Managing Science
Chapters (16)
Science is complicated because the idea includes “method” (philosophy of science), “organization” (sociology of science),
“events” (history of science), and “funding” (politics of science). What we will do is integrate these different aspects of
the idea of science into a complete description of scientific research – a totality of science. And we will use an odd term
for this integration; we will call it “managing science.”
We have emphasized that scientific method is a methodological approach to the process of inquiry – in which empirically grounded
theory of nature is constructed and verified. To understand this statement, it is useful to go back in time to see how the
method evolved. The origin of modern scientific method occurred in Europe in the 1600s: involving (1) a chain of research
events from Copernicus to Newton, which resulted (2) in the gravitational model of the solar system, and (3) the theory of
Newtonian physics to express the model.
We turn from the method to the organization of science. As we have emphasized, science is expensive. Proposals for scientific research projects are written by scientists and submitted to funding programs – which in turn award some of the projects as research grants. Research grants support the scientists, professors and graduate students, and their equipment to perform the specified research in the proposal. Research proposals describe the issues of a research to be performed and the methods and team for performing the research.
We saw how scientific method was developed in the 1600s, culminating in Newton’s grand synthesis of classical mechanics. And
we saw that scientific method is a specific set of research techniques – empirical and theoretical – aimed at experimentally
observing nature and constructing and validating theory based upon such experimental data. And this is called “empirically
grounded theory.” We next look at the research techniques which provide the intellectual tools for implementing the research
method of science.
As we noted earlier, scientists organize themselves into scholarly societies, publishing research results in society journals
and attending scientific conferences. These activities are peer-reviewed by the community for scientific quality. All that
scientific information is for free, and scientists do not get paid for publication of scientific results. Instead, scientists
find employment teaching in universities or doing research in industrial or in governmental labs. How do scientists in these
different kinds of employment settings interact as research communities?
Science interacts with society, principally through technology. We saw an example of this in the previous case of the discovery of nuclear fission and the building of the atomic bomb. The process in which scientific knowledge is transformed into technical knowledge and in which technical knowledge is designed into products and services has been called innovation. The societal infrastructure which institutionalizes this innovation process has been called a “national innovation system.”
We have looked at the scientific method and research techniques, communities of scientists, application of science, and organization
of innovation. Now, we turn to the idea of the content of science and how content differs among the scientific communities.
We have constructed a taxonomy consisting of four paradigms of science: Mechanism, Function, Logic, and System. Now we will
examine in detail the paradigms of Mechanism and of Function. In biology, for example, we saw in the case of the discovery
of DNA and its modeling that both paradigms of Mechanism (chemistry of DNA) and Function (function of DNA in genetics) were
used. The basic research issue of “what is life” required both mechanistic and functional explanations. The paradigm of mechanism
perceives the world in terms of space, time, matter, energy, and force. But to fully describe and explain life, science needs
additional concepts to those of Mechanism: concepts such as purpose, intention, will, and reason. These are central concepts in the paradigm of Function.
We continue with scientific method but now focus upon the social sciences. Historically, the physical and biological sciences
are the most well developed methodologically and therefore provide the standard of scientific excellence and objectivity about nature. It is to their standard that the methodology of any scientific discipline must be measured.
Before we continue to examine the methodology of the social sciences, we need to understand details about the scientific paradigm
of systems and logic. These along with the paradigm of function are essential to the social sciences. We recall that as an
intellectual framework, paradigmatic ideas are used in an “a-priori mode,” which means a previous format before the specific
expression of any experiment and theory in a paradigm. First we look at the paradigm of Systems and then at the paradigm of
Logic.
Science is of a “piece,” the whole piece being threaded together by methodology. The social sciences are different from the physical/biological sciences. But the skein of scientific method ties them all together. Although social science differs from the physical/biological sciences, it is not completely separable. Science is one. This is the perspective we have adopted in this book.
Scientific models play an important role in theory construction. This has been frequent in the history of science, in all disciplines. We saw the importance of Newton’s gravitational model of the Copernican solar system in constructing the theory of physical mechanics. We saw the importance of Watson and Crick’s model of DNA in the construction of the theory of molecular biology. We next look in detail at how modeling as a research technique plays the critical role of connecting empiricism to theory, and experiments to theory construction and validation.
We ended the last chapter with a strong methodological statement: in science, one can directly measure the properties of a
model in experiments. Models rather than theory are directly experimentally validated. Predictions/prescriptions from a model
of a natural object can be compared to experiments. Theory is indirectly validated by experiments, through the models which
are constructed within the theory. We saw that quantum theory would be indirectly validated through the Bohr model of the
atom (from which the empirical formula of Rydberg’s phenomenological law could be directly derived).
We have focused upon disciplinary science, since disciplines are the primary organizations of scientific communities. But
not all research is disciplinary in boundary. When science is connected to technology, then research often crosses disciplinary
boundaries, becoming interdisciplinary research or multidisciplinary research. The reason for this is that disciplines are
intellectual boundaries but not nature’s boundary. Also, technologies have more than one science base and the need by industry
for simultaneous progress in both science and technology, cutting-edge research now is often multidisciplinary. Multidisciplinary
research involves researchers from different disciplines working together in multidisciplinary research centers.
Research methodology uses techniques for finding: (1) the distinctive quality of a natural thing (what it is), (2) the quantity of these things existing in nature (how many), (3) from some properties (quality), deducing other properties of the natural thing (what else), and (4) from observation, inducing the properties of natural objects (measurement).
... La ciencia encarna una mentalidad de observación y experimentación dentro de áreas específicas del conocimiento, sistemáticamente organizadas a través de metodologías particulares. Partiendo de un conjunto de conceptos o principios fundamentales, pretende alcanzar un conocimiento de aplicación universal (Betz, 2011). ...
... El nivel de investigación exploratorio es un paso fundamental e imprescindible en el inicio del proceso de investigación, ya que permite investigar y descubrir un problema o fenómeno que no ha sido suficientemente estudiado (Mouton & Marais, 2012). La investigación exploratoria proporciona una base sólida para la investigación posterior y ayuda a identificar las preguntas y enfoques de investigación más apropiados para abordar el problema o fenómeno en cuestión (Betz, 2011). ...
... A continuación, se deben descomponer los objetivos generales en objetivos específicos. Estos objetivos específicos deben ser más detallados y precisos, y deben responder a la pregunta "¿Qué se debe lograr para cumplir con el objetivo general?" (Betz, 2011). Por ejemplo: ...
El libro es una valiosa herramienta dirigida tanto a los estudiantes como a los académicos de la ingeniería forestal y ambiental, así como a aquellos interesados en realizar investigaciones en estas áreas. Esta obra proporciona una guía completa que abarca los aspectos esenciales para llevar a cabo proyectos exitosos. La obra ofrece una metodología práctica y accesible para la elaboración de proyectos de tesis en la carrera de ingeniería forestal y ambiental. Se proporciona una amplia gama de herramientas, métodos y consejos que guían al lector a lo largo de todas las etapas del proceso de investigación, desde la concepción inicial del proyecto hasta su presentación final. Estas etapas incluyen la definición del problema, la recopilación de información y el análisis numérico de los datos. El libro aborda una amplia gama de temas relevantes para la construcción de proyectos de investigación en la carrera profesional de ingeniería forestal, ambiental. Se cubren distintos aspectos, como la revisión bibliográfica, la formulación de hipótesis y objetivos, la selección de participantes, la elección de métodos para la recopilación de información, la selección de técnicas para el análisis de los datos y la redacción de los informes correspondientes. Además, el libro incluye ejemplos de proyectos de investigación en ciencias forestales y ambientales, así como una amplia selección de recursos útiles para el investigador, como bases de datos, herramientas de análisis estadístico y fuentes de financiación.
... Kedua, susunan logik perlu diterokai dalam realiti fizikal dan sama sekali tidak melibatkan spekulasi metafizik. Ketiga, pembentukan teori dapat diinduksikan secara langsung melalui eksperimen-eksperimen yang dijalankan (Betz, 2011). Selaku tokoh positivisme dalam bidang sosiologi, Émile Durkheim mementingkan kaedah eksperimen bagi menjelaskan fenomena sosial dengan pengitlakan hukum sosial (social laws). ...
... Dalam kepelbagaian tema perbahasan positivisme, objektiviti merupakan konsep penting dalam penyelidikan sains sosial (Neuman, 2011;Babbie, 2013). Menurut Betz (2011), ia merupakan suatu konsep yang disesuaikan daripada penyelidikan sains tabii. Sungguhpun begitu, seseorang penyelidik sains sosial tidak dapat membebaskan nilai subjektiviti sepenuhnya ketika melakukan kajian yang berurusan dengan pelbagai kelakuan manusia (Bierstedt, 1958). ...
... Secara umumnya, Shmueli (1979) mendefinisikan objektiviti sebagai satu sifat atau keadaan yang diperlukan untuk mendapatkan ilmu pengetahuan yang sahih. Manakala bagi Betz (2011) pula, objektiviti ditakrifkan sebagai ilmu pengetahuan tentang sesuatu objek yang bebas daripada pemikiran pemerhati. Secara lebih terperinci, Bierstedt (1958) mendefinisikan objektiviti sebagai: ...
Abstrak Objektiviti merupakan konsep penting dalam penyelidikan sains sosial yang disesuaikan daripada penyelidikan sains tabii. Ia bertitik tolak daripada pandangan sarjana beraliran positivisme yang melihat penyelidikan sains sebagai suatu yang bersifat bebas nilai. Persoalannya, adakah konsep objektiviti positivisme yang mementingkan fakta empirikal semata-mata wajar diikuti dalam melakukan penyelidikan bertunjangkan Islam? Adakah pertimbangan nilai seperti nilai agama akan menjejaskan objektiviti fakta yang diperoleh oleh seseorang penyelidik? Justeru, makalah ini mengandungi dua tujuan penting. Pertama, meneliti konsep objektiviti dalam penyelidikan dari perspektif sarjana beraliran positivisme dan sarjana Islam. Kedua, membandingkan kedua-dua pendapat dari segi konsepnya. Melalui kaedah analisis kandungan dan kaedah perbandingan, makalah ini menemukan dua perkara penting dalam konsep berkaitan objektiviti. Pertama, konsep objektiviti dalam penyelidikan dari sudut pandang positivisme dan Islam mempunyai beberapa perbezaan yang ketara iaitu dari aspek teras konsep objektiviti, matlamat utama, hubungan dengan nilai agama, epistemologi konsep dan proses terpentingnya. Kedua, walaupun berbeza, tidak dinafikan kedua-duanya mempunyai persamaan asas iaitu mengiktiraf elemen kejujuran intelektual dan keadilan. Secara keseluruhannya, perkara ini mempamerkan pentingnya objektiviti dicapai dalam penyelidikan sains sosial baik daripada pihak sarjana beraliran positivisme mahupun sarjana Muslim. Abstract Objectivity is an important concept in social science research, adapted from the natural science research. It stems from positivistic philosophy which view scientific research as value-free. The question is whether the concept of positivistic objectivity that emphasized empirical facts should be accepted in Islamic-based research? Is religious value judgment affect the objectivity of facts obtained by a researcher? Thus, this paper aims two important purposes. Firstly to study the concept of objectivity from the perspective of positivists and Muslim scholars. Secondly to compare those perspectives conceptually. Using content analysis method and comparison method, the paper discovered two important things in relation to the concept of objectivity. First, the concept of objectivity in research from the perspective of positivists and Muslim scholars has a few significant differences which are their principal element, their ultimate goal, their relationship with religion, their epistemological concept and critical process. Second, both perspectives share similar basic elements which is intellectual honesty and justice. Overall, the findings demonstrate that objectivity have an important account for both perspectives in doing research.
... We can give this as an example to scientists who have been interested in both science and astronomy in the past, such as Galileo, Kepler, Newton and Copernicus. These scientists made inferences based on current conditions using scientific methods (Betz, 2011;Padalkar, 2010). Astronomy has played an important role in discovering and making sense of the universe throughout history. ...
The aim of this research is to investigate the effects of outdoor learning environments such as space camp on the perceptions of secondary school students about astronomy, career choices, and development of 21st century skills. Izmir space camp trip was organized in 2019. Qualitative study was conducted with secondary school 5th grade students attending the space camp (N = 24). Semi-structured interview form, focus group interview, space camp evaluation form and researcher observation notes were used as data collection tools. Data analysis was evaluated with content analysis and open coding. Students participated in the program of stars and planets adventure. In this program, the participants had the opportunity to use astronaut training simulators that give the feeling of living and working in space, to perform simulated shuttle missions, to learn new information from experts in the field and to get more detailed information about the professions. At the end of the study, it was revealed that out of school learning environments such as space camps had a positive effect on students. As a result of the study, it has been observed that the students perform their duties in a team collaboration in shuttle mission and develop their critical, questioning and thinking skills by experiencing the discussions about the subject with the experts. In addition, the misconception about Pluto was also determined.
... The properties in this definition set the "necessary and sufficient conditions" (Betz, 2011) for when a practice in education can be described as an "integrity violation" (IV): ...
This publication describes a set of interconnected protocols for assessing the integrity of national education systems (further INTES protocols or methodology): the guiding questions, underlying theory, and expected results. The protocols aim to identify practices in education which qualify as corrupt and to explore education systems from the point of view of their vulnerability to such practices. The assumption is that liability for problematic conduct can be enforced more effectively if these practices are known and well-described, and also that prevention is most effective when based on improvements in education policy and practice, because corruption is a consequence of deeply-rooted, systemic problems in the sector.
... Modern scientific methods originated in the Seventeenth Century Europe, with the influential research conducted by Copernicus, Brahe, Kepler, Galileo, Descartes and Newton (Betz, 2011). Developments in research from Copernicus to Newton, resulted in the origins of empirically grounded theory with: ...
Since 2008, the number of children and young people entering the youth justice system has reduced, as has the use of custody (YJB, 2018). Despite this decrease, the youth justice system exists in a wider context with austerity measures reducing available resources and provisions for children and young people (UK Children's Commissioner, 2015), which in turn increases the requirements for effective and sustainable interventions that improve outcomes. Measuring the social impact of custody for children and young people is a nascent area academically, with current measurement approaches focused on output and outcome rather than social impact (Paterson-Young et al., 2017). This research employed a sequential mixed method approach that promoted the active participation of children and young people, as well as staff members in Secure Training Centres (STCs). Results supported the development of a social impact measurement framework to examine the outcomes and social impact of custody on children and young people, and illustrate that the current STC model lacks the multi-stakeholder approach that promotes stakeholder engagement, individual focused interventions, evidence based approaches and service redesign (Hazenberg, Seddon and Denny, 2014). Failure to develop such an approach limits the STCs' ability to measure the social impact of services which, inevitably, reduces opportunities for developing effective and sustainable services. Before embedding the measurement framework developed from this research, the STCs require significant overhaul to ensure their purpose and direction are clear. Although significant overhaul is required before implementing the SIM framework, research findings contributed to the development of a rehabilitative environment model that identifies the measurement factors contributing to positive outcomes for children and young people. 3
... Realism and idealism paradigms comprise opposing approaches and view the social from different perspectives. Realists observe the social world empirically and realistically; intend to ex-plain in thought and things that act independently in thought; and accept conditions and variables as they are (Seale, 2004;Betz, 2011); while idealists believe that "the world exists only so far as people think it exists. If our thoughts change, then so does the world" (Seale, 2004). ...
Soft Systems Model (SSM) is an action-oriented approach developed by Checkland (1981) to tackle complex and ill-defined social phenomena. It facilitates development of a model of inquiry for use in carrying out an investigation to understand, learn, and achieve changes in a social situation. These features provided justification for using SSM to tackle the problematical situation in library and information sciences. It has the capacity to deal with inter-organizational social phenomena and different worldviews. This chapter aims to understand the existing library and information science (LIS) literature that has been used in SSM applications. It focuses on the purposes and validity of using SSM. This chapter then discusses the using of two streams of SSM in LIS: the stream of logic-based enquiry and the stream of cultural enquiry. Moreover, the chapter reports the changes and action resulted by using SSM in the field of library and information management.
... Kedua, kelaziman atau susunan logik dalam dunia ini perlu diterokai dan tidak melibatkan faktor metafizik. Ketiga, sesuatu teori perlu di induksi secara langsung daripada eksperimen (Betz 2011). Justeru, asas-asas ini menjadikan penyelidikan saintifik pada masa kini berfungsi untuk menghuraikan, meramalkan dan menjelaskan tabii alam mahupun tabii manusia dengan menggunakan pembuktian daripada kajian kes (terutama dalam disiplin sains sosial) ataupun kajian eksperimen (terutama dalam disiplin sains tabii) (Neuman 2011). ...
This article aims to obtain a pattern of scientific research to study about Islam. Specifically, the model is based on the functions of Alhazen's scientific research. It is further examined from the perspective of fard ayn knowledge. The reason is fard ayn knowledge provides the elementary understanding about Islam. With the usage of content analysis method, this article explores the compatibility between functions of Alhazen's scientific research with the concept of fard ayn knowledge. The discussion is divided into three main parts. Firstly, the discussion on the functions of Ibn al-Haytham’s scientific research. Secondly, review on the concept of fard ayn knowledge and its application. Finally, the construction of the pattern of scientific research which to study about Islam. As a result, there are three patterns of scientific research found to be used in the study of Islam. First, knowledge of tawhid becomes the principle of a scientific research. Second, knowledge of fiqh gives the dimension to a scientific research. Third, knowledge of akhlaq gives the positive expressions in scientific research.
... Realism and idealism paradigms comprise opposing approaches and view the social from different perspectives. Realists observe the social world empirically and realistically; intend to ex-plain in thought and things that act independently in thought; and accept conditions and variables as they are (Seale, 2004;Betz, 2011); while idealists believe that "the world exists only so far as people think it exists. If our thoughts change, then so does the world" (Seale, 2004). ...
Soft Systems Model (SSM) is an action-oriented approach developed by Checkland (1981) to tackle complex and ill-defined social phenomena. It facilitates development of a model of inquiry for use in carrying out an investigation to understand, learn, and achieve changes in a social situation. These features provided justification for using SSM to tackle the problematical situation in library and information sciences. It has the capacity to deal with inter-organizational social phenomena and different worldviews. This chapter aims to understand the existing library and information science (LIS) literature that has been used in SSM applications. It focuses on the purposes and validity of using SSM. This chapter then discusses the using of two streams of SSM in LIS: the stream of logic-based enquiry and the stream of cultural enquiry. Moreover, the chapter reports the changes and action resulted by using SSM in the field of library and information management.
The purpose of this paper is to discuss the issue necessary for religious civilization called religious knowledge management (religion based). In the last twenty years, some studies under the title of knowledge management have been performed and the theoretical and practical potentials of these studies have revealed. Raising this issue we tried to answer this question that whether it is possible to use effectively from the knowledge of management to establish the new interdisciplinary studies such as knowledge management for religious civilization so that modern management courses which meet the needs of Muslim society in the field of culture and civilization can be founded. This issue linked with the complex problem of making sciences religious. So it seems that the proper presentation of the issue can provide the cooperation of management scholars and researchers especially the researchers of religious studies of the management. Knowledge management and its redefinition in religious civilization based on the foundations and principles presumed by Islam and knowledge traditions of Islamic world's scholars can prelude a new approach in the management of Muslim affairs and opens new horizons on scholars and practitioners of management. In this paper the methodological pattern required for formation of problems and theories in a civilization have been used. From the viewpoint of descriptive and analytical content, four journeys of the intellect (asfar al-‘aqliyya al-arba‘a) was the basic model of religious civilization including fifteen principles of such a civilization. These principles have been adapted from the ideas of Ayatollah Javadi Amoli.
Keywords
Management Civilization religion (Islam) religious civilization (islamic) religious management (Islamic) Knowledge knowledge management religious knowledge management (Islamic) religion based knowledge management
This study focuses on the contents of the syllabuses of scientific research methods and equivalent courses in International Relations (IR) graduate programs in Türkiye. The study aims at analyzing what the subjects in the syllabus are and which subjects are taught. To display the distributions, two categories were determined under the theme of methodology and method. The first is the “meaning of science, philosophy of science and methodology” category, which represents the more philosophical and theoretical dimension, and the second is the “research methods” category, which represents the more technical dimension. Among 133 graduate programs, 141 syllabuses were scanned, and 68 syllabuses were examined. The research was designed according to the case study within the qualitative research approach. The data collection method of the study is document analysis. The data analysis method is content analysis. According to the findings, it was observed that there was a concentration on the “research methods” category at a rate of 81% and the category of “meaning of science, philosophy of science and methodology” at a rate of 19%. It was seen that the subjects of data collection methods, research designs, and data analysis methods were mostly covered in the category of “research methods”. The mixed research approach is almost non-existent in the syllabuses. It was determined that there is a concentration on the meaning of science and positivism within the category of the meaning of science, philosophy of science and methodology. Critical realism, anti-positivism, and pragmatism are among the least covered subjects. As a result, it showed that the syllabuses were not up-to-date, and the philosophical and theoretical part of the method was not discussed in depth in the lessons. In the study, a syllabus for research method courses was presented. This syllabus proposal is considered to be a guide for bringing method courses up-to-date.
This study focuses on the contents of the syllabuses of scientific research methods and equivalent courses in International Relations (IR) graduate programs in Türkiye. The study aims at analyzing what the subjects in the syllabus are and which subjects are taught. To display the distributions, two categories were determined under the theme of methodology and method. The first is the “meaning of science, philosophy of science and methodology” category, which represents the more philosophical and theoretical dimension, and the second is the “research methods” category, which represents the more technical dimension. Among 133 graduate programs, 141 syllabuses were scanned, and 68 syllabuses were examined. The research was designed according to the case study within the qualitative research approach. The data collection method of the study is document analysis. The data analysis method is content analysis. According to the findings, it was observed that there was a concentration on the “research methods” category at a rate of 81% and the category of “meaning of science, philosophy of science and methodology” at a rate of 19%. It was seen that the subjects of data collection methods, research designs, and data analysis methods were mostly covered in the category of “research methods”. The mixed research approach is almost non-existent in the syllabuses. It was determined that there is a concentration on the meaning of science and positivism within the category of the meaning of science, philosophy of science and methodology. Critical realism, anti-positivism, and pragmatism are among the least covered subjects. As a result, it showed that the syllabuses were not up-to-date, and the philosophical and theoretical part of the method was not discussed in depth in the lessons. In the study, a syllabus for research method courses was presented. This syllabus proposal is considered to be a guide for bringing method courses up-to-date.
This study aims to evaluate the science governance of Islamic education, which is strengthened by the annual activity, the Darul Hikam education conference (DHEC), which is held by the Darul Hikam Bandung college. The method used is a phenomenological type of qualitative research. The data is analyzed philosophically, historically and pedagogically. The results of this study indicate that science governance in Islamic education is a necessity to be adaptive to technological developments, especially the metaverse through the readiness of concepts, human resources, hardware and software, and support from government policies. The 2022 DHEC program discusses how education governance needs to be prepared for changes in digital technology through seminars and calls for papers.
This study examined the effect of collaborative learning with a scientific approach (SA) on the learning achievement in mathematics viewed from the students’ multiple intelligences. This study compared two types of collaborative learning models, Three Steps Interview (TSI), and Think Pair Share (TPS). The participants of this study were grade 8 students of Secondary Schools in Sukoharjo, Central Java, Indonesia (N = 262). This study was a quasi-experimental study with a 3 × 3 factorial design. The results of the study can be concluded as follows. (1) TSI with a scientific approach got better math learning achievement than TPS with a scientific approach and classical with a scientific approach. Besides, TPS with a scientific approach got better learning achievement than classical with a scientific approach. (2) Students with logical-mathematical intelligence got better math learning achievement than students with linguistic intelligence and students with interpersonal intelligence, students with linguistic intelligence got better math learning achievement than students with interpersonal intelligence.
Direct-to-consumer genomics (DTCG) health testing offers great promise to humanity, however to date adoption has lagged as a result of consumer awareness, understanding, and previous government regulations restricting DTCG companies from providing information on an individual's genetic predispositions. But in 2017 the broader DTCG market which also includes genealogical testing demonstrated exponential growth, implying that DTCG is starting to diffuse as an innovation. To better understand the socio-cultural forces affecting diffusion, adoption, and satisfaction, qualitative ethnographic research was conducted with DTCG genealogy and health consumers. The data was qualitatively analyzed using thematic analysis to understand the similarities and differences in beliefs, attitudes, intentions, and mediating factors that have influenced consumers. Design anthropology theory and methods were used to produce ethnographically informed insights. The insights were then translated into actionable product management and business strategy recommendations.
p> From a cross-disciplinary social science perspective, it is evident that financial and economic development is not a matter simply of a proper social structure (e.g., Laissez-faire free-market) but also requires good individual leadership (competence and honesty). Financial systems require both structure and leadership, despite some economic scholars holding to the idea of an economic structural mechanism of a ‘perfect market’. However, good leadership and proper societal structure together is not a simple process, nor certainly obtained, as empirically there are no societal ‘mechanisms’. A case, such as Libor, clearly illustrated the importance of both structure and leadership in the proper operation of societal systems. Bad leadership can corrupt a societal structure; and a corrupt societal structure can enable bad leadership. The case of Libor provides empirical evidence for the social science proposition that a financial system requires both proper government regulation and integrity in private sector operations. But this is not easily achieved in societies of self-organizing systems. We apply a cross-disciplinary framework of systems dynamics to analyze the Libor event, as a kind of challenge in the control of self-organizing societies, which are facilitated by information technology processes . </p
The discussions on epistemology are closely related to the source and methodology of obtaining knowledge. Today’s modern scientific methodology which is driven by logical positivism philosophy lay too much importance on data that can be observed by the senses and is rational to the mind. Therefore, it have a few differences from the Islamic epistemological framework which are value driven in process. However, it was said that Ibn al-Haytham is one the earliest Muslim scholars to base his research on scientific methods. The question is how Ibn al-Haytham obtains scientific knowledge? Does it fit into Islamic epistemological framework? Hence, this article intends to identify the epistemological aspects of Ibn al-Haytham’s scientific thoughts by using the content analysis method. The findings showed that Ibn al-Haytham’s scientific epistemology is based on reflection on the verses of al-Qur’an, belief in God’s law (sunnatullah) of nature, observation by the senses, cognitive reasoning, and intuition. Therefore, the source of knowledge pertaining to Ibn al-Haytham’s scientific thoughts is integrated as what shown in the discussion of Islamic epistemology.
Suitability and linkages between RPI (Integrative Research Plan) held by Balitek KSDA Samboja to user needs at the local level is still not evaluated so that the existence and role of Balitek KSDA Samboja still not fully known.The aims of the research were to (1) acknowledge the performance achievement level, (2) identify the needs and expectations of stakeholders, (3) formulate performance strategy to fulfill the needs and the expectations of stakeholders, and (4) acknowledge the factors influencing the performance of Balitek KSDA Samboja.The research was conducted at the Research Institute for Natural Resources Conservation Technology (Balitek KSDA) Samboja. The research method used is in-depth interviews to determine the perception of the performance Balitek KSDA Samboja perception and observation of compliance with institutional facts. Data were analyzed with the formulation of strategic actions related technique where stakeholders. The results showed that Balitek KSDA Samboja in condition to maintain balance and proper general strategy is an offensive strategy. The conclusions obtained are (1) the level of achievement of the performance Balitek KSDA not optimal, (2) strengthening the balance organization implemented among others: the actualization of administrative and financial procedures, budget planning factual, strengthening internal integrity, increase research capacity, adding employees, repositioning effort conjunct, and the fulfillment of the research infrastructure, (3) an offensive strategy that can be done include: changing what is believed by stakeholders, connectivity issues with other issues considered by stakeholders better, and change the transaction and (4) factor that affect the performance of Balitek KSDA Samboja include: internal factors (human resources and strategic planning) and external factors (government policies, RPI, stakeholder perceptions, and communities sekawasan). Stakeholder based integrative program which can be conducted was Bukit Soeharto Great Forest Park Management.
Keywords: performance, forestry research institution, stakeholder behavior.
Science is important because it provides knowledge for society, societal knowledge. But can science provide wisdom, societal wisdom? To answer this question, there are two basic issues in the social sciences and the discipline of history which first need to be addressed. How can one formally integrate historical studies with the construction of social science theories? How can one ensure in the social sciences that judgments-of-value (normative social science theory) can be empirically validated?
Abstrak Makalah ini bertujuan mengenal pasti elemen-elemen asas dalam falsafah sains Ibn al-Haytham dan menganalisisnya dari sudut teori ilmu pengetahuan Islam. Perbincangan mengenai teori ilmu pengetahuan sering diperdebatkan dalam falsafah sains masa kini. Tambahan pula, falsafah sains moden pada hari ini berpandukan falsafah logical-positivism yang secara lazimnya hanya mementingkan data yang boleh dicerap oleh deria dan rasional pada akal. Namun, sebagai sarjana Muslim terawal yang memperkenalkan pemikiran saintifik, adakah elemen-elemen asas pemikiran saintifik Ibn al-Haytham sama seperti falsafah logical-positivism itu? Bagaimanakah pula pandangan Islam terhadap pemikiran saintifik beliau? Oleh itu, makalah ini menggunakan kaedah analisis kandungan terhadap beberapa karya Ibn al-Haytham untuk menjawab persoalan-persoalan tersebut. Perbincangan dalam makalah ini disusun dalam tiga bahagian. Pertama, perbincangan mengenai keperluan falsafah sains yang bersepadu. Kedua, pengenal pastian elemen-elemen asas pemikiran saintifik Ibn al-Haytham. Ketiga, penganalisisan dari konteks teori ilmu pengetahuan Islam dan Barat. Hasilnya, makalah ini mendapati empat elemen asas iaitu penggunaan pancaindera, akal, keupayaan intuisi dan pegangan kepada sunnatullah alam terkandung dalam falsafah sains Ibn al-Haytham. Dapat disimpulkan bahawa kesemua elemen ini berada pada landasan epistemologi Islam. Abstract This paper aims to identify the underlying elements in Ibn al-Haytham philosophy of science and to analyze it from the Islamic theory of knowledge views. The discourses about the theory of knowledge often debate in contemporary philosophy of science. Moreover, the modern philosophy of science today is based on the logical-positivism philosophy which concerned with the data that may be perceived by the sensations. However, as a Muslim scholar who is the earliest to introduce the scientific thought, are there any
Modern nations depend upon foreign investment to fund industrial developments in the nation and to fund government infrastructure developments. Governments use foreign investment to principally fund government services, when the tax base of the country has been insufficient to balance the government budget. But deficits can continue to grow, year after year. When the annual government budget deficit becomes a significant portion of the annual revenue of an economy (GNP), then foreign investors lose confidence in a government’s capability of continuing to finance its deficits. Investors stop buying government securities. The national currency exchange rate plunges. Local banks in a nation become insolvent. Bank runs occur as savers withdraw deposits from banks. Credit stops in a national economy, and businesses are unable to finance day-to-day production and pay wages. The economy plunges into a depression. Masses of people are unemployed. Property is lost. Families starve. Governments fall. The society descends into chaos. This occurred in the Asian Financial Crises, beginning in Thailand and spreading to other countries, including South Korea in 1997 and Argentina in 1999. Reviewing these cases, one can see that international financial institutions had neither correct economic models nor effective policies nor proper regulatory power -- to ensure that a global financial system was sound and also beneficial to economic growth in the nations of the world. And from this, one can see that IMF policies should have been instead focused not just on ‘macro-economics’ but also on the ‘micro-economics’ of each nation.
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