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Breeding ecology of red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus) in Deva Vatala National Park, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan.

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Copyright© PMAS-Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi, Pakistan http://jaab.uaar.edu.pk
Journal of Applied Agriculture and Biotechnology 2016 1(1): 5965
ISSN (print): 2415-6728
ISSN (online): 2415-6736
Research article
Breeding ecology of red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus) in Deva Vatala
National Park, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan
Maqsood Anwar*, Sakhawat Ali, Muhammad Rais, Tariq Mahmood
HIGHLIGHTS
Red Jungle Fowl was reported for the first time in 2010 in Pakistan
The breeding season of Red Jungle Fowl lasts from January to July with peaks in spring season
The males formed harem of females during March to May
Dominant male reproduced with a group of females throughout the breeding season
Maximum chicks with hen were observed in June and July
Authors affiliation
Department of Wildlife
Management, PMAS-Arid Agriculture
University, Rawalpindi, 46300,
Pakistan
*Corresponding author
Maqsood Anwar
Email: maqsoodanwar@uaar.edu.pk
How to cite
Anwar M., S. Ali, M. Rais and T.
Mahmood. 2016. Breeding ecology
of red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus) in
Deva Vatala National Park, Azad
Jammu & Kashmir, Pakistan. J. Appl.
Agric. Biotechnol., 1(1): 59-65
ABSTRACT
ed Jungle Fowl (Gallus gallus murghi) was reported for the first
time in 2010 from Pakistan in Deva Vatala National Park, Azad
Jammu and Kashmir. The present study investigated breeding
aspects such as nesting, breeding season, clutch size and hatching success
of the species at 10 selected sites in the national park. Nests were mostly
found on slopes with dense vegetation cover dominated by Lantana
camara and Adhatoda zeylanica. The nesting material consisted of dry
leaves, downy feathers, and twigs of plants. The nests were found at
sloppy areas as a small depression of 2.5-4 inches in soil made with the
help of feet and beak for laying eggs. The breeding season of Red Jungle
Fowl expanded from January till July with peak in spring season. Red
Jungle Fowl formed harem with dominant male maintaining a territory
and reproduced with a group of females throughout the breeding season.
Harem formation in Red Jungle Fowl was observed from March to May
with average harem size of three females with one male. The average
clutch size of Red Jungle Fowl in the study area was 5.5±1.5 eggs per nest.
Maximum chicks with hen were observed in June (3.1±0.43) and July
(3.3±0.36). The forests in Deva Vatala National Park had thick vegetation
cover due to occurrence of heavy rains during Monsoon season, when
insects were abundant. The thick cover provided shelter to chicks and
insects provide food to them. Our results provide some valuable baseline
information on breeding aspects of this least studied species in Pakistan
which can be used for its conservation in the park.
Key words: Red Jungle Fowl, Deva Vatala National Park, Breeding
aspects, Azad Jammu & Kashmir
R
Anwar et al. 2016 J. Appl. Agric. Biotechnol. 2016 1(1): 5965
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Copyright© PMAS-Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi, Pakistan http://jaab.uaar.edu.pk
1. Introduction Red Jungle Fowl (Gallus gallus
murghi) is distributed in the foothills of Himalayas from
Myanmar to north-western India extending southward
into peninsular India (Ali and Ripley, 1987). It also
occurs in tropical and subtropical habitats in southern
China and Southeast Asia. It has been introduced at
various places (Delacour, 1951). Historically Red Jungle
Fowl occurred from Indus River down through India
eastward across and down to Malaysia, Java and Lesser
Sunda Islands. Red Jungle Fowl is primarily forest and
scrub loving species, particularly in the vicinity of
scattered cultivated or overgrown fields where some
water is available throughout the year. Undergrowth
may be fairly dense in its habitat including a
considerable number of thicker clumps such as Bamboo
and Lantana (Lantana camara) and leaves, small
shrubs, herbs and grass, often in clumps, usually form a
rather open ground cover (Bump and Bohl, 1961).
Breeding season of Red Jungle Fowl in India lasts from
March to May but the nests have also been found from
January to October (Collias et al., 1966). Males form a
harem and have a polygynous mating system,
maintaining a territory and monopolizing mating in a
group of females throughout the breeding season
(Collias and Collias, 1967). It resides in small flocks
during the non-breading season i.e. summer, autumn
and winter. In the spring at the onset of the breeding
season, each of the stronger cocks maintains a territory
with three to five hens (Delacour, 1951). Hens produce
four to seven eggs per clutch, which are incubated for
19-21 days by the female only (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
During the breeding season, the male birds announce
their presence with the well-known “cock-a-doodle-
doo” call which serves both to attract potential mates
and to announce breeding territory. Their call structure
is complex including distinctive alarm calls for aerial
and ground predators to which others react
appropriately (Evans et al., 1993; Collias, 1987). The
males of Red Jungle Fowl and Kalij Pheasant sometimes
fight to the death during breeding season (Bump and
Bohl, 1961 in Johusgard, 1986). Nests of Red Jungle
Fowl are well hidden in a bushy clump, often in
overgrown openings in the forest, in edge cover, or in
open sites at the base of a tree or log. Re-nesting is the
rule when the eggs have been destroyed before
hatchling. Usually only one brood produced in a year
(Bump and Bohl, 1961).
Red Jungle Fowl is subject to pressures from illegal
hunting and egg collection, stray dog predation, and
habitat destruction (Arshad and Zakaria, 1999).
However, small carnivores, birds of prey and snakes are
also its natural predators. It is a game-bird species and
hunting is mainly for consumption, especially in rural
areas. Apart from that, it is trapped and bred with
domestic fowl by local people for increasing vitality of
their domestic breed. The hybridization with domestic
fowl causes the species to be infrequent in the wild
(Peterson and Brisbin, 1998). Red Jungle Fowl is
considered common and widespread despite habitat
loss and poaching within its range (Brisbin, 1997). The
bird is affected relatively little by habitat loss because it
can occupy a variety of habitats, including secondary
vegetation, man-made habitats and planted fields on
forest edges (del Hoyo et al., 2001). Red Jungle Fowl has
been listed as Least Concern (LC) in the IUCN Red List
(IUCN, 2010).
Red Jungle Fowl has been documented for the first time
in Pakistan in Deva Vatala National Park, Azad Jammu
and Kashmir (AJ&K) by Subhani et al. (2010), where it
inhibits the areas with a mix of slopes and plains having
Lantana camara, Ziziphus mauritiana, Saccharum
spontaneum, Dalbergia sissoo, Butea monosperma,
Acacia nilotica and grassy patches. Present study
investigated the breeding habits such as nesting,
breeding season, clutch size and hatching success of
Red Jungle Fowl in the park. Our results would provide
valuable baseline information on breeding aspects of
Red Jungle Fowl which can be used for the conservation
of this species.
2. Materials and Methods
The study was conducted in Deva Vatala National Park
(32° 54ʹ.505ʺ North 74° 21ʹ.656ʺ East). The park has an
area of 2,993 ha. It is located in district Bhimber in
south-east AJ&K, bordered in the east with Line of
Control. Elevation ranges from 306 - 411 m and
temperature from 5 to 46°C. Study area consists of two
ranges (Deva & Vatala) and falls under dry sub-tropical
climatic conditions. Major vegetation includes Acacia
nilotica, Butea monosperma Lamk, Mangifera indica,
Anwar et al. 2016 J. Appl. Agric. Biotechnol. 2016 1(1): 5965
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Cassia oceidentalis, Dalbergia sissoo, Launea
coromendaliana, Zanthoxylum armatum, Lantana
camara, Ziziphus mauritiana, Saccharum spontaneum
and Trichodesma indica. Dodonea viscosa and Lantana
camara are the most dominating species in the area
with patches of grasses (Anwar et al, 2012).
Data were collected from August 2010 to July 2011 at
10 study sites in the park selected based on frequency
of bird sighting, calls, and indirect signs of its presence
(Table 1). For determining breeding season, study sites
were regularly visited in addition to noting breeding
calls which indicate their breeding season. These calls
come shortly after dawn, and followed by a secondary
peak before sunrise (Collias and Collias, 1967).
Presence of fresh eggs and newly hatched chicks also
indicate the breeding time of Red Jungle Fowl (Arshad
and Zakaria, 1999). During field observations, number
of males and females in a group were noted to assess
harem formation. Nesting sites from the study area
were located, its structure and composition was noted
and dominant vegetation surrounding the nest was
sampled. The process of nest building is roughly divided
into three steps: (1) Preparing the site or support (e.g.
scratching a depression), (2) Constructing the floor and
sides, (3) Lining the nest (Verma and Pande, 2002).
Number of eggs was counted from each nest with
regular intervals in located nests. Hatching success was
monitored by observing the number of eggs hatched
and un-hatched in the nest in addition to counting
number of hatchlings with hens outside the nests. The
data collected was analyzed by Analysis of Variance
(ANOVA) without replication. Probability value p<0.05
was taken as significant confidence interval.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Breeding Season
Frequency of calls indicated that breeding season lasts
from January till July in the study area; February, March
and April having maximum average number of breeding
calls of 5.6±1.46, 8.1±1.91 and 6.6±1.11, respectively
(Table 2). Pause between first and second call was 14-
16 seconds during breeding season and 50-60 seconds
or even 2-3 minutes in non-breeding season. The
results indicated that breeding season of Red Jungle
Fowl ended in May. Breeding calls in Deva Range
showed significant difference between the months, F >
F 0.05 (6, 28) =2.445 and F calculated = 4.832, similar
results were found at Vatala Range, F > F 0.05 (6, 28)
=2.445 and F calculated = 6.348. Breeding season of Red
Jungle Fowl was reported from February to July in
Hainan, China (Ling, 2009). Arshad and Zakaria (1999),
however, found that the Red Jungle Fowl breeds
throughout the year in Malaysia, where continuous
supply of food and pruned oil-palm fronds provide good
cover, protecting the females against being detected by
predators throughout the year. Collias et al., (1966)
reported the highest number of Red Jungle Fowl brood
in the month of May and the lowest in September to
October while in India its breeding season is principally
from March to May, thus happens together with the dry
season in the spring (Ali, 1961), with peak breeding
months of May and June (Bump and Bohl, 1961). Thus,
results of present study are in line the earlier studies
conducted on breeding season of Red Jungle Fowl in
other areas of its distribution range. During the
breeding season, the male birds announce their
presence with the well-known “cock-a-doodle-doo” call
(Evans et al., 1993; Collias, 1987). In the study area,
most of the fowls established territories and calls were
given from a definite position by each male. If one bird
called, others responded to it.
3.2. Harem Formation
Harem formation in Red Jungle Fowl was observed
from February to May having average number of
females with one male as 1.2±0.55, 2.7±0.59, 2.2±0.47
and 2.1±0.56, respectively during these months. Hence,
sex ratio (male: female) was noted as 1:3 during
February, March and May and 1:2.81 in April. Average
harem size was three females with one male (Table 3).
Earlier studies reported two to five hens with one male
during breeding season (Collias and Collias, 1967);
Bump and Bohl, 1961; Johnson, 1963). Males hold
definite breeding territories which can be easily located
by predawn calling. Extra cocks, with no hens, move
silently about the periphery of harems. Ling (2009)
reported the flock size of Red Jungle Fowl as 3.0±1.3
with no significant difference between
Anwar et al. 2016 J. Appl. Agric. Biotechnol. 2016 1(1): 5965
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Table 1: Distribution of Red Jungle Fowl in Deva Vatala National Park
S.
No.
Site
Coordinates
Dominant
vegetation
Calls
heard
Signs
noted
(Feathers,
Dropping)
Total
% age
1
Upper Vatala
N 32° 54.505 E 74° 18.656
Mangifera indica,
Butea monosperma
4
7
11
5.39
2
Bancheer
N 32° 55.062 E 74° 18.268
Dalbergia sissoo,
Mangifera indica
5
11
16
7.84
3
Sori Gali
(No Signal)
Ficus bengalensis,
Adhatoda zeylanica
7
14
21
10.29
4
Barnali
Nullah
N 32° 54.972 E 74° 17.567
Adhatoda zeylanica,
Ziziphus jujuba
6
10
16
7.84
5
Goojan
Nullah
N 32° 54.676 E 74° 18.380
Adhatoda zeylanica,
Lantana camara
5
5
10
4.90
6
Main Deva
N 32° 54 866 E 74° 21 297
Lantana camara,
Ziziphus mauritiana
16
8
26
12.74
7
Mandiala
N 32° 52 490 E 74° 24 129
Lantana camara,
Saccharum
spontaneum
12
8
21
10.29
8
Sartao
Nullah
N 32° 54 210 E 74° 23 020
Dalbergia sissoo,
Saccharum
spontaneum
14
9
25
12.25
9
Puthi Kassi
N 32° 53 870 E 74° 23 482
Dalbergia sissoo,
Ziziphus mauritiana
21
12
36
17.64
10
Chakala
(No Signal)
Ziziphus jujuba,
Lantana camara
9
11
22
10.78
Table 2: Intensity of breeding Calls of Red Jungle Fowl at Deva Vatala National Park
S. No.
Site Name
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
1
Upper Vatal
1
2.5
3.5
4
5
4
2
2
Bancheer
1.5
2.5
6.5
4.5
5.5
3.5
3.5
3
Sori Gali
1.5
2.5
7.5
6.5
7.5
8
5
4
Barnali Nulla
1
1.5
4.5
5.5
8
4
2.5
5
GoojanNullah
0.5
1.5
2.5
4.5
3.5
1.5
1.5
6
Main Deva
12
13
17
13
7
3.5
2
7
Mandiala
6.5
7
6.5
5
2.5
1.5
1.5
8
Sartao Nullah
7.5
7
8
7
4
2.5
1.5
9
Puthi Kassi
10
14
21
13
6
3.5
2.5
10
Chakala
6.5
5
4.5
3.5
2.5
1.5
1
Mean value
4.8±1.33
5.6±1.46
8.1±1.91
6.6±1.11
5.1±0.63
3.3±0.61
2.3±0.37
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Table 3: Harem Size and Sex Ratio of Red Jungle Fowl at Deva Vatala National Park
S. No.
Site Name
February
March
April
May
Total
1
Upper Vatala
0
0
2.5
1
2.5
1
2.5
1
7.5
3
2
Bancheer
0
0
1
1
2.5
1
2.5
1
6
3
3
Sori Gali
0
0
4
1
4.5
1
4.5
1
13
3
4
Barnali Nullah
0
0
4
1
3
1
4.5
1
11.5
3
5
Goojan Nullah
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
6
Main Deva
4
1
5.5
1
2
1
1
1
12.5
4
7
Mandiala
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
2
2
8
Sartao Nullah
3
1
4.5
1
3.5
1
3
1
14
4
9
Puthi Kassi
4
1
4
1
3.5
1
3.5
1
15
4
10
Chakala
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
Mean value
1.2±0.55
2.7±0.59
2.2±0.47
2.1±0.56
8.3±1.76
Total Red Jungle Fowl
4
9
8
7
28
7.0
Total Red Jungle Fowl
12
27.5
22.5
21.5
83.5
20.87
Sex Ratio (M:F)
1:3
1:3
1:2.81
1:3
1:2.98
1:2.98
Table 4: Hatching observations of Red Jungle Fowl chicks at Deva Vatala National Park
breeding and non-breeding season. This study
observed that number of females with male during the
non-breeding season was less than the breeding season
which supports Delacour (1951) observation that Red
Jungle Fowl resides in small flocks during the non-
breading season and stronger cocks maintains a
territory with three to five hens in the breeding season.
3.3. Nesting sites and nesting material
Five nests of Red Jungle Fowl located from the study
area were found on slopes with dense vegetation cover
of Lantana camara and Adhatoda zeylanica. The slopes
probably prevent the eggs from rain water and are not
usually accessed by people. Nesting material consisted
of dry leaves, downy feathers, and few twigs of plants.
At sloppy area a small depression of 2.5 - 4 inches in soil
was made for laying eggs. Bump and Bohl (1961) also
reported that its nests were at well-hidden places in
brushy clump, however, Ling (2009) observed its nests
in relatively open places near road and forest edge,
with less leaf litter. Collias and Collias (1967) found that
Red Jungle Fowl nest consisted of a small depression
lined with just few leaves and couple of small feathers.
Ramesh (2008) concluded that the canopy cover,
ground cover, shrub cover, litter cover, litter depth and
distance to human footpath were significant variables
S. No
Site Name
March
April
May
June
July
Total
1
Upper Vatala
0
0
2
4
5
11
2
Bancheer
0
0
0
3
3
6
3
Sori Gali
0
0
3
0
2
5
4
Barnali Nullah
0
0
4
3
4
11
5
Goojan Nullah
0
0
0
3
2
5
6
Main Deva
0
3
2
4
3
12
7
Mandiala
0
0
3
5
2
10
8
Sartao Nullah
0
2
4
3
3
12
9
Puthi Kassi
3
0
6
2
5
16
10
Chakala
0
5
0
4
4
13
Mean value
0.3±0.90
1±0.55
2.4±0.63
3.1±0.43
3.3±0.36
10.1±1.15
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for their nest selection. Subhani et al. (2010) observed
that Lantana camara, and Ziziphus mauritiana in Deva
Vatala National Park provide shelter, nesting sites and
escape cover to Red Jungle Fowl.
3.4. Clutch size and hatchling
Only two active nests of Red Jungle Fowl could be
located in study area having four and seven eggs.
Earlier, Ling (2009) reported average clutch size of red
jungle fowl as 6.1 ±2.3 eggs. Arshad and Zakaria (1999)
reported their mean clutch size of 4.076 eggs with most
clutches have three to five eggs. delHoyo et al. (2001)
observed that the hens produced four to seven eggs per
clutch. Study conducted in Peninsular Malaysia found
that clutch size ranged from two to twelve eggs
(Nishida et al., 1975) whilst in Burma it was five to six
eggs (Ali and Ripley, 1987). Meijer and Siemers (1993)
reported that in captivity, the first clutch ranged from
five to seven eggs and second from six to eleven eggs.
Bump and Bohl (1961) observed that in India the first
clutch size was between five to seven eggs, while
second clutch of three to four eggs.
Present study showed maximum number of chicks with
hen in July (3.3±0.36), followed by June (3.1±0.43) and
May (2.4±0.63) (Table 4). The forests at Deva Vatala
National Park have very thick vegetation cover due to
rains in the month of June and July, when nsect fauna
were also abundant. The thick vegetation cover
provided shelter to chicks and insects provided food.
The chicks were, however, difficult to locate in dense
vegetation. Successful chicks-rearing cover present at
North-central India was in the form of patches of
Saccharum arundinaceum that leads to successful
hatching (Collias and Collias, 1967). Most of the chicks
were concentrated in or near the patches of this grass;
the tall and spreading leaves of which provided good
concealment for partly grown chicks. Arshad and
Zakaria (1999) reported the percentage of egg hatching
in nature up to 99% in suitable habitats. After the chicks
are hatched, hen spent most of the time with chicks and
before the appearance of chicks, it is rare to see a hen
alone (Collias and Collias, 1967).
Most of the Vatala Range of the park is easily accessible
to local people and their livestock which disturbs the
Red Jungle Fowl, pushing them closer to LoC in low
disturbance area or under the dense vegetation of
Lantana camara. Deva Range, being close to LoC and
due to presence of army, has comparatively less
disturbance to Red Jungle fowl population and low
poaching of eggs due to restricted entry of local people.
The situation favors the Red Jungle Fowl to survive and
having larger population at this site. Vatala range
should also be protected from human activities
including livestock grazing, fuel wood collection, eggs
collection etc. in order to provide safe habitat and
undisturbed breeding ground to Red Jungle Fowl for its
long term conservation in the park.
4. Conclusion
Red Jungle Fowl occupies a narrow distribution range in
and around Deva Vatala National Park and is least
studies species in Pakistan. Present study showed that
this species is successfully breeding during spring
season in the park. However, human activities are
affecting its population and habitat in its distribution
range. It needs protection for its long term survival and
conservation in Pakistan.
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National Park, Azda Jammu & Kashmir, Pakistan.
Pak. J. Zool., 42(6): 701-706.
Verma, P.K. and N. Pande. 2002. Learning birds through
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... It is likely that the Hainan subspecies may reproduce multiple times to improve the reproductive success, which needs further confirmation in the wild. The clutch size in our study areas was similar to that of the Indian subspecies (Anwar et al., 2016) but was significantly lower than that of the southern Yunnan subspecies (Zheng et al., 1978). In southern Yunnan, female and male birds brood and hatch eggs together (Zheng et al., 1978). ...
... This is consistent with the results of Yuan (2009), but there are differences between the Indian subspecies from different areas and the southern Yunnan subspecies. For example, in India, broiler flocks were found to breed in January-October, and the breeding peak period was March-May (Ali and Ripley, 1987;Anwar et al., 2016); in the Malay Peninsula region, the breeding time is from December to May of the following year, and the breeding peak is from January to February (del Hoyo et al., 2001). In areas with sufficient food, red junglefowl can even breed year-round (Arshad and Zakaria, 1999). ...
... This is because rodents usually leave eggshells or debris behind after predation, and some reptiles leave no traces when preying on nests (Klug et al., 2010). In addition, in the study area, small carnivorous mammals, such as leopards, falcons, and raptors are the main natural enemies of the subspecies (Zheng et al., 1978;Evans et al., 1993), and snakes are also the main predators of red junglefowls (Anwar et al., 2016). In our study, although artificial nests were set up in the same study area, their predation rate was lower than that of natural nests, and the types of predators were also different. ...
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Breeding success is an important factor determining fecundity with nest predation being the main factor limiting avian breeding success. Understanding of nest predation and its influencing factors are highly significant to explore the dynamics of bird populations and developing appropriate conservation strategies. In two breeding seasons of the year 2020 and 2021, natural nests of the red junglefowl (Gallus gallus jabouillei) were systematically searched and monitored using infrared camera, in two nature reserves (Datian and Bangxi) of tropical Hainan island, China. Results showed that breeding season of the red junglefowl is mainly from March to July, with April being the breeding peak. The clutch size was 5.15 ± 1.28 (n = 13), and nesting success of natural nests was 31.2%, with nest predation accounting for 45.4% of nest failure. Artificial nest experiments showed that predation rates of artificial nests were 25% (Datian, 2020), 6.67% (Datian, 2021), and 0% (Bangxi, 2020). Rodents, reptiles, and coucals are the main nest predators of red junglefowls, while activities of Hainan Eld’s deers (Panolia siamensis) may interfere with the reproduction of red junglefowls. We suggest that the conservation management policies should consider the impacts on junglefowls’ breeding success when reconstructing the suitable habitat of the Hainan Eld’s deer.
... Consequently, an understanding of its biodiversity is lacking. Aut-ecological studies in the National Park have focused on Indian peafowl (Anwar et al., 2015) and Red jungle fowl (Subhani et al., 2010;Akrim et al., 2015;Anwar et al., 2016). However wider, community-based assessment of the avifauna in DVNP is lacking. ...
... Hunting pressure may also impact Sociable lapwing, as elsewhere in its wintering range in Pakistan (Khan et al., 2017), although military presence may help reduce any potential threat. Quarrying is also reported and known to impact Indian peafowl in the landscape (Anwar et al., 2016). The Vatala range is easily accessible to local communities, while the deterrent of military presence in the Deva range, and proximity to the line of control, affords a degree of biodiversity and landscape protection (Anwar et al., 2016). ...
... Quarrying is also reported and known to impact Indian peafowl in the landscape (Anwar et al., 2016). The Vatala range is easily accessible to local communities, while the deterrent of military presence in the Deva range, and proximity to the line of control, affords a degree of biodiversity and landscape protection (Anwar et al., 2016). This may also serve to help minimise impacts in the core zone and maintain an important ecotone of sub-montane forest and agricultural plains. ...
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An assessment of the avifauna of Deva Vatala National Park (DVNP), Bhimber, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan was conducted from June 2017 to May 2018. Data were collected along one km line transects at three sites within the National Park: Barmala, Deva and Vatala. In total, 52 species were recorded, which included the globally threatened sociable lapwing. The most abundant species were asian green bee-eater, red-vented bulbul, house sparrow and common myna, and no species was unique to a single site in the DVNP. Highest abundance, richness and diversity was recorded in Deva, with lowest community measures recorded in Barmala. Species richness and diversity peaked in September and was lowest in November. Applying a suite of community composition analyses, bird communities were significantly different across all the three sites (ANOSIM), with 10 species explaining 16.5% to 17.2% of these community dissimilarities (SIMPER). Of these key contributing species, the relative abundance of seven species was significantly different across sites. This study documents spatio-temporal patterns in the avifauna of DVNP, providing a basis for ongoing monitoring in the DVNP, and further studies focusing on bird-habitat associations and the current impacts of habitat degradation. The presence of sociable lapwing is an indication of habitat suitability and highlights the need for further surveys in the region to locate other possible wintering grounds for this critically endangered species.
... However, while young birds are exposed to the hen, they are often exposed to the siblings of the same batch too. In wild fowls, batches consist of four to six eggs (Ali et al., 2016;Nicol, 2015), which hatch at around the same time. This produces an interference between filial imprinting directed toward the mother hen, and other salient conspecifics. ...
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Young precocial birds benefit from staying close to both their mother and their siblings, while prioritising adults, which provide better care. Which features of the stimuli are used by young birds to prioritise approach and eventually attachment to adults over siblings is unknown. We started to address this question in newly hatched domestic chicks ( Gallus gallus ), focusing on their spontaneous preferences for visual features that systematically vary between adult and juvenile chickens, and that had previously been identified as attractive: size (larger in adults than in juveniles) and colour (darker and redder in adults than in juveniles). Overall, chicks at their first visual experience, that had never seen a conspecific beforehand, were most attracted to the red and large stimuli (two adult features) and spent more time in close proximity with red stimuli than with yellow stimuli. When tested with red large versus small objects (Exp. 1), chicks preferred the large shape. When tested with yellow large and small objects (Exp. 2), chicks did not show a preference. Chicks had a stronger preference for large red stimuli (vs. small yellow objects) than for small red stimuli (vs. a large yellow object) (Exp. 3). These results suggest that the combination of size and colour form the predisposition that helps chicks to spontaneously discriminate between adult and juvenile features from the first stages of life, in the absence of previous experience, exhibiting a preference to approach stimuli with features associated with the presence of adult conspecifics.
... Berdasarkan hasil wawancara dengan responden bahwa ayam memulai kegiatan reproduksinya dilakukan secara alami setiap saat, namun hasil pengamatan sebagian besar antara bulan Juli-Agustus dan Desember-Januari masa penetasan antara bulan September-November dan Maret-April. Menurut Ali (2017) menyatakan bahwa frekuensi perkawinan ayam hutan merah berlangsung pada bulan Januari-Juli. Hal ini diperkuat Collias (1987) bahwa musim kawin ayam hutan antara bulan Maret-Juni. ...
... However, while young birds are exposed to the hen, they are often exposed to the siblings of the same batch too. In wild fowls, batches consist of 4-6 eggs [11,12], that hatch at around the same time. This produces an interference between filial imprinting directed toward the mother hen, and other salient conspecifics [13]. ...
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Young precocial birds benefit from staying close to both their mother and siblings, while prioritising adults, which provide better care. Which features of the stimuli are used by young birds to prioritise attachment to adults over siblings is unknown. We started to address this question in newly hatched domestic chicks (Gallus gallus), focusing on their spontaneous preferences for visual stimuli that systematically vary between adult and juvenile chickens: size (larger in adults than in juveniles) and colour (darker and redder in adults than in juveniles). Overall, chicks at their first visual experience, that had never seen a conspecific beforehand, were most attracted to the red and large stimuli (two adult features) and interacted with red stimuli more than with yellow stimuli. When tested with red large vs. small objects (Exp. 1), chicks preferred the large shape. When tested with yellow large and small objects (Exp. 2), chicks did not show a preference. These results suggest that the combination of size and colour form the predisposition that helps chicks to spontaneously discriminate between adult and juvenile features from the first stages of life, in the absence of previous experience.
... The authors suggested that heating the eggs before incubation is not only an indirect consequence of their successive delivery to the nest but also a direct factor determining the course of embryogenesis. In an attempt to explain this phenomenon, it is necessary to indicate that most protoplasts of domesticated poultry species, including, wild chickens, turkeys, ducks, and geese, are precocial species whose reproductive strategy is to hatch the largest possible number of chicks in the shortest possible time (Anwar et al. 2016;Chamberlain et al. 2020). Females of all these species lay several to a dozen eggs at intervals of at least 1 day and begin incubation only after the last egg has been laid. ...
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The increasing demand for simultaneous hatching of a large number of chicks has led to the need for refrigerated egg storage often over 7 days. This results in low embryo viability, low hatchability, and poor quality of chicks. To overcome these negative effects, chick producers follow a preincubation step, i.e. temporary warming of eggs to temperatures above physiological zero. Depending on the length of the planned storage, the age of the reproductive flock and the poultry species, three different preincubation profiles can be used: single (PI), multiple with an equal number of hours for each PI (SPIDES), and increasing duration of elevated temperature with each successive PI (EG SPIDES). However, this technology does not overcome the negative effects of heating eggs too quickly or too slowly to the required incubation temperature. Currently, this issue increasingly affects commercial hatcheries, which face the challenge of simultaneously raising the temperature of a very large number of eggs. In this case, preheating by a gradual temperature increase can help. Similar to preincubation, the preheating profile should be adjusted to the duration of egg storage and age and genotype of the reproductive flocks. As both methods have the same goal but different mechanisms of action and are used at different stages of egg storage, the analysis of their interaction will be crucial to further improve hatching efficiency in the future.
... However, it is interesting to explore as to why the structure of the VM of pheasant and partridge eggs is so different from that of the hen eggs presented by other authors, even though they are all precocial birds [1,[25][26][27]. Analyzing the natural clutching strategies of the wild ancestor of the domestic hen, Red Jungle Fowl, it was observed that its clutch consisted of a small number of eggs (4-6) and the period from the laying of the first egg to the start of brooding did not last longer than 8 days [36]. There is no information available in the literature on the effect of domestication and hen selection on the structure of the VM. ...
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Of all the known oviparous taxa, female birds lay the most diverse types of eggs that differ in terms of shape, shell pigmentation, and shell structure. The pigmentation of the shell, the weight of the egg, and the composition of the yolk correlate with environmental conditions and the needs of the developing embryos. In this study, we analyzed the structure and protein composition of the vitelline membrane (VM) of ring-necked pheasant, gray partridge, cockatiel parrot, and domestic pigeon eggs. We found that the VM structure is characteristic of each species and varies depending on whether the species is precocial (ring-necked pheasant and gray partridge) or superaltrical (cockatiel parrot and domestic pigeon). We hypothesize that a multilayer structure of VM is necessary to counteract the aging process of the egg. The multilayer structure of VM is only found in species with a large number of eggs in one clutch and is characterized by a long incubation period. An interesting discovery of this study is the three-layered VM of pheasant and partridge eggs. This shows that the formation of individual layers of VM in specific sections of the hen’s reproductive system is not confirmed in other species. The number of protein fractions varied between 19 and 23, with a molecular weight ranging from 15 to 250 kDa, depending on the species. The number of proteins identified in the VM of the study birds’ eggs is as follows: chicken—14, ring-necked pheasant—7, gray partridge—10, cockatiel parrot—6, and domestic pigeon—23. The highest number of species-specific proteins (21) was detected in the VM of domestic pigeon. This study is the first to present the structure and protein composition in the VM of ring-necked pheasant, gray partridge, cockatiel parrot, and domestic pigeon eggs. In addition, we analyzed the relationship between the hatching specification of birds and the structure of the VM.
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Male chickens, Gallus gallus, produce aerial alarm calls in response to a broad range of stimuli moving overhead, including both predators and innocuous objects. Computer-generated animations of raptor-shaped images were presented on an overhead video monitor to explore the stimulus characteristics necessary for eliciting both aerial alarm calls and non-vocal anti-predator behaviour (e.g. crouching and visual fixation). In experiment 1, apparent size (angle subtended at the bird's eye) was varied from 1° to 8°. Stimuli subtending more than 4° elicited qualitatively more alarm calls than smaller stimuli. The magnitude of non-vocal responses also increased significantly with stimulus size. In experiment 2, apparent speed was varied over a range extending from values characteristic of soaring raptors at one end (1·875 lengths/s), to values near the highest recorded (30 lengths/s) at the other. Stimuli moving faster than 7·5 lengths/s evoked significantly more alarm calling than slower-moving stimuli. Increases in apparent speed also caused a small but significant increase in the magnitude of non-vocal responses. Hence, the non-vocal anti-predator behaviour elicited by overhead stimuli is strongly influenced by apparent size. In natural encounters, this cue varies with object altitude and is likely to be a good predictor of the probability of detection and attack by a raptor. The data on vocal responses suggest that, at least when shape is constant, the probability of alarm calling is dependent on whether stimuli exceed threshold values for apparent size and speed. This perceptual strategy has the advantage of requiring minimal processing and may be adaptive for species, like the jungle fowl, that have evolved in habitats where visibility is limited and reaction times must therefore be brief.
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A study was conducted during April- September, 2008 to determine the abundance and distribution of Red Jungle Fowl (Gallus gallus murghi) in Deva Vatala National Park, Azad Jammu and Kashmir. Study area was divided in to four localities/sites: Chhumb, Deva, Burmala and Vatala. Line transects and calling site counts methods were used to estimate the population of Red Jungle Fowl at study sites. A total of 34 line transects were walked in study area. A population of 109 individuals of Red Jungle Fowl was estimated in the study area for an overall density of 7.87 birds/km2. However, the bird density varied among the sites and was 6.07, 6.25, 8.75 and 15.63 birds/km2 in Chhumb, Deva, Burmala and Vatala localities, respectively. Red Jungle Fowl occupied densely vegetated, hilly areas between 350m and 415m elevation, especially areas with grassland habitat followed by habitats with Zizyphus mauritiana and Lantana camara as dominant vegetation. Red Jungle Fowl seem to have pushed back into densely vegetated areas of the park mainly to avoid disturbance by local hunters, shepherds and grass cutters. Results of this pioneer study are important for conservation planning for this important and beautiful species in Deva Vatala National Park.
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Bird Conservation International (1998), 8:387-394 Cambridge University Press Copyright © Birdlife International 1998 doi:10.1017/S0959270900002148 Domestic chickens were derived from the wild Red Junglefowl Gallus gallus. A survey of 745 museum specimens of Red Junglefowl suggests that most wild populations have been contaminated genetically by introgression of genes from domestic or feral chickens. A male eclipse plumage, which appears to be an indicator of pure wild genotypes, was found in populations in the western and central portions of the species's range, but not in the easternmost populations. Eclipse plumages probably disappeared from extreme south-eastern Asia and the Philippines prior to the advent of intensive scientific collecting (about i860) and have not been observed in Malaysia and neighbouring countries since the 1920s. Populations exhibiting eclipse plumages were found in north-eastern India as late as the 1960s, but the dense human populations there make their continuing genetic integrity uncertain. These data suggest that surveys of wild and captive populations should be undertaken to assess the genetic integrity of this species. A re-evaluation of the conservation status of Red Junglefowl might then follow.
Article
This report attempts to describe objectively the complete vocal repertoire and the vocal code of the Red Junglefowl (Gallus gal/us), most probable wild ancestor of the domestic fowl. An unconfined color-banded flock was watched over a period of 6 years at the San Diego Zoo. The general behavior and vocalizations are essentially the same in Red Junglefowl and the domestic fowl. Different vocal signals can be recognized by their so-nograms and by the common element in the various situations in which a signal is given. Twenty-four vocal signals are described but because of intergradation between some signals and between different situations no absolute size of vocal repertoire can be fixed. A spec-trographic (structural) key to the vocal signals of the Red Junglefowl is given and with the sonograms should enable one to identify the typical calls. Different elements can be combined to produce specific vocal signals, in effect a code. Brief, soft repetitive notes of low frequency are attraction calls. Loud harsh sounds with high frequencies are alarm cries. Harsh sounds emphasizing low frequencies are threat sounds. These rules hold for many other birds. Junglefowl also have special calls that appear to indicate well-being, or mild disturbance and frustration. The evolution of the vocal signals of the Red Junglefowl is discussed in relation to Darwin' s (1872) three principles of com-munication and to modem ethology.
Article
T HE Red Jungle Fowl (GaZZus gallus) in some mountain areas of central western Thailand has a population density and behavioral patterns rela-tively undisturbed by man. During the breeding seasons of 1955 and 1956 I traveled widely in different parts of that country. An intensive ten-day study period was spent during February 1956 in the high bamboo forest area on the eastern slopes of the Tenasserim range. This is an area remote from human population, where fresh-water streams flow from heavy rains in the forest at the crest and transect these eastern slopes to disappear in the eastern low country during the dry season. Here, a bamboo forest area interspersed with patches of small deciduous trees and shrubs was the most favorable breeding habitat for jungle fowl I found in southern and central Thailand. Bamboo growing in scattered but tangled clumps, in a rocky soil which has been repeatedly burned over, seems to offer ideal roosting and nesting cover. And, I believe, an abundant supply of fresh water, with a minimum of human disturbance, is an important factor in sustainin g a favorable breeding popula-tion. The few crops examined showed only grains of mountain rice, a plant which grows sparsely in the area during the rainy season. There was no other obvious source of favorable food supply, a factor which needs investigation. On these dry slopes, close to the banks of streams which the birds visited mornings and late afternoons, territories of the breeding harems showed the greatest density. The area occupied by each crowing cock and his female followers was easily determined by his crowing, which was repeated at fre-quent intervals from before daylight until dark. Predawn surveys (locating crowing males on the roost) were checked with daylight observations and gave a fairly accurate census of the areas occupied, and also their locations. Two to five females were the usual number found with a dominant male. Unaccompanied males in breeding plumage were found remaining quietly in the concealment of shrub patches on the periphery of harems. These male adults with long sicles (yearling males have the two center tail feathers only slightly longer than the other caudals) would doubtless take over the harem when the dominant male was lost, but were very quiet and secretive during this waiting role. The close supervision of harems by dominant males ap-peared to induce this secretive behavior of the subdominant male, a role in which they neither crowed nor otherwise revealed themselves (unless flushed) during the days when these observations were being made.
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In gallinaceous birds and other nidifugous species, it is thought that effective incubation does not start before the last egg is laid, and young hatch synchronously (LACK, 1968). We investigated the egg-laying and nest-attendance pattern of the precocial nidifugous red Burmese Junglefowl Gallus gallus spadiceus, and its consequences for the asynchrony of embryo development and of hatching. Eggs were laid in sequences, followed by pause days. Egg-weight in these sequences decreased by 0.6 g/egg. When laying, females sat in the nest for 1-3 h/day, and attended the nest overnight on days on which the last eggs of a clutch were laid. At the moment the last egg was laid, first eggs were already attended for 40 h (range 16-84 h), which resulted in extreme developmental asynchrony at the end of laying (measured as the diameter of the area vasculosa). Last eggs of clutches decreased markedly in weight (by more than 1 g/egg) and had shorter incubation times than the heavier first eggs. Eggs hatched asynchronously over a period of 15 h (range 7-33 h) and in the order of laying. The development of incubation behaviour, asynchrony of embryo development and of hatching of the precocial nidifugous Junglefowl, corresponded to a high degree to what is known of altricial species.
Article
Summary1.A study was made, using banded individuals, of the social organization and mobility in an unconfined population of Red Jungle Fowl (Gallus gallus) on the 100 acre grounds of the San Diego Zoo, California. The peak of breeding comes in April and May with very little breeding in December and January.2.The different flocks of jungle fowl showed extreme locality fixation with small home ranges and territories centring about the flock roosting sites. The birds were generally within canyons and below the mesas. There is a peck order within these unconfined flocks, with dominant cocks associating with one to several hens, while subordinate cocks are frequently kept away from the hens.3.Three birds transplanted over 1000–1400 ft showed no sign of any homing ability.4.Young of the year generally stay at or near the home roost. Some of them move a short distance to peripheral and adjacent roosts and may help form new roosts along with adult males evicted from their home roosts by more dominant cocks.5.There was a rapid turnover in this apparently protected population, and only about one bird in six that was old enough to be independent of its parents survived each year. After 3 years most of the roosting flocks were composed almost entirely of different birds, but there was little change in roosting sites.
The book of Indian birds. 6 th edition
  • S Ali
Ali, S. 1961. The book of Indian birds. 6 th edition. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay India.