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Shifts in Kimchi Consumption between 2005 and 2015 by Region and Income Level in the Korean Population: Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2005, 2015)

Authors:
145
대한지역사회영양학회지
22(2): 145~158, 2017
https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2017.22.2.145
ISSN 1226-0983 (print) / 2287-1624 (on-line)
최근
10
년간
한국인의
지역별·소득수준별
김치섭취
변화
:
2005
, 2015
국민건강영양조사
자료
이용
박정현
1)
·이해정
1),2)†
1)
가천대학교 노화임상영양연구소,
2)
가천대학교 식품영양학과
Shifts in Kimchi Consumption between 2005 and 2015 by Region and Income
Level in the Korean Population: Korea National Health and
Nutrition Examination Survey (2005, 2015)
Junghyun Park
1)
, Hae-Jeung Lee
1),2)
1)
Institute for Aging and Clinical Nutrition Research, Gachon University, Seongnam-si, Gyeonggi-do, Korea
2)
Department of Food and Nutrition, Gachon University, Seongnam-si, Gyeonggi-do, Korea
Corresponding author
Hae-Jeung Lee
1342 Seongnamdaero, Sujeong-
gu, Seongnam-si, Gyeonggi-do,
13120, Korea
Tel: (031) 750-4720
Fax: (031) 750-5974
E-mail: skysea1010@gmail.com
ORCID: 0000-0001-8353-3619
Acknowledgments
This study was supported by a
grant from the Korea Food
Research Institute (EO164500-01).
Received: March 2, 2017
Re vis ed: April 14, 2017
Accepted: April 20, 2017
ABSTRACT
Objectives: The importance of kimchi as a traditional food in Korean cuisine has
gradually decreased due to rapid industrialization, economic growth and changes in
dietary patterns in Korea. This study aimed to examine the shifts in kimchi
consumption by region and by income level between 2005 and 2015 in Korea.
Methods: Data from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys III
(2005) and VI (2015) were used in the study (n=15,558). Intake of kimchi was
estimated using a single 24-hour dietary recall. The sample weights were applied in all
analyses to reflect population estimates. All statistical analyses were carried out by
using SPSS IBM Statistics 20.
Results: Kimchi intake has significantly decreased by 27.6 g/day per capita during the
last decade in Korea; 25.0 g for males and 29.9 g for females, respectively. Over the
past decade, the decline of kimchi intake has been particularly significant in Seoul,
Busan, Incheon, Gyeonggi, and Gwangju, while there has been no significant change in
males living in rural areas. The consumption of kimchi across all income levels has
decreased, however, the decrease was higher in ‘middle and low income level’. The
amount of kimchi consumption in 2015 was the highest in ‘low income level’. The
results were similar after adjusting for gender and age.
Conclusions: For the past decade, the overall intake of kimchi in Korea has decreased,
however, it has been found that the decrease of kimchi intake for males living in the
rural areas was not significant. Therefore, in order to keep our traditional kimchi culture
and promote a balanced diet including kimchi for Korean, it is necessary to develop
more efficient policies and approaches. A variety of dishes using kimchi should be
developed, besides merely serving kimchi with rice as a side dish, to increase the
consumption of kimchi.
Korean J Community Nutr 22(2): 145~158, 2017
KEY WORDS kimchi consumption, shifts, decade, region, income
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RESEARCH ARTICLE
146·최 10년간 한국인의 김치 섭취량 변화
—————————————————————————
서론
—————————————————————————
김치는 한국인의 대표적인 전통식품으로 삼국시대부터
식탁에 오르기 시작하였고 임진왜란(1 592) 이후에 고추가
도입되면서 현재의 모습을 갖추었다[1] . 201 3년 국민건강
영양조사 결과분석에 의하면 전국민이 먹는 식품 중에서 배
추김치가 번째로 많이 먹는 식품이었으며[2 ], 한국인의
식사패턴 연구에서는 밥+국+1위로 나타나는 등
김치는 한국인의 식사에서 중요한 위치를 차지하고 있다
[3- 4]. 급속한 경제성장 , 국민소득의 증가, 해외 외식업체
의 국내 진출 등의 영향으로 식생활의 서구화가 이루어지면
한국인의 식사패턴도 다양하게 변화하고 있지만 김치는
식품이다[5-7].
오랜 역사를 가진 김치는 미국의 월간 잡지 Health에 5
건강식품으로 소개되었고 , 김장이 유네스코 세계무형문
화유산으로 등재되는 세계적으로 우수한 건강 발효식품
으로 인정받고 있다[ 5]. 김치는 배추, 등의 채소류를
재료로 하고 고춧가루 , 파, 양파, 마늘 , 생강, 젓갈 등의 향신
료를 부재료로 가미하여 혼합적인 풍미를 생성하는 발효식
품이다[8 ]. 여러 재료들의 혼합으로 인해 어우러진 향기, 색
등에 의해 식욕을 자극하는 관능적인 우수성을 가지고 있
고[ 9], 비타민 A, 비타민 C , 티아민, 리보플라빈 등의 비타
민과 칼슘, 철분 , 인 등의 무기질 및 섬유질이 풍부할 뿐만 아
니라 항암 효과[10-11], 항산화 효과[12-13], 체중감소
과[14-16] 식품으로 주목받고 있다 [ 8 ] .
반면, 김치는 채소를 소금에 절여 발효시킨 식품으로 나
트륨이 많이 함유되어 있어 건강에 좋지 않다는 논란이
어 왔다 . 나트륨을 과량으로 섭취하게 되면 고혈압이나
혈관계질환의 위험을 높인다는 것은 이미 알려진 사실이다
[17-20]. 이에 식품의약안전처는 2006년 나트1일
섭취 권고량을 2,0 00 mg으로 하향 조정하였고 2020년
나트륨 섭취량을 20 % 이상 저감하겠다는 목표로 나트륨
저감화 사업을 추진하고 있으며, 김치, 된장 같은 전통발효
식품의 나트륨 저감화도 사업의 일부로 추진되고 있다
[21-22]. 김치 섭취와 고혈압 유병률과의 관련성에 관
국내 선행연구를 살펴보면 , 우리나라 국민건강영양조사
료를 이용한 단면연구에서 기인지 고혈압 환자를 제외한
인의 김치 섭취와 고혈압의 유병은 관련성이 는 것으로
보고되었고[ 23], 우리나라 장기추적 조사인 안성·안산 코
자료를 이용한 연구에서도 김치섭취와 고혈압 발생률
연관성이 었다고 보고되었다[2 4]. 이러한 결과는 김치
에 여러 생리활성 성분뿐만 아니라 나트륨의 체외배출을
는 칼륨 많이 함유되어 있기 문인 것으로 사료된다
[25-26].
이러한 연구에도 구하고, 김치의 나트륨 함량만을 염두
김치 적게 먹기 권장것은 김치 섭취가 감소하
정도 기여것으로 보인다. 한 다 나라
과의 국제역이 증가하면서 다양한 해외식품이 유입
소비가 자연스 감소되었고 밥과 함는 김치의
비도 감소되고 있는 실정이다. 김치는 우리나라 전통 식문화
중심이고 세계적으로 인정받은 건강 발효식품이기
에 국가 차에서 형잡 식사와 김치를 계승·
하는 노력요하며 이를 위해 우리 국민의 최근 김치 섭
향을 파하고 따른 마련하는 것이
중요하다.
현재까지 보고된 김치 섭취에 관한 연구는 령층
대상으로 한정하여 조사되었으며 주로 김치 섭취의
및 선도 연구가 대부분이었다 [27-29]. 한국보건산업진
흥원에서 국민영양통계를 통년 우리 국민의 평균
섭취량을 발표하고 있으나 , 최근 김치 섭취량 변화나
·소득수준별 섭취량에 대한 연구는 부한 실정이다 .
라서 , 구는 한국인을 대표하는 국민건강영양조사
자료를 이용하여 최근 10 사이(2005년과 2015년)의
국인의 김치 섭취량 변화를 살펴보고, 지역 소득수
변화도 분석하고자 하였다. 국민건강영양조사 3기
(2005)와 6 3차년도(2015)는 질병관리본부 연구
리심의위원회인을 받아 수행되었다.
—————————————————————————
연구대상 방법
—————————————————————————
1. 연구대상
국민건강영양조사는 전국민을 단으로 실시하는 대
통계조사로서 진조사, 건강문조사, 영양조사로
구성되어 있다 . 본 연구는 3기( 200 5)와 제 6기 3차년
도(2015년) 국민건강영양조사의 영양조사에 여한
8,930과 6,628으로 15,558(자 7,109, 여
8,449)을 대상으로 분석하였다.
2. 김치 섭취량
김치 섭취량은 24시간 (24hour recall)으로부터
1인 1일 섭취량을 산출하였다. 24시간 조사결과에
김치 항목이 등장하지 않는 의 김치 섭취량은 0
하여 국민 평균 섭취량을 산출하였다.
김치 섭취량은 연도에 등장한 배추김치, 깍두기를
김치를 합산하였다. 2005년 자료는 김치, 고들
박정현·이해정·147
기김치, 깍두기, 나김치 , 치미 ,김치 , 배추김치,
치, 무김치 , 오이소 , 유채김치, 총각김치, 파김치를 김
치 섭취량에 함하였다 .식품으로 분류된 김치,
김치 , 총각김치는 각각되는 김치 분류에 함시
기김치는 배추김치에 함시다. 2015년 자료
치, 고들기김치, 깍두기, 김치, 치미, 배추김치,
치, 무김치 , 오이소 , 유채김치, 총각김치, 파김치를
함하였고, 국민건강영양조사 시자료 분류코
김치를 무김치에 , 유채김치를 유채김치에 함시다.
별·령별·지역별·소득수준별 김치 섭취량 분석에
김치 섭취량을 합산한 김치 섭취량과 우리나라 국민
섭취 가장 높은 배추김치, 깍두기의 섭취량을 사용
하였다( Fig. 1).
3. 통계분석
국민건강영양조사가 집락추출표본이화변수,
집락변수, 양조사 가중치를 고려한 합표본계를 반영
하여 분석하였다 . 지역 김치 섭취량은 16개 시 ·도(,
부산, 대구, 인, 주, 대전, 산, 경기, 강, 충북, 충남,
, 전, , 경, 제주)와 동·읍면으로 분석하였다.
소득수준별 김치 섭취량은 국민건강영양조사의 소득 사분위
수(개인 )분류에 , 중하 , 중상, 상으로 분류하여 분석
하였다.
연구대상자의 인구사회학 빈도분석을 통해 빈도
(가중 )을 도출하였고 차분석(Chi-
squared Test, χ
2
-test)을 실시하여 p-value를
산출하였다 . 김치 섭취량은 기통계분석으로 평균 (Mean)
과 표오차(Standard error)를 계산하였다. 2005년과
2015년 김섭취평균의성 정은 Student t-test
를 이용하였고 일 년도의 소득수준별 김치 섭취량 차이는
일반선형모형(General Linear Model, GLM/p-values
for differences, PDIFF)으로 분석하였다. 추가적으로·
을 보정한 평균 산출은 분산분석(Analysis of
covariance, ANCOVA)을 이용하였다. 통계적 유의
성은 p<0.05 에서 정하였다 . 통계분석은 IBM SPSS
Statistics 20을 사용하여 수행되었다.
—————————————————————————
결과
—————————————————————————
1. 연구대상자의 인구사회학적 분포
연구대상자의 인구사회학Table 1과 같다. 연구
대상자는 2005년 8,930이었고, 2015년 6,628이었
다. 2005년과 2015년 연구대상자의 성 유사하였
다. 대상자의 령별를 보면 2005년2015년 모
19~64세 성인의이 가장 높령층인구
약간 상이하였다. 2005년에는 12~18세 소년의 비
이, 2015년에는 65세 이상 인의 이 가장 높다.
대상자의 지역는 2005년2015년 읍·
보다 의 비고( 82.3%, 83.4%), 16개 ·
Tabl e 1. Distribution of socio-demographic factors in KNHANES
2005 and 2015
Characteristics KNHANES
1)
p-value
2)
2005 2015
No. of individuals 8,930 (50.0) 6,628 (50.0)
Males (%) 4,167 (50.2)
3)
2,942 (50.0) 0.756
Age groups (%) in years
12 217 (52.1) 137 (51.8) < 0.001
35 403 (53.6) 209 (52.8)
611 889 (58.7) 448 (55.3)
12 18 895 (59.6) 528 (58.0)
19 64 5,522 (66.8) 3,849 (68.9)
65+ 1,004 (59.2) 1,457 (13.2)
Town (%)
Urban areas 7,191 (82.3) 5,375 (83.4) 0.712
Rural areas 1,739 (17.7) 1,253 (16.6)
Region (%)
Seoul 1,649 (20.8) 1,246 (19.5) 0.993
Busan 714 (57.5) 326 (56.7)
Daegu 475 (55.2) 376 (54.9)
Incheon 484 (55.4) 426 (55.7)
Gwangju 287 (53.0) 233 (53.0)
Daejeon 246 (53.0) 240 (53.7)
Ulsan 247 (52.2) 120 (52.4)
Gyeonggi 1,706 (22.0) 1,575 (24.5)
Gangwon 297 (53.1) 263 (53.4)
Chungbuk 322 (53.1) 198 (52.8)
Chungnam 318 (54.0) 305 (54.2)
Jeonbuk 447 (53.8) 254 (53.0)
Jeonnam 379 (53.9) 215 (54.0)
Gyeongbuk 554 (55.5) 349 (54.8)
Gyeongnam 644 (56.5) 366 (56.3)
Jeju 161 (51.1) 136 (51.1)
Income (%)
Low 2,346 (26.3) 1,656 (25.3) 0.727
Middle-low 2,256 (25.9) 1,636 (25.1)
Middle-high 2,141 (24.1) 1,637 (24.5)
High 2,100 (23.7) 1,661 (25.1)
1) Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
(KNHANES)
2) Chi-squared test was applied to compare the percent
between 2005 and 2015.
3) Original number (weighted percent, %)
148·최 10년간 한국인의 김치 섭취량 변화
대상자 분보면 2005년과 2015년 모 경기,
, 부산, 으로이 높다. 소득수 4분위
대상자 보면, 20 05년에는 , 중하 , 중상,
으로 고, 2015년에, 중하,
으로 비이 높다.
2. 김치 종류별 섭취비율
2005년과 2015년 전김치섭취 대비 개 김치 섭취 비
Fig. 1과 같다. 2005년장 높은 배추김치
(72.6%)였고 으로는 깍두기(7.4%), 무김치
(5.8%), 나김치(5.1%), 총각김치(2.5%) 이었다.
2015 김치 섭취 배추김치가 69 .0%로 가장
고, 으로는 깍두기(7.9%), 김치(7.5%), 총각
치(4.6%), 치미(3.7%) 으로 나타다.
3. 김치 섭취량의 변화
우리나라 김치 섭취량의 최근 10년간 Table 2
같다. 김치 섭취량은 123.9 g에서 96.3 g으로 27.6 g
(22.3%) 감소하였고, 성·보정한 김치 섭취량은
33 .7 g 감소하였다. 배추김치의 섭취량이 89 .9 g에서
66.5 g으로 가게 감소하였고 , 으로 깍두기의
취량이 9.2 g에서 7 . 6 g으로 감소하였으며 감소 경향은·
을 보정한 후에도 섭취량의 변화는하였다. 성
보면, 최근 10년간 김치 섭취량의 감소량은 자 25.0 g,
29.9 g으로 통계적으로 유의고, ·을 보정한
섭취량도 이와하게 유의적으로 감소하였다.
Fig. 1. The composition of kimchi consumption between 2005 and 2005 in Korean population
Fig. 2A. Mean difference (g) in per capita kimchi consumption by region and between 2005 and 2015
*: p < 0.05, **: p < 0.01, ***: p < 0.001, Means were significantly different using student t-test
박정현·이해정·149
Fig. 2B. Adjusted mean difference (g) in per capita kimchi consumption by region and by gender between 2005 and 2015
*: p < 0.05, **: p < 0.01, ***: p < 0.001, Adjusted means were significantly different using ANCOVA
The values were adjusted for gender and age.
Tabl e 2. Changes of kimchi consumption in KNHANES 2005 and 2015 by gender
Kimchi consumption per capita (g/day)
2005 2015 10 year change P value
NMean±SE N Mean ±SE
Total population
Total kimchi 8,930 123.90
1)
±1.98 6,628 96.34 ±1.97 27.6 < 0.001
2)
Baechu kimchi
3)
8,930 89.94 ±1.53 6,628 66.50 ±1.62 23.4 < 0.001
Kkakdugi
3)
8,930 9.15 ±0.43 6,628 7.64 ±0.49 1.5 <0.022
Male
Total kimchi 4,167 140.16 ±2.68 2,942 115.15 ±2.89 25.0 < 0.001
Baechu kimchi 4,167 103.56 ±2.09 2,942 82.53 ±2.39 21.0 < 0.001
Kkakdugi 4,167 11.47 ±0.62 2,942 9.71 ±0.77 1.8 <0.075
Female
Total kimchi 4,763 107.48 ±1.91 3,686 77.55 ±2.05 29.9 < 0.001
Baechu kimchi 4,763 76.18 ±1.47 3,686 50.48 ±1.64 25.7 < 0.001
Kkakdugi 4,763 6.80 ±0.47 3,686 5.58 ±0.42 1.2 <0.054
Gender and age-adjusted kimchi consumption per capita (g/day)
2005 2015 10 year change P value
NMean±SE N Mean ±SE
Total population
Total kimchi 8,930 127.00 ±1.97 6,628 93.31 ±1.82 33.7 < 0.001
4)
Baechu kimchi 8,930 91.63 ±1.53 6,628 64.82 ±1.59 26.8 < 0.001
Kkakdugi 8,930 9.23 ±0.46 6,628 7.55 ±0.58 1.7 <0.011
Male
Total kimchi 4,167 144.09 ±2.68 2,942 111.37 ±2.71 32.7 < 0.001
Baechu kimchi 4,167 105.92 ±2.10 2,942 80.27 ±2.30 25.6 < 0.001
Kkakdugi 4,167 11.67 ±0.63 2,942 9.52 ±0.76 2.2 <0.030
Female
Total kimchi 4,763 109.98 ±1.89 3,686 75.18 ±1.97 34.8 < 0.001
Baechu kimchi 4,763 77.41 ±1.46 3,686 49.32 ±1.64 28.1 < 0.001
Kkakdugi 4,763 6.80 ±0.46 3,686 5.58 ±0.43 1.2 <0.053
1) Mean daily per capita kimchi consumption
2) Student t-test was conducted to compare means per capita kimchi consumption between 2005 and 2015.
3) Baechu kimchi: napa cabbage kimchi, Kkakdugi: Korean radish kimchi
4) ANCOVA was performed and gender and age were adjusted.
150·최 10년간 한국인의 김치 섭취량 변화
Tabl e 3. Changes of kimchi consumption in KNHANES 2005 and 2015 by 16 cities and provinces of Korea
Kimchi consumption per capita (g/day)
2005 2015 10 year change P value
NMean±SE N Mean ±SE
Seoul
Total Kimchi 1,649 121.36
1)
±53.71 1,246 82.88 ±53.87 38.5 < 0.001
2)
Baechu kimchi
3)
1,649 90.25 ±53.57 1,246 57.11 ±53.47 33.1 < 0.001
Kkakdugi
3)
1,649 8.67 ±50.83 1,246 6.87 ±51.10 1.8 <0.193
Busan
Total Kimchi 714 133.00 ±10.92 326 80.48 ±56.41 52.5 < 0.001
Baechu kimchi 714 91.96 ±55.13 326 51.21 ±54.76 40.8 < 0.001
Kkakdugi 714 12.19 ±51.99 326 8.90 ±52.12 3.3 <0.260
Daegu
Total Kimchi 475 84.59 ±54.17 376 101.29 ±56.91 16.7 <0.039
Baechu kimchi 475 67.08 ±54.89 376 73.99 ±58.97 6.9 <0.499
Kkakdugi 475 5.69 ±50.66 376 6.77 ±52.18 1.1 <0.634
Incheon
Total Kimchi 484 141.93 ±58.51 426 82.91 ±58.03 59.0 < 0.001
Baechu kimchi 484 102.82 ±58.57 426 60.19 ±55.16 42.6 < 0.001
Kkakdugi 484 11.81 ±51.38 426 7.04 ±51.46 4.8 <0.018
Gwangju
Total Kimchi 287 141.81 ±13.03 233 98.56 ±14.86 43.3 <0.029
Baechu kimchi 287 106.45 ±11.19 233 69.85 ±10.42 36.6 <0.017
Kkakdugi 287 10.92 ±51.75 233 8.99 ±52.68 1.9 <0.548
Daejeon
Total Kimchi 246 129.61 ±58.27 240 107.50 ±58.78 22.1 <0.068
Baechu kimchi 246 99.54 ±58.33 240 71.39 ±58.81 28.1 <0.021
Kkakdugi 246 5.80 ±51.99 240 8.81 ±53.34 3.0 <0.441
Ulsan
Total Kimchi 247 111.55 ±58.21 120 82.80 ±58.10 28.8 <0.013
Baechu kimchi 247 79.40 ±54.72 120 63.38 ±59.87 16.0 <0.144
Kkakdugi 247 9.78 ±50.89 120 7.33 ±50.67 2.4 <0.029
Gyeonggi
Total Kimchi 1,706 129.46 ±54.86 1,575 99.71 ±53.56 29.8 < 0.001
Baechu kimchi 1,706 92.49 ±53.40 1,575 67.41 ±52.79 25.1 < 0.001
Kkakdugi 1,706 9.72 ±51.10 1,575 8.87 ±51.11 0.9 <0.585
Gangwon
Total Kimchi 297 174.02 ±15.68 263 133.97 ±19.02 40.0 <0.105
Baechu kimchi 297 136.39 ±15.60 263 99.07 ±18.47 37.3 <0.124
Kkakdugi 297 9.82 ±54.11 263 7.78 ±52.27 2.0 <0.664
Chungbuk
Total Kimchi 322 117.39 ±58.09 198 96.13 ±11.13 21.3 <0.123
Baechu kimchi 322 89.64 ±57.47 198 69.29 ±57.20 20.3 <0.051
Kkakdugi 322 6.62 ±50.90 198 3.01 ±51.56 3.6 <0.046
Chungnam
Total Kimchi 318 143.09 ±58.39 305 114.76 ±58.80 28.3 <0.020
Baechu kimchi 318 87.90 ±56.44 305 70.38 ±58.13 17.5 <0.092
Kkakdugi 318 13.33 ±53.29 305 9.61 ±52.39 3.7 <0.360
Jeonbuk
Total Kimchi 447 129.68 ±10.54 254 116.20 ±12.21 13.5 <0.404
Baechu kimchi 447 98.95 ±57.69 254 77.71 ±56.48 21.2 <0.035
Kkakdugi 447 6.22 ±51.36 254 6.66 ±52.19 0.4 <0.864
박정현·이해정·151
Tabl e 3. continued
Kimchi consumption per capita (g/day)
2005 2015 10 year change P value
NMean±SE N Mean ±SE
Jeonnam
Total Kimchi 379 127.89 ±58.10 215 113.06 ±58.39 14.8 <0.204
Baechu kimchi 379 86.09 ±56.13 215 77.35 ±57.52 8.7 <0.369
Kkakdugi 379 10.75 ±51.62 215 7.72 ±52.45 3.0 <0.303
Gyeongbuk
Total Kimchi 544 88.41 ±56.05 349 96.85 ±10.81 8.4 <0.496
Baechu kimchi 544 67.30 ±55.09 349 68.62 ±57.38 1.3 <0.883
Kkakdugi 544 5.93 ±51.29 349 4.69 ±51.73 1.2 <0.567
Gyeongnam
Total Kimchi 644 105.99 ±55.51 366 99.99 ±59.75 6.0 <0.592
Baechu kimchi 644 71.01 ±53.95 366 72.15 ±56.98 1.1 <0.887
Kkakdugi 644 8.34 ±51.28 366 7.51 ±52.24 0.8 <0.748
Jeju
Total Kimchi 161 114.19 ±10.19 136 68.42 ±13.13 45.8 <0.006
Baechu kimchi 161 98.85 ±10.11 136 53.49 ±11.46 45.4 <0.003
Kkakdugi 161 7.92 ±51.15 136 6.57 ±51.33 1.3 <0.443
Gender and age-adjusted kimchi consumption per capita (g/day)
2005 2015 10 year change P value
NMean±SE N Mean ±SE
Total population
Total kimchi 8,930 127.00 ±51.97 6,628 93.31 ±51.82 33.7 < 0.001
4)
Baechu kimchi 8,930 91.63 ±51.53 6,628 64.82 ±51.59 26.8 < 0.001
Kkakdugi 8,930 9.23 ±50.46 6,628 7.55 ±50.58 1.7 <0.011
Seoul
Total Kimchi 1,649 124.66 ±53.76 1,246 79.94 ±53.67 44.7 < 0.001
Baechu kimchi 1,649 92.32 ±53.66 1,246 55.35 ±53.30 37.0 < 0.001
Kkakdugi 1,649 8.72 ±50.86 1,246 6.88 ±51.11 1.8 <0.197
Busan
Total Kimchi 714 135.67 ±10.69 326 78.13 ±55.89 57.5 < 0.001
Baechu kimchi 714 93.58 ±55.46 326 49.83 ±55.10 43.8 < 0.001
Kkakdugi 714 12.23 ±52.01 326 8.93 ±52.08 3.3 <0.252
Daegu
Total Kimchi 475 87.36 ±54.45 376 98.55 ±57.56 11.2 <0.208
Baechu kimchi 475 68.44 ±54.72 376 72.68 ±59.35 4.2 <0.682
Kkakdugi 475 5.71 ±50.66 376 6.76 ±52.21 1.1 <0.651
Incheon
Total Kimchi 484 145.49 ±58.22 426 79.42 ±56.27 66.1 < 0.001
Baechu kimchi 484 104.88 ±58.31 426 58.08 ±54.25 46.8 < 0.001
Kkakdugi 484 12.19 ±51.30 426 6.66 ±51.30 5.5 <0.002
Gwangju
Total Kimchi 287 145.61 ±12.44 233 95.19 ±14.22 50.4 <0.010
Baechu kimchi 287 108.22 ±10.25 233 68.37 ±10.13 39.8 <0.007
Kkakdugi 287 11.15 ±51.97 233 8.80 ±52.48 2.3 <0.453
Daejeon
Total Kimchi 246 132.37 ±57.48 240 103.80 ±58.76 28.6 <0.015
Baechu kimchi 246 100.36 ±57.30 240 69.40 ±10.22 31.0 <0.016
Kkakdugi 246 6.10 ±51.80 240 8.45 ±53.11 2.4 <0.508
152·최 10년간 한국인의 김치 섭취량 변화
4. 지역별 김치 섭취량의 변화
16개 · 최근 10년간 김치 섭취량의 변화는 Table
3과 같다. 김치 섭취량과 배추김치 섭취량이 통계적으로
의하게 감소한 지역은, 부산, 인, 주, 경기, 제주(6
Tabl e 3. continued
Gender and age-adjusted kimchi consumption per capita (g/day)
2005 2015 10 year change P value
NMean±SE N Mean ±SE
Ulsan
Total Kimchi 247 113.21 ±56.91 120 81.41 ±58.12 31.8 <0.002
Baechu kimchi 247 80.02 ±53.15 120 62.92 ±59.75 17.1 <0.084
Kkakdugi 247 9.93 ±50.92 120 7.21 ±50.78 2.7 <0.029
Gyeonggi
Total Kimchi 1,706 133.21 ±54.88 1,575 96.20 ±53.09 37.0 < 0.001
Baechu kimchi 1,706 94.59 ±53.41 1,575 65.35 ±52.54 29.2 < 0.001
Kkakdugi 1,706 9.82 ±51.12 1,575 8.73 ±51.13 1.1 <0.497
Gangwon
Total Kimchi 297 176.11 ±16.48 263 129.53 ±15.86 46.6 <0.043
Baechu kimchi 297 137.61 ±16.30 263 95.29 ±16.36 42.3 <0.068
Kkakdugi 297 9.92 ±54.07 263 7.70 ±52.15 2.2 <0.623
Chungbuk
Total Kimchi 322 121.10 ±58.88 198 92.12 ±12.22 29.0 <0.059
Baechu kimchi 322 91.75 ±57.56 198 66.97 ±57.75 24.8 <0.025
Kkakdugi 322 6.73 ±51.01 198 2.88 ±51.50 3.8 <0.031
Chungnam
Total Kimchi 318 145.99 ±59.05 305 112.08 ±56.70 33.9 <0.003
Baechu kimchi 318 88.84 ±56.99 305 69.49 ±57.86 19.4 <0.064
Kkakdugi 318 13.41 ±53.33 305 9.53 ±52.48 3.9 <0.345
Jeonbuk
Total Kimchi 447 134.68 ±10.98 254 112.82 ±10.50 21.9 <0.160
Baechu kimchi 447 102.32 ±57.60 254 75.46 ±55.09 26.9 <0.004
Kkakdugi 447 6.08 ±51.28 254 6.92 ±52.38 0.8 <0.763
Jeonnam
Total Kimchi 379 129.38 ±56.41 215 111.01 ±57.24 18.4 <0.057
Baechu kimchi 379 86.80 ±55.23 215 76.11 ±57.43 10.7 <0.236
Kkakdugi 379 10.82 ±51.73 215 7.59 ±52.35 3.2 <0.272
Gyeongbuk
Total Kimchi 544 91.03 ±56.45 349 94.86 ±10.06 3.8 <0.752
Baechu kimchi 544 69.18 ±55.28 349 67.17 ±57.21 2.0 <0.825
Kkakdugi 544 5.78 ±51.25 349 4.88 ±51.70 0.9 <0.662
Gyeongnam
Total Kimchi 644 108.46 ±55.94 366 97.03 ±59.80 11.4 <0.321
Baechu kimchi 644 72.18 ±54.01 366 70.40 ±57.18 1.8 <0.828
Kkakdugi 644 8.45 ±51.27 366 7.42 ±52.22 1.0 <0.682
Jeju
Total Kimchi 161 115.20 ±56.85 136 67.69 ±54.18 47.5 < 0.001
Baechu kimchi 161 99.68 ±57.16 136 52.83 ±54.34 46.9 < 0.001
Kkakdugi 161 8.00 ±51.47 136 6.54 ±52.09 1.5 <0.568
1) Mean daily per capita kimchi consumption
2) Student t-test was conducted to compare means per capita kimchi consumption between 2005 and 2015.
3) Baechu kimchi: napa cabbage kimchi, Kkakdugi: Korean radish kimchi
4) ANCOVA was performed and gender and age were adjusted.
박정현·이해정·153
개 시·도)이었고, 성·보정는 위에
한 지역에 대전이 추가된 7개 시·도였다. 김치 섭취 감소량
이 59.0 g으로 가 감소하였고 으로는
산 52.5 g, 제주 45.9 g, 주 43.3 g, 서 38.5 g,
29.8 g 으로 감소하였다 . 이러한 패턴은· 보정
에도 하였다. 200 5년 대비 김치 섭취량이 감소하였으
통계적으로 유의하지 않은 지역은 대전, , 충북, 전
, , 이었고 ·을 보정한 후에는 충북, 전,
, 경이었다. 김치 섭취량이 오히려 증가한 지역은
구와 경이었다.
Tabl e 4. Changes of kimchi consumption in KNHANES 2005 and 2015 by income level
Kimchi consumption per capita (g/day)
2005 2015 10 year change P value
NMean±SE N Mean ±SE
Low
Total Kimchi 2,346 123.54
1)
±4.18 1,656 101.28
a
±3.95 22.3 < 0.001
2)
Baechu kimchi
3)
2,346 90.50 ±2.63 1,656 73.61
a
±3.20 16.9 < 0.001
Kkakdugi
3)
2,346 9.40 ±0.85 1,656 6.70 ± 0.81 2.7 <0.022
Middle-low
Total Kimchi 2,256 127.32 ±2.96 1,636 97.23
b
±3.62 30.1 < 0.001
Baechu kimchi 2,256 93.23 ±2.71 1,636 65.32
b
±2.99 27.9 < 0.001
Kkakdugi 2,256 8.79 ±0.74 1,636 8.27 ± 1.03 0.5 <0.679
Middle-high
Total Kimchi 2,141 124.56 ±3.72 1,637 96.47
c
±3.65 28.1 < 0.001
Baechu kimchi 2,141 88.85 ±2.69 1,637 66.05
c
±2.98 22.8 < 0.001
Kkakdugi 2,141 9.09 ±0.76 1,637 7.33 ±0.78 1.8 <0.107
High
Total Kimchi 2,100 120.21 ±3.38 1,661 90.76
bc
±3.65 29.5 < 0.001
Baechu kimchi 2,100 87.41 ±2.64 1,661 60.95
bc
±3.05 26.5 < 0.001
Kkakdugi 2,100 9.39 ±0.82 1,661 8.30 ±0.93 1.1 <0.385
Gender and age-adjusted kimchi consumption (g/day)
2005 2015 10 year change P value
NMean±SE N Mean ±SE
Low
Total Kimchi 2,346 126.24 ±4.04 1,656 97.62 ±3.56 28.6 < 0.001
4)
Baechu kimchi 2,346 92.06 ±2.57 1,656 71.21 ±3.04 20.9 < 0.001
Kkakdugi 2,346 9.40 ±0.85 1,656 6.60 ±0.81 2.8 <0.018
Middle-low
Total Kimchi 2,256 130.07 ±2.96 1,636 94.78 ±3.50 35.3 < 0.001
Baechu kimchi 2,256 94.67 ±2.66 1,636 64.10 ±3.01 30.6 < 0.001
Kkakdugi 2,256 8.91 ±0.75 1,636 8.18 ±1.01 0.7 <0.556
Middle-high
Total Kimchi 2,141 128.58 ±3.58 1,637 93.03 ±3.46 35.5 < 0.001
Baechu kimchi 2,141 91.09 ±2.61 1,637 64.22 ±2.86 26.9 < 0.001
Kkakdugi 2,141 9.29 ±0.79 1,637 7.18 ±0.79 2.1 <0.061
High
Total Kimchi 2,100 123.28 ±3.28 1,661 88.23 ±3.59 35.0 < 0.001
Baechu kimchi 2,100 89.07 ±2.55 1,661 59.62 ±3.05 29.4 < 0.001
Kkakdugi 2,100 9.45 ±0.83 1,661 8.28 ±0.93 1.2 <0.352
1) Mean daily per capita kimchi consumption
2) Student t-test was conducted to compare means per capita kimchi consumption between 2005 and 2015.
Means in a column without a common letter are significantly different at α=0.05 by GLM/PDIFF
3) Baechu kimchi: napa cabbage kimchi, Kkakdugi: Korean radish kimchi
4) ANCOVA was performed and gender and age were adjusted.
154·최 10년간 한국인의 김치 섭취량 변화
읍·최근 1 0년간 김치 섭취량 변화를 분석
하였을 (Fig. 2A, Fig. 2B), · 김치 섭
취량과 배추김치 섭취량이 통계적으로 유의하게 감소하였
고, 섭취량 감소의 지역에서 . 이러한 결과
는 성· 보정한 후에도 일하였다.로 보면,
자의 최근 10년간 김치와 배추김치 섭취량이 지역에서
유의하게 감소하였고, 읍· 지역에서는 섭취량이 감소하
였으나 통계적으로 유의하지는 . 이러한 경향은 ·
을 보정한 후에도 일하였다. 여자의 김치와 배추김치
섭취량은 , 읍· 유의하게 감소하였고 보정
에도 경향은 일하였다.
5. 소득수준별 김치 섭취량의 변화
소득수준별 최근 10년간 김치 섭취량의 변화를 분석한
과(Table 4), 소득 , 중하, 중상 , 에서
김치와 배추김치 섭취량이 통계적으로 유의하게 감소되었
고, ·을 보정한 후에도 일하였다 . 소득수 중하
에서 최근 10년간 김치와 배추김치의 감소량은 각각 30.1 g
과 27.9 g으로 가장 높고, 소득 에서의 감소량은
각각 2 9.5 g과 26. 5 g이었다. 김치와 배추김치 섭취량의 감
소량은 소득수 서 가장 적었고 보정 후에일하
였다. 2005년2015년 년도에서 소득수 간에 김
섭취량 차이가 있는지 살펴보, 2005년에,
, 중상, 간의 김치 섭취량이 차이가 었고, 2015
년에는 소득 계 김치 섭취량이 통계적
로 유의하게 차이가 있었다 .
—————————————————————————
고찰
—————————————————————————
본 연구의 분석 결과, 2005년에 비해 2015년에는 배추
김치의 섭취량이 김치의 섭취량이 조금 늘어
것으로 보인다. 20 15년에는 배추김치의 섭취비이 3.6%
감소되었고 깍두기나 무김치 등의 섭취비이 다소 늘었
치미도 2005년 2%에 3.7%로 두드러진 증가를
였다. 연구에서 산출한 김치 섭취 위는 국
건강영양조사 제 3기(2005년) 과보고서에서 제시
김치 섭취량 위와 일하였다[30]. 2006년 부산지역
에서 조사된 생 대상 선행연구에서도 배추김치, 깍두
기, 무 및 총각김치 으로 섭취하였다고 보고하였다 [3 1] .
최근 10년간 김치 섭취량은 2 005년에 비해 2015년에 유
의하게 감소하였고 로도 남녀 감소하였다. Kim 등
[5]의 국민건강영양조사 제 4기(2007-2009)와 제 5기
(2010-2012) 자료를 이용한 성인 대상 연구에서도 김치
취량제 4기 128.6 g서 제 5기 115.6 g으로 13 g
소하였다고 보고하여 연구와 한 추세를 보였다. 다
, 본 연구가 10년 간의 변화를 분석문에 김치 섭취
량의 감소 것으로 사료된다.
김치의 섭취량이 아 섭취 빈도에 관해서는 20 12년도에
반정량 식품섭취빈도조사지가 개발되어 성인의 배추김치 섭
취빈도 산출이 가능하게 되었다. 19세 이상 64세 미만을
대상으로 조사된 자료이 하지만 2012-2013년의 배추김
섭취빈도에 관한 선행연구의 분석결과는 1년간 3
이상 배추김치를 섭취하는201225.9%에
2013년 23.6%[3 2] 본 연구의 섭취량 변화와
한 추세였다 .
이러한 상에서 정부는 김치의 세계화와 건강 기능성 김
치의 개발을 위해 2010년에 세계김치연구소설립하고
김치연구를 적극적으로 하고 있지만[ 33], 여전히 국내
김치 섭취량은 감소하고 있어 형 잡 식사와
건강하게 김치를 소비할 수 있도 장려하는 마련이
요하다 .
16개 · 최근 10년간 김치 섭취량의 변화를 살펴
보면, 통계적으로 유의하게 감소한 지역은 대도시였고 최근
10년간 김치 섭취량이 감소으나 통계적으로 유의하지 않
은 지역은 농·이 높은 지역이었다. 이는 전통적인
식사패턴을 유지하는 인들의 인구비이 높문이라고
추정할 수 있다. 농촌자 실 및 정개선 보고서
르면[ 34], 전국의 동·읍·면 연 인인구 비
을 보지역은 6 5~69인이 34.3%, 70~74
27.9%, 75~79세 19.5%, 80세 이상
18.3%였고, 지역은 65~69인 24.9%, 70~74
26.7%, 75~79세 24.1%, 80세 이상
24.4%였다. 65~69세 29.1%,
70~74인 27.3%, 75~79인 22.1%, 80세 이상
인 21.5%로, 75세 이상 인의 읍· 지역 주 비
. 추가적으로령별 김치 섭취량을 분석
75세 이상의 김치 섭취량이 2005년 대비 2015년에 감
소하였으나 통계적으로는 유의하지다(Appendix 1).
지역에 따른 김치 섭취실 관한 선행연구를 살펴보면,
지역의 김치 섭취 도[27-28], 나트륨
[3 5- 36]에 관한 내용이 대부분이어서 연구 결과와
적인 어려다.
읍·면의 최근 10년간 김치 섭취량의 변화는
읍· 지역 유의하게 감소고 감소의
역에서 다. 하지만 읍· 지역을 성로 분류하여
살펴보 여자에서는 섭취량이 유의하게 감소하였으나
박정현·이해정·155
자에서는 감소량이 통계적으로 유의하지 않다. 16·
결과에서 농·높은 지역의 김치 섭취량
소가 통계적으로 유의하지 인의 섭취량이
감소하지았던 것도 고려하여 이유에 대해서는
섭취량 변화와 함 감소 요인에 관한 추가 연구가
할 것으로 사료된다.
농촌 인의 나트륨 섭취에 기여하는 을 분석한 선
행연구에 의하면, 나트륨 섭취에 기여하는 주요
김치류(28.3%), 국·탕류(22.9%), 류(9.8%),
류(8.2%), 물·류(6.0%), 구이류(4.6%)
었다[ 37].
다양한 식품을 섭취하는 형 잡 식사보다는 밥+
치+해조류와 같은 식사패턴을 유지할 것으로 되는
인비이 높은 농촌지역[38], 중에서도 인에게는
나트륨 함량이 적고 지역적 성을 반영한 김치를 개발·
급하면서 시에 형 잡 식생활 교육 병행이 요할 것
으로 사료된다 .
소득수준별 2005년과 2015년 김치 섭취량의 변화에
하면 소득수 높을수 김치 섭취량도 적고 최근 10년
감소 것으로 나타, 소득수보다
소득수이 높일수 김치 이외의 다양한 식을
이 섭취하문인 것으로 추정된다. 소득수
상관이 모 국민의 김치소비를 늘리기 위해서는
치 등 김치 연구 개발도 중요하지만 김치를 활용
다양한 요리의 개발과 활용 가능한 의 보급으로
소비의 활성화, 히 소득수이 높은 계 소비를
도하는 다적인 시도들이 요할 것이다.
본 연구의 제한으로는 24시간 의 단, 조사
하루 안의 식사가 상시의 식사를 반영할 수 다는
과 기하는 조사이기 문에 오류가 발생
할 수 있다 수 있다 . 다만, 개인이 아
단을 대상으로 김치 섭취량의 변화를 분석하였기
이러한 단이 어 정도되었을 것이라진다 . 본
연구의 결과는 우리나라 국민 전체를 대표하는 이터를 사
문에 최근 10년간 우리국민의 김치 섭취량 변화와
지역별·소득수준별 김치 섭취량 변화대한 대표성을
가진다는 의의가 있다고 하겠다.
연구 결과를 바탕으로, 김치 섭취가 유의하게 지 않
농·지역에서김치 보급과 형된 식사에
교육에 주하고, 소득수이 높은 을 위해서는 김치
활용한 다양한 개발 보급한다면 김치 소
진에 도 것으로 보인다. 한 본 연구결과가
후 김치 소비 진을 위한 및 추진 전을 마련하는
자료로 활용되기를 기대한다.
—————————————————————————
요약 결론
—————————————————————————
연구는 국민건강영양조사 3기( 2005년)와 6
3차년도(2015년)의 자료이용하여 국민전체, 지역, 소
득수준별 10년간 김치 섭취량의 변화를 분석하였다.
구의 주요 결과는과 같.
김치 섭취량에 대한 김치의 섭취비은 2005년
에는 배추김치, 깍두기, 무김치 ,김치, 총각김치
로 높고, 2015년에무김치까지는 20 05년과 일하
였으나 총각김치, 치미 이었다 . 배추김치
취비아지고 김치 섭취비이 증가하였다.
우리나라 국민의 김치 섭취량은 최근 10년간 통계적으로
유의하게 감소하였고 , 자보다 여자에게서 더욱 많이 감소
하였다.
지역 최근 10년간 김치 섭취량은 16개 시·도 중에
, 부산, 인, 주, 경기, 제주에서 통계적으로 유의하게
감소하였고, 대구, 경오히려 증가하였다 . 지역
읍· 지역 최근 10년간 김치 섭취량이 유의하게 감
소하였으나, 읍· 지역의 자에게서는 통계적으로 유의
한 섭취량 변화가 었다.
소득수준별 최근 10년간 김치 섭취변화는 , 중하,
, 에서 모 유의하게 감소하였으나, 감소량은 중하 ,
에서 가장고, 보정 후에는 중하, 중상에서 가장
다. 2015년 김치 섭취량에서 가장다. 소득
그룹 간의 김치 섭취량을 교했, 2005년도에
그룹 차이가 고, 2015년에는 그룹의 김
섭취량이 통계적으로 유의한 차이가 있었다.
이상으로 , 최근 10년간 한국인의 김치 섭취량은
소되는 추세이고, 로는 여자에게서, 지역로는 대도
시에서의 감소컸던 반면, 농·높은
김치 섭취량, 김치 섭취량의 유의한 차이가
었다는 것을 알 수 있었다. 소득수 그룹 간의 김치 섭취
량이 과에는 차이가 었으나 최근에는 유의하게 차이가
있었다.
으로 김치의 나트륨 함량은 이면서 과 건강에 좋은
적의 발효 정을 개발하고 지역의 산 재료를 활용한
양한 김치를 개발하는 시에 가정에서도 활용 가능한 김치
요리 보급하며 김치를 함한 형된 식사 교육
노력을 통해 한국의 우수한 전통식인 김치를승·
전해 할 것이다 .
156·최 10년간 한국인의 김치 섭취량 변화
—————————————————————————
감사의
—————————————————————————
연구는 한국식품연구 연구비(EO164500-01)의
에 의하여 수행되었으며 이에 감사드립니다. 표와 그림
작업을 도와학교 일반대학원 김소
드립니다.
—————————————————————————
References
—————————————————————————
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158·최 10년간 한국인의 김치 섭취량 변화
Appendix 1. Changes in kimchi consumption in KNHANES 2005 and 2015 by age
Kimchi consumption per capita (g/day)
2005 2015 10 year change P value
NMean±SE N Mean ±SE
1~2 y
Total Kimchi 217 11.98 ±2.04 137 8.34 ±1.64 3.64 <0.165
1)
Baechu kimchi 217 7.82 ±1.46 137 5.41 ±1.22 2.42 <0.204
Kkakdugi 217 0.86 ±0.45 137 1.56 ±0.71 0.70 <0.402
3~5 y
Total Kimchi 403 35.02 ±2.97 209 24.30 ±2.66 10.72 <0.008
Baechu kimchi 403 28.13 ±2.67 209 18.67 ±2.51 9.47 <0.010
Kkakdugi 403 3.22 ±0.52 209 3.08 ±0.68 0.14 <0.869
6~11 y
Total Kimchi 889 69.31 ±3.04 448 42.45 ±3.21 26.87 < 0.001
Baechu kimchi 889 55.35 ±2.71 448 32.30 ±2.92 23.05 < 0.001
Kkakdugi 889 5.57 ±0.67 448 3.52 ±0.63 2.05 <0.027
12~18 y
Total Kimchi 895 94.86 ±3.45 528 65.40 ±4.19 29.46 < 0.001
Baechu kimchi 895 74.19 ±2.95 528 50.33 ±3.99 23.86 < 0.001
Kkakdugi 895 9.88 ±1.01 528 7.01 ±1.14 2.86 <0.062
19~64 y
Total Kimchi 5,522 142.10 ±2.48 3,849 106.61 ±2.49 35.49 < 0.001
Baechu kimchi 5,522 102.15 ±1.80 3,849 75.01 ±2.02 27.14 < 0.001
Kkakdugi 5,522 10.51 ±0.54 3,849 8.56 ±0.63 1.95 <0.019
65~74 y
Total Kimchi 719 140.57 ±4.82 884 112.74 ±5.13 27.83 < 0.001
Baechu kimchi 719 98.68 ±4.37 884 70.11 ±4.75 28.57 < 0.001
Kkakdugi 719 7.03 ±1.16 884 7.87 ±1.19 0.84 <0.612
75 y+
Total Kimchi 285 119.14 ±8.45 573 107.35 ±6.56 11.79 <0.272
Baechu kimchi 285 80.93 ±5.81 573 55.75 ±4.24 25.18 <0.001
Kkakdugi 285 3.81 ±1.16 573 5.09 ±1.16 1.28 <0.436
1) Student t-test was conducted to compare mean per capita kimchi consumption between 2005 and 2015.
... Traditional Korean meals comprise a large variety of side dishes known as banchan, and kimchi is the most ubiquitous side dish consumed in two meals on a daily basis by a large proportion of Koreans [18]. Every day, a Korean is estimated to consume 27.6 g kimchi (25.0 g for males and 29.9 g for females) [19]. ...
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Kimchi is a traditional fermented vegetable dish from Korea globally appraised as healthy food. The most common kimchi is baechu kimchi made from Chinese cabbage ( Brassica rapa ). Having been an integral part in the Korean food culture for thousands of years, kimchi is considered as a symbol of Korean identity and pride. The importance of kimchi in Korean food culture is reflected from a special annual event dedicated to the making of kimchi held in autumn known as kimjang. It is a festive communal traditional practice of preparing large quantities of kimchi to be consumed throughout winter. Such an activity has been listed as UNESCO’s Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity since 2013. Indeed, the unique culture of kimchi and kimjang stems from the ancient wisdoms and old traditions of Korea that are rich in philosophy. This review discusses different philosophical values of kimchi and the kimjang culture in Korean traditions, including their accordance with the ancient philosophy of yin and yang, the five elements (wood, fire, earth, metal, and water), medicinal food, beauty, communal activity, filial piety, and humanistic values. Understanding the philosophical values of kimchi and kimjang culture would make people see kimchi not only as a mere ethnic food, but also as a global cultural heritage that needs preserving for its continuity in the future.
... Koreans consume 96.3 g/day of kimchi, according to the KNHANES of 2015. 23 In contrast, the Japanese consume 3.6 g/day of pickled vegetables, such as pickled Chinese cabbage and kimchi, based on the Japanese National Health and Nutrition Survey of 2014. 24 Kimchi contains high levels of vitamins, minerals, dietary fibres and other functional components, and has been reported to have anticancer, antioxidative and antiatherosclerotic effects, as well as probiotic properties. ...
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Objectives Reports from national surveys in South Korea and Japan have indicated that the prevalence of periodontal disease is lower in Korea than in Japan. However, these national surveys have not evaluated factors related to periodontal health condition, including diabetes and metabolic syndrome. This study compared periodontal conditions between Korean and Japanese adults, in the context of general health status. Design Cross-sectional study. Setting National survey in South Korea (Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, ‘KNHANES’) and a population-based study in Japan (Hisayama study); both were conducted in 2012. Participants This study included 3574 Korean and 2205 Japanese adults aged 40–79 years. Outcome measures Periodontal condition was assessed by using the Community Periodontal Index (CPI). Examiners in Japan underwent clinical calibration training for periodontal examination with a gold-standard examiner from KNHANES, prior to the Hisayama study. Results The age-adjusted prevalences of periodontal disease, defined as CPI score ≥3, were 31.4% and 42.1% in South Korea and Japan, respectively (p<0.001). The age-adjusted prevalences of diabetes (p=0.018) and metabolic syndrome (p=0.001) were higher in Korea than in Japan. The numbers of present and filled teeth and percentages of participants who visited a dental clinic in the last 12 months were higher in Japan than in Korea (all p<0.001). Logistic regression analysis showed that the Japanese participants were more likely to have periodontal disease than were the Korean participants, after adjusting for age, sex, occupation, oral health status, oral health behaviour, diabetes and metabolic syndrome. Conclusions A higher prevalence of periodontal disease was found in Japanese participants than in Korean participants. Further studies are needed to more clearly elucidate factors underlying the difference in periodontal conditions between the two populations, including those related to the dental healthcare system and dietary intake.
... The results suggested that young people in Korea might prefer less fermented kimchi than fully fermented kimchi. The overall consumption of kimchi by Koreans is decreasing and falling even more dramatically amongst young people [22]. Therefore, sensory tests were performed on young people to find kimchi that young people prefer. ...
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Ethanol extracts from developed kimchi condiments (KME, KMEE) and mixtures of sub-ingredients (ME, MEE) showed high nitrite scavenging activity. ME was able to scavenge 89% of total nitrite at 50 mg/mL ME and pH 1.2. The nitrite scavenging abilities of KME and KMEE were significantly higher than in ethanol extract from the control condiment. The inhibitory effects on N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) formation by decrease of salted-fermented fish products (Jeot-gal) and increase of condiments in the composition of kimchi were investigated. The modified kimchi (KM) was prepared with new condiments, which included new sub-ingredients and reduced Jeot-gal. The NDMA and its precursor levels were significantly decreased in KM compared with those in the control kimchi (KC). The KM also obtained higher sensory scores than KC. Therefore, the increase of sub-ingredients and reduction of Jeot-gal in kimchi would be recommended for production of reduced-NDMA kimchi while maintaining or even enhancing flavor profiles.
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Purpose: The purpose of this study is to analyze nutrient intake and frequently consumed foods according to the intake frequency of Baechu (Chinese cabbage) kimchi by Korean adults. Methods: Data from analysis of 7,122 subjects aged 19-64 years from 2012, 2013 KNHANES were obtained from health behavior interviews and the 24-hour dietary recall method. Results: With the daily intake frequency of Baechu kimchi, subjects with two times a day were the highest proportion among total subjects. As Baechu kimchi intake frequency of breakfast, lunch, and dinner increased, the rate of skipping meals decreased significantly (p < 0.05). In addition, all food intake and daily nutrient intake increased significantly with increasing frequency of daily Baechu kimchi intake (Crude p for trend < 0.05, Adjusted p for trend < 0.05). With the frequently consumed foods by daily Baechu kimchi intake frequency in 2012 and 2013, among 509 foods top ranked foods were white rice, Baechu kimchi, beer, distilled alcoholic drink, milk, and pork. Conclusion: The results of this study could be used in the future to promote consumption of kimchi in the Korean population.
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The intake patterns and attitudes towards development of functional kimchi among middle and high school students in Busan area were studied. Nine hundred respondents, consisting of middle and high school students, were surveyed. A total of 833 completed copies of the questionnaire were used in this research. Respondents preferred kimchi due to its ‘hot taste’ (49.2%) and ‘salty taste’ (17.9%), but they did not like kimchi due to its ‘sour taste’ (33.8%) and ‘jeotgal taste’ (22.9%). Most students (64.3%) consumed kimchi at home, 68.1% of students ate kimchi more than twice a day, and 27.4% of students consumed 3~4 pieces (size of a piece: 3X4 cm) of kimchi per meal. Students showed a strong desire to develop kimchi with a good taste at school food services (65.1%). They also showed intentions to increase intake of kimchi if ‘taste of kimchi’ (80.6%), and ‘health functionality of kimchi’ (65.2%) are strengthened. Students wanted kimchi to contain the following fruits: pears (41.3%), apples (24.6%) and pineapples (10.3%). Finally, students showed a desire to develop kimchi that helps growth and development (59.5%), weight loss (40.4%), and learning ability improvement (32.8%). This study concludes that it is necessary to increase kimchi intake in school foodservices by developing new kimchi recipes that meet students’ desires and by educating students about the health benefits of kimchi. © 2015, Korean Society of Food Science and Nutrition. All rights reserved.
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Background: Kimchi is a unique and traditional fermented ethnic food of Korea, which consists of vegetables such as Chinese cabbage fermented with lactic acid bacteria. However, some argue that kimchi has only existed for 100 years, which is a false assertion. Methods: We will discuss some papers that make statements on kimchi, and provide accurate historical facts on kimchi by analyzing ancient documents of Korea and by scientifically examining the introduction of red pepper into Korea. Results: Belonging to the Ural–Altaic group of languages, Korean is completely different from Chinese; however, Korea did not have its own characters until 1433 when King Sejong invented Hangeul—the Korean characters. Koreans used Chinese characters in writing while using the Korean language when speaking. Therefore, although we wrote jo (菹) when indicating Korea's unique and traditional fermented food, kimchi, it is completely different food from paochai (泡菜). Thus, it is quite incorrect to attempt to find the origin of Korean kimchi in Chinese paochai. In addition, discursion that kimchi was originally white but changed into red following the Japanese invasion of Korea in 1592, and the assertion that there was no cabbage kimchi 100 years ago, but only kimchi made of white radish, are incorrect, and without any scientific evidence. Conclusion: For thousands of years, Korea has had its own traditional fermented food, especially fermented food with red pepper, and kimchi is our unique and traditional ethnic food. Due to the false assertion that red pepper was introduced into Korea from Japan during the invasion of Korea, some argue that kimchi is only 100 years old. Such assertions are quite incorrect. Even in the Samkuksaki (三國史記), the Chronicles of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, we can see that people already ate cabbage kimchi in the three states around 1,500 years ago. By directly interpreting the facts shown in the records, it is clear that kimchi is our fermented food invented thousands of years ago. Therefore, we hope the present study will provide an opportunity to correct the historical defaults and develop Korea's kimchi.
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Background: The aim of this study was to investigate the association between hypertension and kimchi, a salt-fermented vegetable, intake. Methods: This study was based on the data from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey conducted in 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, and 2012. In the final analysis, a total of 20,114 Korean adults (men = 7,815, women = 12,299) was included. Daily energy, nutrient, and kimchi intake were assessed using 24-hour dietary recall. The odds ratios for hypertension, according to groups of quintiles of kimchi consumption by gender, were assessed using logistic regression and multivariable models. Results: Out of 20,114 participants, 11.3% were newly diagnosed as having hypertension. Although participants with higher consumption of kimchi were more likely to have an older age, higher blood pressure, and a higher BMI, as well as higher consumption of calories and sodium, there was no significant difference in the distribution of prevalence of hypertension across quintiles of kimchi consumption in men and women. In multivariate models by gender, higher consumption of kimchi was not associated with a higher prevalence of hypertension (odds ratio = 0.87; 95% confidence interval = 0.70–1.08 for ≥216.5 g/day vs.
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This study was conducted to investigate which food items are perceived as HANSIK (Korean food) in Korea. 562 males and females aged 20-70 were surveyed on 512 most frequently consumed dish items from 4th Korean National Health and Nutrition Survey if they perceive it as HANSIK. Dish items in kimchi, namul · sukchae (cooked and seasoned vegetable) and jeotgal (salt-fermented food) category showed high response rate to be perceived as HANSIK. The response rate of twigim (frying foods) as HANSIK was low showing less than 70%. The response rate as HANSIK for foreign origin foods such as ramen and jjajangmyeon (black bean paste noodle) were lower than 25%. In jang · yangnyum (seasoning) category, doenjang (soybean paste) and gochujang (red pepper paste) showed high response rate as HANSIK more than 90%. Females showed a higher response rate as HANSIK than males for most food items except several items of myen · mandu (noodle and dumpling). The younger age group had higher HANSIK perception on many items of recently consumed foods, especially budae-jjigae (spicy sausage stew) (p < 0.001) and jwipo-jorim (braised dried filefish) (p < 0.001), implying that they already accept the common foods as HANSIK regardless of the origin. These results provide an information on the foods perceived as HANSIK among currently consumed common foods in Korea and these results can be utilized for establishment of HANSIK concept reflecting transition of dietary life in Korea.
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Koreans have undergone many changes in dietary patterns with economic growth. The purpose of this research was to examine changes in dietary patterns using data from the 1998, 2001, and 2005 Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. The study included 21,525 subjects (8,295 from 1998, 6,880 from 2001, and 6,350 from 2005) who were 20 years or older and who participated in a 24-h diet recall. The percentage energy intake from 22 food groups was calculated, and a cluster analysis was applied to identify dietary patterns. Two dietary patterns emerged; the first pattern was characterized by high intake of white rice, legumes, vegetables, kimchi, and seaweeds, the so-called "traditional" pattern (53%), whereas the other pattern was characterized by high intake of other grains, noodle dumplings, floured bread, pizza, hamburgers, cereals and snacks, potatoes, sugared sweets, nuts, fruits, meat·its products, eggs, fish, milk and dairy products, oils, beverages and seasoning, or the so-called "modified" pattern. The modified pattern comprised a higher proportion of younger aged, metropolitan residents with more education and higher incomes. However, the gender distribution was not significantly different. The modified pattern had a significantly higher intake of all nutrients except carbohydrates and had a higher proportion of energy from fat and protein. No association with a risk for metabolic syndrome was found for either dietary pattern. After age was standardized, the traditional pattern included 52% of the respondents in 1998, 54% in 2001, and 50% in 2005. However, the modified pattern was significantly more prevalent in the younger age group (20-29 yr), whereas the traditional pattern increased significantly in the older age group (≥ 65 yr). In conclusion, a secular trend was found for dietary pattern by age group, suggesting that it is necessary to monitor the changes in dietary pattern by age group and to develop appropriate dietary education and guidelines.
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Background and objectives: The aim of this study was to investigate the causal relationship between high consumption of salt-fermented vegetables and hypertension risk in adults. Methods and study design: Data came from the Korean Genome and Epidemiology Study, an ongoing community-based cohort study that began in 2001. In the final analysis, a total of 5,932 participants (men=2,822, women=3,110) was included. Daily energy, nutrient, and major salt-fermented vegetables for Korean (kimchi) intakes were assessed using a semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire. Relative risks and 95% CIs associated with kimchi intake by gender and body mass index (BMI) were estimated using the multivariate Cox proportional hazards regression model. Results: Out of the 5,932 participants, 1,798 (905 men, 893 women) developed hypertension during the 12-year follow-up period. A significant difference in baseline BMI was shown between the non-hypertension and hypertension groups. There was no significant difference with regard to the risk of developing hypertension across quintiles for total kimchi intake and quartile or quartiles for specific kimchi intake in multivariate models by gender and baseline BMI. The trend for increased risk of hypertension according to increasing quartile of watery kimchi intake was significant for obese men in the multivariate model (p<0.05). Conclusion: High consumption of salt-fermented vegetables was not shown to be associated with increased risk of hypertension. The trend for increased risk of hypertension according to increasing quartile of watery kimchi intake was significant only in obese men.
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The purpose of this study was to analyze average kimchi intake, general characteristics, frequency of daily meal intake, intakes of vegetables and fruits, and nutrient intakes in four serving size groups based on data from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2010~2012. The results showed an average amount of kimchi intake in subjects of 115.6 g, ranging from 0 g to 605.94 g. For daily meal intake except snacking according to kimchi serving size, all daily meal intakes increased significantly with increasing kimchi serving size (p