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The Influence of Human Milk on Flavor and Food Preferences

June 2017
Current Nutrition Reports 6(9)

Authors:

Purpose of Review The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of the literature that examines sensory experiences during early feeding practices and the influence human milk has on flavor and food preferences. Recent Findings Research suggests that the development of flavor and food preferences begins during the prenatal period through exposure to amniotic fluid and continues in the postnatal period during breastfeeding. Breastfeeding provides an infant with a unique variety of constantly changing chemosensory experiences as human milk contains flavors from foods that are part of the mother’s diet. These early flavor exposures are believed to help with the transition to complementary foods during later infancy and early childhood. Compared to formula-fed infants who are exposed to limited sensory experiences due to its constant flavor, breastfed infants demonstrate greater acceptance of novel foods when they are part of the maternal diet. Studies show that toddlers, preschool, and school-aged children who were breastfed as infants demonstrate more positive acceptance of a wider variety of healthy foods and are more accepting of new foods and are less likely to be picky eaters. Summary Infant exposure early in life to a wide variety of flavors from healthy and nutrient-rich foods through amniotic fluid and human milk contributes to an individual’s unique set of taste preferences that can lead to healthier food choices and optimal health.

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FOOD ACCEPTANCE AND NUTRITION IN INFANTS AND YOUNG CHILDREN (H COULTHARD, SECTION EDITOR)

The Influence of Human Milk on Flavor and Food Preferences

Rebecca L. Dunn

&Rachelle Lessen

Published online: 5 May 2017

#Springer Science+Business Media New York 2017

Abstract

Purpose of Review The purpose of this review is to provide an

overview of the literature that examines sensory experiences

during early feeding practices and the influence human milk

has on flavor and food preferences.

Recent Findings Research suggests that the development of

flavor and food preferences begins during the prenatal period

through exposure to amniotic fluid and continues in the post-

natal period during breastfeeding. Breastfeeding provides an

infant with a unique variety of constantly changing

chemosensory experiences as human milk contains flavors

from foods that are part of the mother’s diet. These early flavor

exposures are believed to help with the transition to comple-

mentary foods during later infancy and early childhood.

Compared to formula-fed infants who are exposed to limited

sensory experiences due to its constant flavor, breastfed in-

fants demonstrate greater acceptance of novel foods when

they are part of the maternal diet. Studies show that toddlers,

preschool, and school-aged children who were breastfed as

infants demonstrate more positive acceptance of a wider vari-

ety of healthy foods and are more accepting of new foods and

are less likely to be picky eaters.

Summary Infant exposure early in life to a wide variety of

flavors from healthy and nutrient-rich foods through amniotic

fluid and human milk contributes to an individual’suniqueset

of taste preferences that can lead to healthier food choices and

optimal health.

Keywords Human milk .Breastfeeding .Infant feeding .

Flavor development .Sensory experiences .Food acceptance

Introduction

Human milk is the optimal form of nutrition for infants as it

provides species-specific nutrients and bioactive factors that

deliver physiological, cognitive, emotional, as well as other

benefits for both mothers and babies [1–3]. The well-

documented benefits of human milk and breastfeeding have

made the provision of human milk and breastfeeding a global

public health priority for improving maternal and child health

outcomes [3]. Numerous health-related organizations endorse

exclusive breastfeeding for the first 6 months of an infant’slife

and continued breastfeeding for 1 year or longer with age-

appropriate complementary feeding [1–4]. This feeding rec-

ommendation is supported by the desirable health outcomes

that are seen in infants who have exclusively breastfed for

6 months or longer compared to those with a shorter duration

or who never breastfed [1]. The desirable health outcomes that

are derived from human milk are attributed to the myriad of

biologically active nutritive and non-nutritive components.

Human milk is a biologically active fluid that is highly

variable and complex evidenced to be tailored by each mother

to meet the needs of her infant [5–7]. As a dynamic bioactive

fluid, the composition of human milk changes during stage of

lactation (i.e., colostrum versus transitional milk versus ma-

ture milk), a feeding (i.e., foremilk versus hindmilk),

This article is part of the Topical Collection on Food Acceptance and

Nutrition in Infants and Young Children

*Rebecca L. Dunn

rdunn@keene.edu

Rachelle Lessen

lessen@email.chop.edu

Department of Health Science, Keene State College, 229 Main

Street, Keene, NH 03435-2903, USA

Department of Nursing, The Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia,

Philadelphia, PA 19104-4399, USA

Curr Nutr Rep (2017) 6:134–140

DOI 10.1007/s13668-017-0200-3

Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Factors associated with the early emergence of atypical feeding behaviours in infants and young children: A scoping review

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Background: Atypical feeding behaviours such as significantly limited food preferences, hypersensitivity to food textures or temperatures and pocketing food without swallowing are common concerns in child health. Current reports indicate an inter-relationship between early growth, feeding problems and developmental disorders, yet little is known about how these behaviours develop in early childhood. There is also a lack of consensus about clinical definitions for atypical feeding behaviours, diagnostic thresholds, and the associated precursors. To date, there has been no synthesis of the extant literature about factors associated with the early onset of atypical feeding behaviours in young children. Objective: This scoping review aimed to characterise the factors associated with the early emergence of atypical feeding behaviours in typically developing young children. Methods: CINAHL, MEDLINE, PsycINFO and Scopus databases were searched. Studies published in the last five years were included if they examined factors associated with the development of atypical eating behaviours in infants and young children. Of the 2137 records obtained after the search strategy was applied, 202 full-text articles were retrieved for a more detailed examination and to ensure they met the inclusion criteria. This resulted in 54 studies being included in this scoping review. Results: Of the 54 studies, three studies analysed precursors responsible for atypical feeding behaviours, and 51 studies discussed the factors associated with the early emergence of feeding difficulties. Multiple factors, including genetic factors, breastfeeding, late introduction of solids and lumpy foods, complementary feeding techniques, parental mental health, prematurity, and child factors including temperament, were identified. There is inconsistent evidence for the associations between breastfeeding exposure and feeding difficulties. Conclusions: This study identified multiple factors potentially associated with the early onset of atypical feeding behaviours in young children; however, there is insufficient evidence at this time to support specific recommendations for early feeding practices in young children. More methodologically rigorous studies are needed to extend these findings.

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Section on breastfeeding, Breastfeeding and the use of human milk

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