laboratory to industrial size scales.
... The specific capacity of the NMC622 and LTO electrodes (187 mAh/g (Noh et al., 2013) and 170 mAh/g (Kurzweil and Brandt, 2018), respectively) is used to evaluate the active material quantity of the cells because post mortem analysis cannot be performed. The total energy required in the cell manufacturing process is 0.415 kWh/Ah, as measured for a battery cell manufacturer producing at full capacity (Yuan et al., 2017). Primary data for the NMC622 active Composed of a battery junction box (BJB), a power Printed Circuit Board (PCB), and an electric/electronic (E/E) assembly Total 114.8 -material can be found in the SM. ...
... However, the second life impact is lower than the first use because the avoided battery compensates for the efficiency loss of the second life battery. The relevance of the use stages in these categories (Yuan et al., 2017). c Measured data for a battery cell manufacturer at full capacity production for welding and screwing (Yuan et al., 2017). ...
... The relevance of the use stages in these categories (Yuan et al., 2017). c Measured data for a battery cell manufacturer at full capacity production for welding and screwing (Yuan et al., 2017). confirms that using primary data for battery degradation is meaningful for assessing the environmental impact. ...
The growth of the electric vehicle (EV) market increases the interest in used batteries, making the evaluation of second life battery degradation and their environmental impact important to understand. This study assesses a nickel manganese cobalt (NMC)–lithium titanate oxide (LTO) battery using the life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology, considering two scenarios for the second life of the battery: the reuse in an EV or its repurpose as stationary storage for energy generated from photovoltaic panels in a Belgian household. Different from the current studies available in the scientific literature, a multidisciplinary approach is adopted. The study includes primary data from ageing tests conducted in a laboratory. A test campaign is performed on new cells to develop a semiempirical NMC-LTO battery model. Other tests are performed on aged cells to evaluate the feasibility of their second life. These long-lasting cells prove to be suitable for reuse, up to 408000 km or 10 years of repurposing as stationary storage. The LCA demonstrates that the second life of the battery is beneficial under certain conditions. The impact of the reuse and repurpose scenarios on climate change are 0.27 kgCO2eq/kWh and 0.22 kgCO2eq/kWh, respectively. Reuse in a vehicle reduces the impact in eight categories, where the manufacturing stage represents more than 54% of the impact. In countries with an electricity mix below 113 gCO2eq/kWh, reuse decreases the impact on climate change. Due to the balance between efficiency loss compared to a new battery and avoided battery production, repurposing reduces the impact on climate change and acidification by 16% and 25%, respectively. The interest in repurposing is higher when the second life duration is higher. The share of batteries that withstand second life is also a critical parameter but highly depends on the battery chemistry and first use conditions.
... Another important aspect to be considered in the EVs' industry is the amount of energy needed for the EVs' manufacturing. Despite the energy consumption, i.e., natural gas, coal, and electricity used in parts manufacturing for EVs (3.82 MWh/vehicle) and conventional FFVs (3.75 MWh/vehicle) is almost comparable according to [63], the energy consumption for producing an electric battery (e.g., Li-Ion battery based) is equal to approximately 25 MWh according to [64]. As it can be noticed, this latter value influences considerably the energy needed to manufacture an EV, but this additional energy demand could be fulfilled by further implementation of RESs in addition to PV. ...
... Another important aspect to be considered in the EVs' industry is the amount of energy needed for the EVs' manufacturing. Despite the energy consumption, i.e., natural gas, coal, and electricity used in parts manufacturing for EVs (3.82 MWh/vehicle) and conventional FFVs (3.75 MWh/vehicle) is almost comparable according to [63], the energy consumption for producing an electric battery (e.g., Li-Ion battery based) is equal to approximately 25 MWh according to [64]. As it can be noticed, this latter value influences considerably the energy needed to manufacture an EV, but this additional energy demand Another important aspect to be considered in the EVs' industry is the amount of energy needed for the EVs' manufacturing. ...
... As it can be noticed, this latter value influences considerably the energy needed to manufacture an EV, but this additional energy demand Another important aspect to be considered in the EVs' industry is the amount of energy needed for the EVs' manufacturing. Despite the energy consumption, i.e., natural gas, coal, and electricity used in parts manufacturing for EVs (3.82 MWh/vehicle) and conventional FFVs (3.75 MWh/vehicle) is almost comparable according to [63], the energy consumption for producing an electric battery (e.g., Li-Ion battery based) is equal to approximately 25 MWh according to [64]. As it can be noticed, this latter value influences considerably the energy needed to manufacture an EV, but this additional energy demand could be fulfilled by further implementation of RESs in addition to PV. ...
... In terms of energy consumption, electrode drying/solvent recovery and dry room processes are the most energy consuming. The same conclusions, concerning the energy consumption parts, are highlighted in reference [129,130]. In [129], the case study was taken for a 2 GWh producing prismatic NMC333 cells. ...
... In [129], the case study was taken for a 2 GWh producing prismatic NMC333 cells. A manufacturing energy analysis of a 24-kWh battery pack with 192 prismatic LMO-graphite LIB packs was reported in [130]. Data collection and modeling were performed at each manufacturing process from real industrial processes. ...
Battery technologies have recently undergone significant advancements in design and manufacturing to meet the performance requirements of a wide range of applications, including electromobility and stationary domains. For e-mobility, batteries are essential components in various types of electric vehicles (EVs), including battery electric vehicles (BEVs), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), and fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs). These EVs rely on diverse charging systems, including conventional charging, fast-charging, and vehicle-to-everything (V2X) systems. In stationary applications, batteries are increasingly being employed for the electrical management of micro/smart grids as transient buffer energy storage. Batteries are commonly used in conjunction with power electronic interfaces to adapt to the specific requirements of various applications. Furthermore, power electronic interfaces to batteries themselves have evolved technologically, resulting in more efficient, thermally efficient, compact, and robust power converter architectures. This article offers a comprehensive review of new-generation battery technologies. The topic is approached from the perspective of applications, emerging trends, and future directions. The article explores new battery technologies utilizing innovative electrode and electrolyte materials, their application domains, and technological limitations. In conclusion, a discussion and analysis are provided, synthesizing the technological evolution of batteries while highlighting new trends, directions, and prospects.
... Additionally, the energy demand of battery cell manufacturing dominates its environmental impacts, making up to 50 % of them (Helms et al., 2019). For the energy demand, the biggest share comes from the dry rooms with between 29 and 60 % of the total energy demand of battery cell manufacturing, followed by the coating and drying process with a share between 18 and 48 % (Pettinger and Dong, 2017;Yuan et al., 2017;Thomitzek et al., 2019;Jinasena, Burheim and Strømman, 2021). ...
... For the exemplary application of the use case III, planning of energy efficient processes, the production step coating and drying was chosen as it is one of the most energy-intensive steps in LiB cell production. Studies report that coating and drying makes from around 30 % up to almost 50 % of the total energy (Pettinger and Dong, 2017;Yuan et al., 2017;Jinasena, Burheim and Strømman, 2021). In total, 9 machine runs with a total amount of 44 operating hours and 83 PP and SV of the coating and drying unit were recorded and used for the exemplary application. ...
Energy storage technologies, especially batteries, play a fundamental role in transforming the mobility and energy sectors towards a higher share of renewable energy sources. However, costly materials, insufficient product quality control, energy-intensive processes, and a lack of understanding of underlying interrelations within the battery production chain lead to high costs and high environmental impacts in manufacturing these devices. Therefore, an approach to identify and quantify these underlying interrelations would increase the understanding of battery production. This derived knowledge would then help control and operate production towards lower costs and environmental impacts. Applying data analytics approaches in manufacturing is very promising in addressing these challenges. Data analytics approaches of low maturity level allow identifying and quantifying new interrelations from acquired data. Data analytics approaches on higher maturity levels allow even the derivation of improvements based on their prediction. Data analytics approaches further benefit from advancements in digitalization, the overall increase in computational power and a higher degree of data availability due to more
interconnected devices (internet of things).
However, conducted literature study shows that current data analytics approaches in battery production systems focus on optimizing specific manufacturing processes, neglecting the entire process chain. Furthermore, these approaches are of a low maturity level and provide only singleuse applications and not continuously deployed solutions usable in production operation and planning. Approaches of data analytics in other production systems, rather than battery production, have the needed data analytics maturity and show continuously deployed solutions in production operation and planning, but their applicability to battery production is insufficient.
Against this background, a data analytics concept for battery production systems was developed regarding product quality and energy efficiency that continuously deploys a data analytics solution in production planning and operation. This concept integrates identification and acquisition of relevant data sources in battery production and the consolidation and storage of acquired data. Furthermore, the data analytics approach and its deployment provide a high level of data analytics maturity.
The developed concept has been prototypically implemented in the facilities of the Battery LabFactory Braunschweig and has been applied to three use cases. The first use case addresses production planning concerning product quality. It shows possible product performances that can be achieved using the same equipment and processes within the established process space and without additional upgrades. The second use case demonstrates the application of quality gates in production operation. It predicts the final product properties of the battery cell before it is produced based on intermediate product structures. This prediction enables the assessment of intermediate product quality concerning the quality of the battery cell to support an early stage defect detection. The third use case addresses the planning of processes by identifying and
quantifying energy efficiency levers, thus enabling the operation with reduced energy demand.
... Cellmodule development is based on integrating individual LIB cells energetically optimal within a battery module [20]. An optimized modular structure provides advantages in operation as well as in case of repair [16,21,22]. EVs are typically operated at high voltages U system of 400 V -800 V [23] in order to avoid exceeding component protection limitations within the application and to minimize ohmic losses. ...
... This leaves the lowest weights for cooling and electronics. Further weight distributions can also be found in [21,[73][74][75]. In Fig. 12, the cost and weight distributions of the best solution found are shown graphically. ...
Significant challenges appear in the multiphysical engineering process of battery systems for electric vehicles. Thereby, individual standalone simulation models offer essential opportunities to develop components for cellmodule, cooling, mechanics, and electronics. However, in order to address requirements in range, performance, and general installation space shortage for the battery system, interdependencies between the different components have to be considered. This work presents a novel approach to a fully parametrized high voltage battery optimization tool based on coupled simulation models for the battery system's main components. The submodel-concept can both optimize each component individually and perform an overall cost- or weight optimization in which components are designed, considering essential interdependencies. Optimization results illustrate the cause-effect principles between multiple battery system components in great detail. Based on this, integration repercussions for different lithium-ion cell geometries and formats are analyzed from cell-level to system-level. Moreover, further optimizations are performed to identify pareto-optimal results regarding total installation space. Therein, in-depth trade-off relationships between the mechanical battery frame design and its costs to the cooling plate topology as well as the integration capability of the electronics are depicted.
... The assembly of battery packs powering EVs is a hot topic that attracts the attention of researchers and industrials. The integrity of the assembly plays a crucial role in the reliability of the battery pack as well as in its electrical performance [9,10]. ...
This paper investigates the use of contactless power ultrasonic excitation to decrease the electrical impedance of the weld in laser welding. The literature extensively documents the impact of employing contact power ultrasonic excitation on the microstructure morphology and refinement of grain in the weld. This study involves characterising an industrial High Power Ultrasound Transducer (HPUT)by determining the optimal distance and angle for contactless excitation of the fusion zone in the weld,aiming to achieve the maximum amplitude. Subsequently, the transducer is integrated into the laser welding system, resulting in the creation of an ultra -sonic-assisted welding system. To find the improvement due to the contactless vibration assistance, the welding area was characterised by an impedance ohmmeter device. The results indicate an approximately 6 % improvement in the welding quality in terms of the impedance value, an important parameter for battery pack welding. In response to the issue of overheating in the industrial transducer during prolonged welding operations, an alternative transducer was proposed to overcome this challenge. Further investigations are carried out by the alternative transducer to find the effect of different wave types, namely, shear and compressional waves,on the welding quality. The contact vibration can excite the plate approximately 50 times higher in acceleration amplitude than contactless excitation. Nevertheless, enhancements of 10% and 6% are observed in the impedance value when utilising compressional and shear waves, respectively, as compared to the results obtained with contactless vibration.
... In the aforementioned processes, cathode materials production contributes a major role in LIB manufacturing, as the cathode material cost significantly determines the overall battery cost by 30-50% (Yuan et al. 2017). The cost of LIBs could be brought down by altering the cost-consuming variables such as raw materials, equipment, and processes. ...
The research on lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) has resulted in enormous achievements, which can be evidenced by the wide area of applications and the steady increase in the market share of LIBs. LIBs have emerged as the dominant force in the battery industry, driven by the global shift toward electric transportation. This surge in demand for LIBs has prompted exploration of alternative strategies to reduce the cost of LIB production. In line with this goal, here, a successful upscaling of the Spontaneous Exothermic Process (SEP), to a pilot plant implementation, is reported. The progressive procedure to prepare LiNi0.5Mn0.3Co0.2O2 cathode active involves several key steps: the dissolution of precursors in water, an exothermic reaction of the dissolved precursors within a high-temperature conveyor furnace, a subsequent ball milling stage, and culminating in calcination. Moreover, an extensive techno-economic assessment has been carried out, which reveals that the SEP methodology boasts exceptional efficiency in terms of time, cost, and energy. This techno-economic analysis demonstrates the advantages of SEP, highlighting its potential to disrupt the market with its quick reaction time (< 1 min), 100% reaction efficiency, less than 2L of water usage for 1 kg of cathode production, and cost-effectiveness. In essence, the SEP approach emerges as a potent catalyst poised to make significant contributions to the advancement and expansion of LIB manufacturing.
Graphical Abstract
... The material composition for each battery cell chemistry was based on literature sources and published LCIs (Barke et al., 2023;Nelson et al., 2011;Wang et al., 2020). The mass of the remaining components was extracted from Yuan et al. (2017), and similar material distribution was assumed for the Li-S and Li-air batteries. The energy demand for producing the battery was estimated from the literature (Crenna et al., 2021;Deng et al., 2019Romare and Dahllöf, 2017;Wang et al., 2020). ...
... Typically integrated chargers have weight, space, and cost limitations that restrict power [43][44][45][46]. The availability of charging facilities decreases the constraints and costs of onboard energy storage [47][48][49][50]. An external charger can be built for higher charging speeds and has reduced size and weight and is classified as level 1 (convenience), level 2 (primary), and level 3 (fast) power levels [16]. ...
This manuscript proposes a multi-stage constant current–constant voltage under constant temperature (MSCC-CV-CT) charging method by considering the cell temperature as the main metric for the dissipation of lithium-ion batteries. By combining the proposed method with a pulse current charging and series resonant converter, the rise in temperature is further slowed down. The proposed approach uses a closed-loop method to regulate the charging current rather than the thermal environment and battery heat. By simply raising the default temperature, it may simply handle applications that require faster charging. With the growth of improved lithium-ion batteries, the proposed method contains the potential to increase the initial charging current above 2 C, allowing for even quicker charging. This proposed smart charger with the new adaptive control algorithm considers the state of charge (SoC) and internal temperature of the battery as key components to adjust the current and voltage amplitude of battery input. The proposed MSCC-CV-CT charging mechanism uses a multi-stage current charging scheme with a simple, convenient-to-implement intelligent charge controller. In response to the battery temperature, state of charge (SOC), and internal resistance of the battery, the charging current is dynamically adapted using a controller that adversely reflects its aging and thermal condition. The experimental outcome proves that the proposed system reduces the charging time of the battery by 20 percent related to the conventional method.
... The assembly of battery packs powering EVs is a hot topic that attracts the attention of researchers and industrials. The integrity of the assembly plays a crucial role in the reliability of the battery pack as well as in its electrical performance [9,10]. ...
This paper investigates the use of contactless power ultrasonic excitation to decrease the electrical impedance of the weld in laser welding. The literature extensively documents the impact of em-ploying contact power ultrasonic excitation on the microstructure morphology and refinement of grain in the weld. This study involves characterizing an industrial High Power Ultrasound Transducer (HPUT) by determining the optimal distance and angle for contactless excitation of the fusion zone in the weld, aiming to achieve the maximum amplitude. Subsequently, the transducer is integrated into the laser welding system, resulting in the creation of an ultrasonic-assisted welding system. To find the improvement due to the contactless vibration assistance, the welding area was char-acterised by an impedance ohmmeter device. The results indicate an approximately 6 % im-provement in the welding quality in terms of the impedance value, an important parameter for battery pack welding. In response to the issue of overheating in the industrial transducer during prolonged welding operations, an alternative transducer was proposed to overcome this challenge. Further investigations are carried out by the alternative transducer to find the effect of different wave types, namely, shear and compressional waves, on the welding quality. The contact vibration can excite the plate approximately 50 times higher in acceleration amplitude than contactless ex-citation. Nevertheless, enhancements of 10% and 6% are observed in the impedance value when utilising compressional and shear waves, respectively, as compared to the results obtained with contactless vibration.
... 24 By skipping the drying and solvent recovery process, our solvent-free manufacturing method could also save 47% of total battery manufacturing energy consumption. 25 The single-layer DP pouch cells built from the roll-to-roll continuous system exhibit better high-rate performance and higher cycling retention, compared with the commercial slurry cast (SL) cells. All the reference SL samples are prepared by Microvast, using industrially relevant electrode processing. ...
... ALIBs manufacturing is extremely energy-intensive and each process is accompanied by energy consumption [79][80][81]. Fig. 6 represents the energy consumption in manufacturing different ALIBs [82][83][84][85][86][87][88]. It can be found that the energy consumption of different study is different. ...
Automotive lithium-ion battery manufacturing Energy consumption Automotive lithium-ion battery manufacturing cost Automotive lithium-ion battery recycling A B S T R A C T Automotive lithium-ion battery (ALIB) is the core component of EVs, and its performance determines the development of EVs. In general, the whole life cycle of ALIB includes three stages: manufacturing, service and recycling. In these three stages, the performance of ALIB during its service period is the most widely concerned and investigated, including charging speed, endurance and safety. However, the manufacturing and recycling technology also highly affect the overall performance of ALIB. This paper focuses on the manufacturing and recycling technologies of ALIB, and carries out a comprehensive review on ALIB manufacturing process, manufacturing cost, manufacturing energy consumption and recycling. First, manufacturing processes of ALIB, including material production and conditioning, electrode production, cell assembly, cell formation and battery packing, are explained in detail. Second, the ALIB manufacturing cost is analyzed, including material cost, processing cost, and testing costs. Third, energy consumption of ALIB manufacturing is discussed. Furthermore, recycling technologies of ALIB are classified and summarized. Finally, this review points out some challenges on ALIB manufacturing and recycling that have not been completely resolved in the previous research and puts forward some recommendations for filling these research gaps.
... Furthermore, the materials and energy flow data for components and cell production are derived from [22][23][24][25]. The activities of the raw material extraction and processing are based on the ecoinvent database, except for the lithium [26,27]. ...
The increasing number of electric vehicles worldwide leads to various challenges, especially in terms of battery supply chains. New battery production sites, raw material refiners, and extraction sites will be needed to fulfill the future battery demand. Additionally, the planned European Battery Directive requires battery manufacturers to meet defined CO2-limits and social standards to enter the European market. However, depending on the design of battery supply chains, environmental and socio-economic impacts can vary considerably. Especially the selection of suppliers as well as production locations and processes can have a major influence. Therefore, the aim of this study is to investigate battery supply chain options to highlight the differences and trade-offs related to the three sustainability dimensions. For this purpose, a life cycle sustainability assessment is conducted, considering a baseline scenario depicting the global average production shares, and three additional scenarios to investigate the influence of locations on three processes along the supply chain. The results provide insights into the design of sustainable battery supply chains. It is shown how different locations and battery types affect the indicator scores of the investigated supply chains. Furthermore, the results indicate distinct trade-offs between the three sustainability dimensions and underline the necessity for the subsequent use of multi-criteria decision-making models to derive recommendations for designing sustainable battery supply chains.
... They are stacked in layers with separators in between and welded together to form the structure of the pouch cell [15], which is then filled with LiPF 6 electrolyte. Finally, a single battery cell is produced with sealing, degassing, pre-charging, and final trimming [16,17]. ...
... The carbon coating process has been widely applied because the conductive carbon layer increases the electron migration rate during the charge/discharge cycles [23]. Carbon coating is commonly obtained in the synthesis of LFP cathodes at solution routes, dispersing carbonaceous materials in an aqueous or nonaqueous solution. ...
The exponential growth of electric and hybrid vehicles in the last five years forecasts a waste problem when their batteries achieve end-of-life. Li-ion batteries for vehicles have been assembled using materials from natural resources (as Li, Fe, Al, Cu Co, Mn and P). Among them, LiFePO4 cathode materials have demonstrated advantages such as charge–discharge cycles, thermal stability, surface area and raw materials availability (against Ni and Co systems). Due to the performance, LFP batteries stand out in heavy duty fleet, achieving 90% of new energy buses in China. To achieve the circular economy, the recycling of LFP batteries may be carried out by pyrometallurgy (thermal processing), hydrometallurgy (aqueous processing) or both in combination. Comparatively, hydrometallurgical processing is more advantageous due to its low energy consumption and CO2 emissions. In addition, Li may be recovered in a high-pure grade. This work is a literature review of the current alternatives for the recycling of LFP batteries by hydrometallurgy, comparing designed processes in the literature and indicating solutions towards a circular economy. The major recycling steps of hydrometallurgy routes such as pre-treatments, leaching and purification steps will be gathered and discussed in terms of efficiency and environmental impact.
... The material flows and economic key parameters for the battery factory are derived from the BatPaC and assigned to the respective unit processes. The BatPaC results for the production of 100,000 battery packs per year are further combined with data from the scientific literature to estimate the electricity demand of the battery factory (Degen and Schütte 2022;Deng et al. 2017;Keshavarzmohammadian et al. 2018;Nelson et al. 2015;Nelson et al. 2019;Sun et al. 2020;Wang et al. 2020;Yuan et al. 2017). A detailed overview of the electricity demand can be found in supporting information S1-1.1.4. ...
Purpose Traction batteries are a key component for the performance and cost of electric vehicles. While they enable emission-
free driving, their supply chains are associated with environmental and socio-economic impacts. Hence, the advancement
of batteries increasingly focuses on sustainability next to technical performance. However, due to different system definitions,
comparing the results of sustainability assessments is difficult. Therefore, a sustainability assessment of different batteries
on a common basis considering the three sustainability dimensions is needed.
Methods This paper investigates the sustainability of current and prospective traction battery technologies for electric vehicles.
It provides a common base for the comparison of the predominant lithium-ion batteries with new technologies such as
lithium-sulfur and all-solid-state batteries regarding the environmental and socio-economic impacts in their supply chain.
A life cycle sustainability assessment of ten battery types is carried out using a cradle-to-gate perspective and consistent
system boundaries. Four environmental impact categories (climate change, human toxicity, mineral resource depletion,
photochemical oxidant formation), one economic performance indicator (total battery cost), and three social risk categories
(child labor, corruption, forced labor) are analyzed.
Results The assessment results indicate that the new battery technologies are not only favorable in terms of technical performance
but also have the potential to reduce environmental impacts, costs, and social risks. This holds particularly for the
lithium-sulfur battery with solid electrolyte. The environmental benefits are even amplified with a higher share of renewable
energy for component and battery production. Nevertheless, hotspots related to the high energy demand of production and
the supply chain of the active materials remain.
Conclusions This article emphasizes the need to evaluate different battery technologies on a common basis to ensure comparability
of the results and to derive reliable recommendations. The results indicate that the lithium-sulfur battery with
solid electrolyte is preferable since this battery has the best indicator scores for all impact categories investigated. However,
all-solid-state batteries are still under development so that no conclusive recommendation can be made, but further development
of these battery technologies appears promising.
... Its excellent characteristics include high energy density, long cycle life, good working stability and wide operating temperature. A good battery management system can ensure the safety and reliability of batteries for electric vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles [1][2][3] . It is an important function of battery management system to accurately estimate the state of charge and health of battery [4][5] . ...
Accurate estimation of power battery state is an important function in battery management system. In order to accurately estimate power battery SOC and SOH and improve the performance of long-term estimation of battery SOC, a joint estimation method of power battery state based on UKPF was proposed in this paper. The particle filter algorithm was added on the basis of the unscented Kalman filter algorithm, and the particle filter algorithm was optimized by the unscented Kalman filter algorithm, which improved the particle degradation problem and improved the accuracy of battery state estimation. Based on the time scale transformation, the battery state estimation was completed, and the SOC and SOH were estimated at short and long time scales, respectively. The SOH estimation results were updated to the model parameters for SOC estimation. The results show that the joint estimation method can accurately estimate battery SOC and SOH with an error of less than 3%.
... For the comparison of environmental emissions of different battery technologies functional unit of '1 kWh battery capacity' is determined. The electricity used is Indian Energy Mix, which is 3.47 kWh for Li ion battery assembly per piece [34] and 5 kWh for Lead Acid Battery. The Ocean and road Transport is accounted for the materials of half-knocked down materials being imported and then assembled at a plant selected for a location as Mumbai. ...
Perturbed by the rising fuel prices and stringent emission norms, the world is in pursuit of electrification of the transport system. However, when the complete lifecycle of an electric vehicle is considered, it is still unclear under what conditions the electric vehicle technology proves to be potentially environmental friendly. The battery pack one of the prime emissions contributing elements in an electric vehicle along with the energy-mix used for electricity production. Furthermore, in order to mitigate the emissions from the battery source, different battery chemistries must be studied from an environmental point of view. For this reason, this paper presents a comparative life cycle analysis (LCA) of different batteries for automobile application under the Indian electricity mix scenario. This paper shows a “Cradle to Grave” analysis for both the battery chemistries with ReCiPe methodology in order to address the much-vexed question of sustainable transportation. The result demonstrates the emissions under different impact categories. Further, better battery technology is suggested under different impact categories for the beneficiaries of this study. Moreover, for comparison, this article also reveals the emissions for both the batteries under different energy mix.
... However, it raises an issue around the lack of a standard reporting method. Several studies, such as Yuan et al calculate 0.3 GJ or approximately 83 kWh is embedded in the pack assembly process [21], or Dunn et al reference several packs with energy consumption between 108.3 kWh and 2199.4 kWh, however, these being for different methodologies highlighting the variance in reported figures and lack of standardisation [22]. Other methods include a kWh consumed/kWh produced method, with Kurland putting consumption between 50 to 65 kWh consumed for every kWh produced [23] and Weeber et al 56 to 694 kWh/kWh produced, but again highlighting the difference between top-down models and bottom-up [24]. ...
With digitalisation changing the way manufacturing activities are conducted, maintenance practices and systematisation are expected to go through a major change. For the battery module and pack assembly spaces in the electrification industry, which witnesses a significant growth, more effort has to be put into the development of “digital maintenance” strategies. Against this background, the current work inspects the identified research gap in this domain, this being that DES models can play a greater role to implement predictive maintenance, and energy consumption varies greatly and is not reported in a standard way. Monitoring process data and logging corresponding energy consumption, can provide a vision of conducting predictive maintenance for a flexible battery module assembly line. Using a configurable DES model also makes the most practical use for a flexible design which can be modified to suit different cases, both in terms of battery structure and components in use from cell to welding. A case study is presented in order to exemplify the implementation of the proposed methodology. In the case study used in this paper, results show a 3% energy consumption drop, but could be different depending on the module configuration and assembly process.
... This LCA implements a mass-based cut-off at 0.1% of the total mass and a manufacturing energy-based cut-off at 0.1% of the total manufacturing energy requirements. [62]. b Based on [63]. ...
With the rise of sustainable energy generation, the need for integrated building energy storage solutions increases. Supercapacitors have not yet been considered a viable alternative to Li-ion batteries, often because of their space requirements. We present the function integration of supercapacitors into a facade, where space is abundant when using novel lightweight Carbon Reinforced Concrete (CRC) construction designs. We develop real prototypes. While materials and processes for the approach have been characterized for manufacturability in earlier studies, the resulting sustainability potential remains an open question. This study therefore assesses and supports the design process of that multifunctional facade with the help of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). LCA results shall guide design choices on materials and constructional alternatives. We further elaborate on the potential of the multifunctional facade to compete with a Li-ion battery system as the current benchmark for residential energy storage. While the proposed design is still a prototype, the cradle-to-site LCA models a full-scale production to allow for that comparability. We calculate the greenhouse gas (GHG) minimization potential for the multifunctional facade with integrated supercapacitors. It is significantly lower by a factor of around 20 in comparison to Li-ion battery energy storage. We further use different functional units to interpret the LCA results, considering both the function of the facade and energy storage. Overall, results show that the choice of the functional unit affects the material and constructional recommendations.
... The model started by selecting a rough battery size (kWh), operational voltage (Vsys), and cell type. A prismatic cell was used in this research with the values of 9.2 kg per kWh (which includes cooling, BMS, and packing weight) [38] and a packaging volume of 0.008 m³/kWh [39]. The number of cells in series and parallel were then calculated with values, as shown in Table 4 and Equations (4)-(6) below. ...
The electrification of vehicles from the automotive and public transport industries can reduce harmful emissions if implemented correctly, but there is little evidence of whether the electrification of heavy freight transportation vehicles (HFTVs), such as multi-articulated vehicles, used in the freight industry could see the same benefits. This work studied heavy multi-articulated freight vehicles and developed a comparative analysis between electric and conventional diesel power trains to reduce their total emissions. Real-world drive cycle data were obtained from a heavy multi-articulated freight vehicle operating around Melbourne, Australia, with a gross combination mass (GCM) of up to 66,000 kg. Numerical models of the case study freight vehicle were then simulated with diesel, through-the-road parallel (TTRP) hybrid and electric power trains over the five different drive cycles with fuel and energy consumption results quantified. Battery weights were added on top of the real-world operating GCMs to assure the operational payload did not have to be reduced to accommodate the addition of electric power trains. The fuel and energy consumptions were then used to estimate the real-world emissions and compared. The results showed a positive reduction in tailpipe emissions, but total greenhouse emission was worse for operation in Melbourne if batteries were charged off the grid. However, if Melbourne can move towards more renewable energy and change its emission factor for generating electricity down to 0.49 kg CO2-e/kWh, a strong decarbonization could be possible for the Australian road freight industry and could help meet emission reduction targets set out in the 2015 Paris Agreement.
... However, it raises an issue around the lack of a standard reporting method. Several studies, such as Yuan et al calculate 0.3 GJ or approximately 83 kWh is embedded in the pack assembly process [21], or Dunn et al reference several packs with energy consumption between 108.3 kWh and 2199.4 kWh, however, these being for different methodologies highlighting the variance in reported figures and lack of standardisation [22]. Other methods include a kWh consumed/kWh produced method, with Kurland putting consumption between 50 to 65 kWh consumed for every kWh produced [23] and Weeber et al 56 to 694 kWh/kWh produced, but again highlighting the difference between top-down models and bottom-up [24]. ...
With digitalisation changing the way manufacturing activities are conducted, maintenance practices and systematisation are expected to go through a major change. For the battery module and pack assembly spaces in the electrification industry, which witnesses a significant growth, more effort has to be put into the development of “digital maintenance” strategies. Against this background, the current work inspects the identified research gap in this domain, this being that DES models can play a greater role to implement predictive maintenance, and energy consumption varies greatly and is not reported in a standard way. Monitoring process data and logging corresponding energy consumption, can provide a vision of conducting predictive maintenance for a flexible battery module assembly line. Using a configurable DES model also makes the most practical use for a flexible design which can be modified to suit different cases, both in terms of battery structure and components in use from cell to welding. A case study is presented in order to exemplify the implementation of the proposed methodology. In the case study used in this paper, results show a 3% energy consumption drop, but could be different depending on the module configuration and assembly process.
... To achieve this result, five of the most up-to-date LCA analyses were taken into consideration [11,[24][25][26][27], as they focused on the comparison between ICEVs, HEVs and BEVs as whole vehicles in order to determine the so-called "cradle to grave" impact. In particular, within the research mentioned above, the production phase related to battery systems was considered, as the emissions deriving from the sourcing of materials, from the manufacture of the cells and from the compiling of the battery pack are those more significant and, therefore, most of interest [30,31]. With regard to the latter, it should be emphasized that the values reported are often not easily determined, as the car Manufacturers do not always disclose detailed information on the production of batteries in their LCAs. ...
... Secondly, dry rooms are very expensive and consume a lot of energy, which is why they have a high impact both on the final costs and the carbon footprint of the battery cell. 31,32 According to Yuan et al., 33 43% of the energy needed for battery cell manufacturing is caused by the dry room, which has a specific energy use per pack of 21.78 kWh kg −1 . Hence, to keep the costs as well as the carbon footprint of the battery cells as low as possible, as few process steps as possible should be conducted at dry room atmosphere in general. ...
For batteries with high energy density and good fast-charge capability, NCM cathode active materials with ≥80 mol% nickel are promising due to their high specific capacities. Unfortunately, the increase in nickel content is accompanied by a high susceptibility to moisture. Therefore, nickel-rich NCM is coated or doped by the manufacturers to increase its stability. However, it is unclear if special requirements regarding ambient humidity must still be met during the whole production chain, or only after post-drying and during cell assembly. Therefore, the structure and properties of three different nickel-rich NCM active materials (one doped monocrystalline, two coated polycrystalline materials) processed at ambient atmosphere were investigated. At every process step, moisture content and microstructure were examined. Prior to cell assembly, two different post-drying procedures were applied and investigated. As validation, electrochemical tests were performed. Both polycrystalline cathodes demonstrated good physical and electrochemical properties, despite the ambient process atmosphere. Higher moisture reduction led to improved electrochemical performances at higher C-rates. Finally, a comparison between dry and normal atmosphere of the best performing material indicates that a production of high-quality nickel-rich electrodes at ambient atmosphere is possible if their exposure to moisture is short and well-designed post-drying techniques are applied.
... Multiple battery modules are used to build the battery system to serve the EV's engine with energy and power [6,7]. The modular structure of the cell, module, and system brings advantages in operation, maintenance, and repair, while also making the battery system easier to scale, which is widely used by EV car manufacturers [8,9]. Yet, EVs are still rather expensive especially due to the costintensive battery cells [10,11]. ...
In the development of battery systems for electric vehicles (EV), numerous components from different physical subareas must be harmonized with each other. Automotive engineers already use extensive simulation models to optimize individual components satisfying increasing demands of EV range and power. Yet, strategies for the combined optimization of battery systems have not been addressed in the literature. This work presents an optimization strategy for the holistic design of battery systems, which utilizes coupled simulations of technical submodels representing cellmodules, mechanics, cooling, and electronics. Given user-specified battery system requirements, methods of Gaussian Process Regression and Classification are combined to determine the optimal battery system design in terms of costs and feasibility. An inherited mixed-integer problem is addressed by using discretization of the solution space and refinement strategies in likely optimal regions. Moreover, the information gain per iteration is maximized by means of predictive calculations and parallelization methods. Testing the presented optimization strategy in different scenarios gives promising results, showcasing its robustness towards different technical requirements for battery systems. Also, exemplary analyses regarding the impact of the total installation space on costs and feasibility are conducted.
... Cathode particle recycling from water-based coating.-NMC cathode materials are a significant fraction of the total cost of the cell, 45,46 so they are considered a highly attractive part to recycle. In today's standard, pyrometallurgical recycling results in a metal alloy from which cobalt, manganese, and nickel need to be separated, turned into sulphates or carbonates for fabrication of the precursors, and subsequently lithiatied, which is costly. ...
Water has now become the standard process solvent for graphite-based anodes, eliminating the use of toxic and costly N-Methyl-pyrrolidone (NMP) in anode manufacturing. Ideally, water could also become the standard for cathodes; however, water-based processing of NMC cathode materials induces lithium leaching, which reduces their specific capacity and leads to capacity fade. Here, we demonstrate that leached lithium ions can be exploited during aqueous slurry preparation to create a Li-containing polymer binder that enables cathode performance comparable to those fabricated using NMP. Specifically, we show that leached lithium ions from LiNi0.8Mn0.1Co0.1O2 (NMC 811) particles react with polyacrylic acid (PAA) to form a lithium polyacrylate (LPA) surface coating and binder. Because the resulting LPA binder is water soluble, aqueous-based recycling of the cathode particles is feasible and over 90% capacity retention is shown in recycled material after 100 cycles.
The primary objective of green technology is to in climate change management, natural environmental preservation, non-renewable resource reliance, and mitigating environmental hazards. Some of the industrial sectors that are actively investing in this type of technology include waste management, energy and transportation industries. There are a lot of positives to using this technology, but it still has to mitigate some of the challenges before it is considered a standard. The green technology industry has seen rapid expansion in recent years. The significance of green technology in mitigating threats to the environment and preserving natural resources becomes more apparent every day, as does the need for more investment in such solutions. Since the majority of the world's pollution, especially CO2 and other greenhouse gases, is produced by developing countries due to careless environmental policy implementation, addressing the issue of technology transfer is crucial. Emerging technologies for reducing emissions include improved solar cells, wind power, and electric vehicles, as discussed in this paper.
Limbah baterai lithium-ion diproyeksikan akan meningkat seiring dengan peningkatan jumlah kendaraan listrik. Teknologi daur ulang baterai menjadi perhatian penting terutama dalam mendukung percepatan program Kendaraan Bermotor Listrik Berbasis Baterai (KBLBB). Penelitian ini berfokus pada studi tekno-ekonomi pembangunan pilot plant daur ulang baterai Lithium Manganese Oxide (LMO) dan Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP) secara pirometalurgi. Kapasitas input daur ulang baterai LFP dan LMO adalah 8.000 ton/tahun. Nilai Internal Rate of Return (IRR), Net Present Value (NPV), Payback Period (PBP), dan Profitability Index (PI) daur ulang baterai LMO berturut-turut adalah 12,57%, Rp.7.583.346.464,-, 5,85 tahun, dan 2,39. Sedangkan untuk daur ulang baterai LFP berturut-turut adalah 11,15%, -Rp.11.235.266.123,-, 6,23 tahun, dan 2,32. Hal ini mengindikasikan daur ulang baterai LMO lebih menjanjikan dibandingkan daur ulang baterai LFP. Dari segi analisis sensitivitas, diketahui bahwa daur ulang baterai LMO dan LFP ini lebih sensitif terhadap perubahan harga produk dibandingkan dengan perubahan harga reagen dan nilai OPEX. Emisi gas CO2, pada proses daur ulang baterai LMO lebih sedikit daripada baterai LFP, sehingga pencemaran lingkungan yang dihasilkan lebih minim. Untuk meminimalisir emisi gas ini, dapat dilakukan instalasi peralatan wet scrubber dan implementasi sistem Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS)/Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS).
This paper proposes a SOC estimation method to eliminate the influence of the hysteresis effect and the ambient temperature. First, an improved dual‐polarization (DP) model considering the hysteresis effect and the ambient temperature is established. A hysteresis voltage source is connected in series with a couple of Resistance‐Capacitance pairs in the improved DP model, all the parameters of which are related to the ambient temperature to depict the temperature characteristics of the battery. Secondly, the forgetting factor recursive least squares (FFRLS) method is utilized to identify the parameters under the battery dynamic test data at different temperatures. The proposed model and parameterization scheme integrate the effects of hysteresis and temperature, greatly enhancing the performance of the proposed method at different temperatures. Finally, an extended Kalman filter (EKF) algorithm for SOC estimation is adopted to verify the improved DP model, the simulation indicates that the error of SOC estimation is within 1.5% at different ambient temperatures. The proposed method can improve the precision of the SOC estimation even if the temperature is below ‐10 °C or above 50 °C. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
Solid-state batteries are promising next-generation energy storage technology. With fewer resources and lower energy consumption for manufacturing, longer service life, and larger usage capacity compared to conventional batteries, solid-state batteries could be considered more environmentally friendly.
A 7 kWh automotive battery module with 396 interconnected cells was tested with electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and time‐domain pulsing over 260 charge‐discharge cycles. An EIS calibration workflow was developed for low complex impedance values in a frequency range of 1 kHz to 50 mHz. Significant corrections on the resistance and the reactance were obtained from the calibration, particularly at frequencies above 100 Hz. Equivalent circuit parameters were extracted from the EIS spectra and the pulse response and investigated with respect to the cycle number and state‐of‐charge (SoC). Fit parameters were robustly extracted including Rsol, Rct, and L from EIS, and R0, τ1 and τ2 from time‐domain pulsing. The ohmic resistance decreased over the cycling number indicating an enhanced wetting of the electrodes. Charge transfer resistance Rct showed a monotonic increase over the cycles related to cell ageing. From the charge and discharge pulses, the ohmic resistance R0 was determined from the instantaneous voltage step of the recovery pulse, while the two time constants τ1 and τ2 correspond to the slower exponential recovery phase. R0 from the time‐domain showed a similar trend as Rsol plus a contribution of Rct from EIS. Overall, we show that calibrated EIS and time‐domain pulsing are efficient methods to gain insights into the electrochemical processes related to different SoCs and the cycling ageing of battery modules and packs.
Multi-objective optimization frameworks of lithium-ion whole-cell design operating in a cyclic process are presented in this paper. The objective functions involved are maximization of capacity, maximization of specific energy in discharge and maximization of cycle energy efficiency. The considered design variables are electrode thicknesses, solid volume fraction and porosity of electrode compartments, and cell mass per unit cross-sectional area. In addition, the constant current value of charge and discharge is optimized. A phenomenological mathematical model developed in GAMS (General Algebraic Modeling System) environment is applied to achieve the stated goals and the multi-objective problems are solved using an epsilon constraint method-based, which is effective for finding solutions in non-convex feasible regions. Solutions for two different cell chemistries are analyzed: LMO and LCO. Pareto curves and surfaces are obtained and sets of solutions with the highest contradictions and with the most balanced agreement between the objectives involved are identified. When comparing optimal LMO designs with optimal LCO designs, the former result on average 48 % less capacity, 19 % less specific energy and 31 % more energy efficiency. Results show that material type-dependent variables such as active solids have a strong influence on the specific energy and cycle energy efficiency. While the electrode thicknesses show a general trend regardless of the type of chemistry, presenting a strong influence on cell capacity values.
Battery packs manufactured for electromobility application consist of battery cells/modules connected with joints. While their quality has been significantly improved with the utilization of Laser welding in terms of automation, minimizing the heat-affected zone, and precision, challenges have arisen in the case of joining dissimilar materials. Ranging from the low absorptivity of non-ferrous materials such as Copper (Cu) and Aluminum (Al) when welded using infrared lasers to the formation of brittle intermetallic connections these challenges are increasing the probability of a joint being defective in terms of low electrical conductivity and/or pure mechanical strength. Within the context of a battery pack production scenario, this study introduces a novel online data-driven approach for assessing the resistance and maximum tensile shear strength of Tab-to-Tab Al-Cu laser joints. Basic statistical features were extracted from the data captured using a high-speed infrared camera and used to optimize two different Machine Learning models.
The number of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) from hybrid and electric vehicles
that are produced or discarded every year is growing exponentially, which
may pose risks to supply lines of limited resources. Thus, recycling and
regeneration of end-of-life LIBs (EoL-LIBs) is becoming an urgent and critical
task for a sustainable and environmentally friendly future. In this regard,
much attention, especially in industry, is expended for developing recycling
of cathode materials and the other valuable materials, but not much attention is dedicated to the recycling and reuse of graphite (Gr) from EoL-LIBs.
Herein, the current status of EoL-LIB regeneration is summarized, with a
focus on the recycling and purification of Gr, a state-of-the-art anode material
for most of the commercial LIBs. According to the recent advances regarding
Gr recycling, three major regeneration processes of Gr are categorized,
including i) washing Gr with different solvents, ii) thermal treatment process,
and iii) hybrid (chemical and thermal) treatment processes. Depending on the
source of the LIBs, and the method and quality of separation and purification,
the recycled Gr can be reutilized as an active material for battery industries,
including graphene production, as well as many other alternative applications, which are also addressed here
A multilayered structural silicon-reduced graphene oxide electrode with superior electrochemical performance was synthesized from bulk Si particles through inexpensive electroless etching and graphene self-encapsulating approach. The prepared composite electrode presents a stable charge-discharge performance with high rate, showing a reversible capacity of 2787 mAhg-1 at a charging rate of 100 mAg-1 and a stable capacity over 1000 mAhg-1was retained at 1 Ag-1 after 50 cycles with a high columbic efficiency of 99% during the whole cycling process. This superior performance can attribute to its novel multilayered structure with porous Si particles encapsulated, which can effectively accommodate the large volume change during the lithiation process and provide increased electrical conductivity. This facile low-cost approach offers a promising route to develop an optimized carbon encapsulated Si electrode for future industrial applications.
While silicon nanowires (SiNW) have been widely studied as an ideal material for developing high capacity lithium ion batteries (LIBs) for electric vehicles (EVs), little is known about the environmental impacts of such a new EV battery pack during its whole life cycle. This paper reports a life cycle assessment (LCA) of a high capacity LIB pack using SiNW prepared via metal assisted chemical etching as anode material. The LCA study is conducted based on the average U.S. driving and electricity supply conditions. Nanowastes and nano-particle emissions from the SiNW synthesis are also characterized and reported. The LCA results show that over 50% of most characterized impacts are generated from the battery operations, while the battery anode with SiNW material contributes to around 15% of global warming potential and 10% of human toxicity potential. Overall the life cycle impacts of this new battery pack are moderately higher than those of conventional LIBs but could be actually comparable when considering the uncertainties and scale-up potential of the technology. These results are encouraging because it not only provides a solid base for sustainable development of next generation LIBs but also confirms that appropriate nano-manufacturing technologies could be used in sustainable product development.
Electric vehicles (EVs) have no tailpipe emissions, but the production of their batteries leads to environmental burdens. In order to avoid problem shifting, a life cycle perspective should be applied in the environmental assessment of traction batteries. The aim of this study was to provide a transparent inventory for a lithium-ion nickel-cobalt-manganese traction battery based on primary data and to report its cradle-to-gate impacts. The study was carried out as a process-based attributional life cycle assessment. The environmental impacts were analyzed using midpoint indicators. The global warming potential of the 26.6 kilowatt-hour (kWh), 253-kilogram battery pack was found to be 4.6 tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalents. Regardless of impact category, the production impacts of the battery were caused mainly by the production chains of battery cell manufacture, positive electrode paste, and negative current collector. The robustness of the study was tested through sensitivity analysis, and results were compared with preceding studies. Sensitivity analysis indicated that the most effective approach to reducing climate change emissions would be to produce the battery cells with electricity from a cleaner energy mix. On a per-kWh basis, cradle-to-gate greenhouse gas emissions of the battery were within the range of those reported in preceding studies. Contribution and structural path analysis allowed for identification of the most impact-intensive processes and value chains. This article provides an inventory based mainly on primary data, which can easily be adapted to subsequent EV studies, and offers an improved understanding of environmental burdens pertaining to lithium-ion traction batteries.
The main aim of the study was to explore how LCA can be used to optimize the design of lithium-ion batteries for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. Two lithium-ion batteries, both based on lithium iron phosphate, but using different solvents during cell manufacturing, were studied by means of life cycle assessment, LCA. The general conclusions are limited to results showing robustness against variation in critical data. The study showed that it is environmentally preferable to use water as a solvent instead of N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone, NMP, in the slurry for casting the cathode and anode of lithium-ion batteries. Recent years’ improvements in battery technology, especially related to cycle life, have decreased production phase environmental impacts almost to the level of use phase impacts. In the use phase, environmental impacts related to internal battery efficiency are two to six times larger than the impact from losses due to battery weight in plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, assuming 90% internal battery efficiency. Thus, internal battery efficiency is a very important parameter; at least as important as battery weight. Areas, in which data is missing or inadequate and the environmental impact is or may be significant, include: production of binders, production of lithium salts, cell manufacturing and assembly, the relationship between weight of vehicle and vehicle energy consumption, information about internal battery efficiency and recycling of lithium-ion batteries based on lithium iron phosphate.
Battery-powered electric cars (BEVs) play a key role in future mobility scenarios. However, little is known about the environmental impacts of the production, use and disposal of the lithium ion (Li-ion) battery. This makes it difficult to compare the environmental impacts of BEVs with those of internal combustion engine cars (ICEVs). Consequently, a detailed lifecycle inventory of a Li-ion battery and a rough LCA of BEV based mobility were compiled. The study shows that the environmental burdens of mobility are dominated by the operation phase regardless of whether a gasoline-fueled ICEV or a European electricity fueled BEV is used. The share of the total environmental impact of E-mobility caused by the battery (measured in Ecoindicator 99 points) is 15%. The impact caused by the extraction of lithium for the components of the Li-ion battery is less than 2.3% (Ecoindicator 99 points). The major contributor to the environmental burden caused by the battery is the supply of copper and aluminum for the production of the anode and the cathode, plus the required cables or the battery management system. This study provides a sound basis for more detailed environmental assessments of battery based E-mobility.
Through the usage of life cycle assessment methods, two different battery systems are benchmarked. One is composed by traditional Li-ion NMC graphite cells and the other, Li-ion NMC silicon nanowire ones. Their characteristics are displayed and challenged throughout different impact categories, such as climate change, human toxicity, and cumulative energy demand. These impact categories highlight the damages provoked during manufacturing, usage, and recycling of the battery systems within an electric vehicle usage scenario. Results show that silicon nanowire systems have slightly more impacts in climate change and cumulative energy demand categories, while regarding human toxicity, NMC graphite–based cells display higher scores.
This paper deals with an experimental evaluation regarding the real performance of lithium based energy storage systems for automotive applications. In particular real working operations of different lithium based storage system technologies, such as Li[NiCoMn]O2 and LiFePO4 batteries, are compared in this work from the point of view of their application in supplying full electric and hybrid vehicles, taking as a reference the well-known behavior of lead acid batteries. For this purpose, the experimental tests carried out in laboratory are firstly performed on single storage modules in stationary conditions. In this case the related results are obtained by means of a bidirectional cycle tester based on the IGBT technology, and consent to evaluate, compare and contrast charge/discharge characteristics and efficiency at constant values of current/voltage/power for each storage technology analyzed. Then, lithium battery packs are tested in supplying a 1.8 kW electric power train using a laboratory test bench, based on a 48 V DC bus and specifically configured to simulate working operations of electric vehicles on the road. For this other experimentation the test bench is equipped with an electric brake and acquisition/control system, able to represent in laboratory the real vehicle conditions and road characteristics on predefined driving cycles at different slopes. The obtained experimental results on both charge/discharge tests and driving cycles demonstrate the advantages of using lithium technologies, mainly in terms of their high efficiency, particularly at high current values. That represents a feasible solution to offer vehicle designers and users extended driving ranges and reduced recharging times.
Three key questions have driven recent discussions of the energy and environmental impacts of automotive lithium-ion batteries. We address each of them, beginning with whether the energy intensity of producing all materials used in batteries or that of battery assembly is greater. Notably, battery assembly energy intensity depends on assembly facility throughput because energy consumption of equipment, especially the dry room, is mainly throughput-independent. Low-throughput facilities therefore will have higher energy intensities than near-capacity facilities. In our analysis, adopting an assembly energy intensity reflective of a low-throughput plant caused the assembly stage to dominate cradle-to-gate battery energy and environmental impact results. Results generated with an at-capacity assembly plant energy intensity, however, indicated cathode material production and aluminium use as a structural material were the drivers. Estimates of cradle-to-gate battery energy and environmental impacts must therefore be interpreted in light of assumptions made about assembly facility throughput. The second key question is whether battery recycling is worthwhile if battery assembly dominates battery cradle-to-gate impacts. In this case, even if recycled cathode materials are less energy and emissions intensive than virgin cathode materials, little energy and environmental benefit is obtained from their use because the energy consumed in assembly is so high. We reviewed the local impacts of metals recovery for cathode materials and concluded that avoiding or reducing these impacts, including SOx emissions and water contamination, is a key motivator of battery recycling regardless of the energy intensity of assembly. Finally, we address whether electric vehicles (EV) offer improved energy and environmental performance compared to internal combustion-engine vehicles (ICV). This analysis illustrated that, even if a battery assembly energy reflective of a low-throughput facility is adopted, EVs consume less petroleum and emit fewer greenhouse gases (GHG) than an ICV on a life-cycle basis. The only scenario in which an EV emitted more GHGs than an ICV was when it used solely coal-derived electricity as a fuel source. SOx emissions, however, were up to four times greater for EVs than ICVs. These emissions could be reduced through battery recycling.
This study reviews existing life-cycle inventory (LCI) results for cradle-to-gate (ctg) environmental assessments of lead-acid (PbA), nickel–cadmium (NiCd), nickel-metal hydride (NiMH), sodium-sulfur (Na/S), and lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries. LCI data are evaluated for the two stages of cradle-to-gate performance: battery material production and component fabrication and assembly into purchase ready batteries. Using existing production data on battery constituent materials, overall battery material production values were calculated and contrasted with published values for the five battery technologies. The comparison reveals a more prevalent absence of material production data for lithium ion batteries, though such data are also missing or dated for a few important constituent materials in nickel metal hydride, nickel cadmium, and sodium sulfur batteries (mischmetal hydrides, cadmium, β-alumina). Despite the overall availability of material production data for lead acid batteries, updated results for lead and lead peroxide are also needed. On the other hand, LCI data for the commodity materials common to most batteries (steel, aluminum, plastics) are up to date and of high quality, though there is a need for comparable quality data for copper. Further, there is an almost total absence of published LCI data on recycled battery materials, an unfortunate state of affairs given the potential benefit of battery recycling. Although battery manufacturing processes have occasionally been well described, detailed quantitative information on energy and material flows are missing. For each battery, a comparison of battery material production with its manufacturing and assembly counterpart is discussed. Combustion and process emissions for battery production have also been included in our assessment. In cases where emissions were not reported in the original literature, we estimated them using fuels data if reported. Whether on a per kilogram or per watt-hour capacity basis, lead-acid batteries have the lowest cradle-to-gate production energy, and fewest carbon dioxide and criteria pollutant emissions. The other batteries have higher values in all three categories.
Sustainable manufacturing has received enormous attention in recent years as an effective solution to support the continuous growth and expansion of manufacturing industry. In this paper, we present a three dimensional system approach for sustainable manufacturing from environmental perspective. This method attempts to address the sustainability issues of manufacturing from a pollution prevention standpoint, considering the three key components of manufacturing: technology, energy, and material. Case study is performed on an emerging nano-manufacturing technology, atomic layer deposition. This system approach, when appropriately adopted, could be useful in real sustainable manufacturing practices for overall sustainability management and improvement.
In times of climate change and shortage of fossil fuels, electro mobility provides a clean and sustainable solution. The growing number of electric vehicles generates a huge demand on lithium-ion cells. Due to higher quality requirements and different conditions of operation compared to consumer cells adapted production processes and systems are needed. Consequently, this paper analyses the process chain for lithium-ion cells and proposes solutions for the automation of important process steps suitable for mass production, in particular the pre-conditioning of the electrodes and the cell stacking. Additionally, an approach for the detection of particles on electrode surfaces is presented.
This study addresses issues related to electric vehicle product development and interdependent decision-making among stakeholders such as producers, infrastructure providers, and consumers. Several automobile companies have launched electric vehicles onto the market recently. Nevertheless, they have confronted complexly intertwined problems because new infrastructure such as plug-in stations strongly affects product value. Based on a game-theoretic approach, we examine four cases of a model describing such interdependent situations among related decision-makers. Furthermore, experiments with human subjects elucidate the mechanisms driving the scenarios. Results show that social surplus increases in the scenario where a producer takes initiative and an infrastructure provider follows.
This study presents the life cycle assessment (LCA) of three batteries for plug-in hybrid and full performance battery electric vehicles. A transparent life cycle inventory (LCI) was compiled in a component-wise manner for nickel metal hydride (NiMH), nickel cobalt manganese lithium-ion (NCM), and iron phosphate lithium-ion (LFP) batteries. The battery systems were investigated with a functional unit based on energy storage, and environmental impacts were analyzed using midpoint indicators. On a per-storage basis, the NiMH technology was found to have the highest environmental impact, followed by NCM and then LFP, for all categories considered except ozone depletion potential. We found higher life cycle global warming emissions than have been previously reported. Detailed contribution and structural path analyses allowed for the identification of the different processes and value-chains most directly responsible for these emissions. This article contributes a public and detailed inventory, which can be easily be adapted to any powertrain, along with readily usable environmental performance assessments.
This study presents the life cycle assessment (LCA) of three batteries for plug-in hybrid and full performance battery electric vehicles. A transparent life cycle inventory (LCI) was compiled in a component-wise manner for nickel metal hydride (NiMH), nickel cobalt manganese lithium-ion (NCM), and iron phosphate lithium-ion (LFP) batteries. The battery systems were investigated with a functional unit based on energy storage, and environmental impacts were analyzed using midpoint indicators. On a per-storage basis, the NiMH technology was found to have the highest environmental impact, followed by NCM and then LFP, for all categories considered except ozone depletion potential. We found higher life cycle global warming emissions than have been previously reported. Detailed contribution and structural path analyses allowed for the identification of the different processes and value-chains most directly responsible for these emissions. This article contributes a public and detailed inventory, which can be easily be adapted to any powertrain, along with readily usable environmental performance assessments.
Electric Vehicle Demand: Global Forecast Through
- A Pratt
Pratt A (2011) Electric Vehicle Demand: Global Forecast Through 2030http://
bpiconference.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/Pratt_Anthony.pdf.
Electric Vehicles in the United States A New Model with Forecasts to 2030
- T Becker
Becker T (2009) Electric Vehicles in the United States A New Model with Forecasts
to 2030, UC Berkeley: Center for Entrepreneurship & Technology.
Chevrolet Volt Battery Pack Tests
General Testing Laboratories (2012) Chevrolet Volt Battery Pack Tests, http://
www.haifire.com/resources/publications/GTLDOT11VOLTBAT%20%282%29.
pdf.
Contribution of Li-ion Batteries to the Environmental Impact of Electric Vehicles
- Notter