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Properties of whole grain wheat flour and performance in bakery products as a function of particle size

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Abstract

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of particle size distribution on composition, properties rheological, pasting, microstructural and baking properties of whole grain wheat flour (WGWF) of three different particles sizes (194.9 μm, 609.4 μm and 830.0 μm). The quantification of free sulfhydryl groups (-SH) of WGWF samples, together with the effects observed in the behavior of the dough and bread showed that particle size influences the functionality of the gluten network in a differentiated way. Firmer and lower breads volume compared to refined wheat flour (RF) were correlated with the quality of the gluten network. In the sample of finer particles, more pronounced adverse effects in quality (dough rheology, bread volume and texture) compared to the medium and coarse particle size sample suggests that the larger contact surface and the increased release of reactive compounds due to cell rupture interact with the gluten-forming proteins changing their functionality.

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... The moisture content of the grain is a critical parameter that influences both the PS distribution of the flour and flour yield [52]. Kernel failure strength, brittleness, and Young's modulus (modulus of elasticity) are strongly correlated with grain water content [53]. Moreover, different anatomical parts of the wheat grain (endosperm, bran, and germ) exhibit varying degrees of susceptibility to grinding [54]. Grain conditioning (tempering) prior to grinding, which involves moisture addition, further accentuates the mechanical differences between these parts, thereby significantly affecting the granulometric composition of the particles. ...
... In a different scenario, Brewer et al. [14] and He et al. [73] observed that when grinding wheat bran into different PS fractions, the content of bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity increased with the extent of grinding. A similar trend was noted by Bressiani et al. [54], who produced various PS fractions of wholegrain flour by intensifying the grinding process without sorting the flour into fractions. Similar relationships were reported by other authors [74], who also demonstrated that as the degree of grinding increased, the bioaccessibility of bran improved. ...
... Such flour is a valuable source of fiber and numerous bioactive compounds, which have been documented to exhibit health-promoting effects [76]. Bressiani et al. [54] analyzed the impact of wholegrain flour ...
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Wheat flour is one of the most important food raw materials, with its quality determined by various indicators. One such indicator is particle size and granulometric distribution. In recent years, numerous studies have focused on the effect of flour and bran particle size on the properties of cereal products such as bread, pasta, noodles, and cookies. The aim of this review was to analyze the extent to which this parameter influences the properties of these cereal products. Additionally, the relationships between flour particle size and its chemical composition were presented. Key factors affecting the granulometric composition of flour, related to wheat grain properties and the grinding process, were also discussed. The study specifically focuses on research conducted in the last five years.
... These studies showed that the link between pig performance and the particle size of diet or feed ingredients is straightforward: finely ground particles can improve animal performance, while the coarse fraction of particles can help maintain pigs' intestinal health [14]. Furthermore, incorporating ingredients of different particle sizes into bakery products can influence changes in the functional and sensory properties of the food [19,20]. ...
... Studies have shown that the functional and physico-chemical properties of maize and wheat flours are a function of the particle size distribution [20,26]. Particle size affects the structure and surface area of the particles, where the increased surface area also results in certain changes of these quality parameters [27]. ...
... The content of soluble carbohydrates was increasing with the decrease in particle size of the maize flour fraction. A slight increase regarding the protein content was noticed with the decrease of the fraction particle size, similar to previously reported findings [15,20]. ...
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Maize (Zea mays L.) is considered one of the most significant cereal crops used as a raw material for food, feed, energy and industrial purposes. Approximately 109 t of maize were produced worldwide in the 2021-2022 period, according to data provided by Statista (2022) [1]. Although maize is a significant food crop, demand for it as livestock feed has increased significantly during the past two decades. This was mainly due to the rapid economic expansion in the densely populated areas of Asia, the Middle East and South America, which increased the demand of wealthier consumers for food products from poultry and cattle [2, 3]. Due to the growing awareness of the connections between food and health, the food industry has increasingly become interested in the multi-scale process of food digestion. Both in vitro and in vivo models can be used to study how food is digested, each with its own benefits and drawbacks [4]. It is a common practice to study the gastro-intestinal behaviour of food or pharmaceuticals using in vitro methods that simulate digestion processes. Although human nutritional studies are still the "gold standard" for addressing diet-related issues, in vitro techniques have the advantage of being quicker, cheaper, less labour-intensive and less subject to ethical constraints [5]. The differences in chemical composition and intrinsic kernel structure play a crucial role in complex processes of food degradation by digestion enzymes [4]. The physical and chemical properties of the grain cause complex correlations between its constituents , which result in digestibility differences [6]. The maize grain is made up of starch 60-70 %, followed by proteins 9-11 %, lipids 4-5 % and dietary fibre 10-11 % (expressed per dry matter) [7]. The broad and widespread use of maize grain in many food products makes this cereal a substantial source of these macronutrients. Due to its high starch content in grain, maize is both a desirable crop for human consumption and animal Influence of particle size distribution on in vitro digestibility and nutritional quality of differently coloured wholegrain maize flours Valentina nikolić-Marijana SiMić-Slađana Žilić-Marko VaSić-Danka MiloVanoVić-Beka Sarić Summary Maize (Zea mays L.) is one of the most important cereal crops in the world, along with wheat and rice. Considering that many physical and chemical factors influence the digestibility of food and feed ingredients, this study aimed to determine the effect of particle size on the in vitro digestibility and nutritional properties of various wholegrain maize flour fractions. Maize grains of various genetic backgrounds and kernel colours were used in this study, namely, white dent, yellow popcorn, red dent and blue popcorn. After grinding maize grains on a stone mill, the wholegrain flour was dry-sieved through three mesh sieves: 1700 μm, 710 μm and 212 μm. The medium particle size fraction (710-212 μm) was dominant. The in vitro digestibility testing showed that the powder fraction (< 212 μm) was the most digestible in all investigated samples, while the coarse fraction was the least digestible. The yellow popcorn genotype showed the highest overall digestibility. An increase in the protein content was observed with a decrease in the particle size of the fraction. The findings of this study offer new possibilities for incorporating various wholegrain maize flour fractions in food or feed to meet the specific needs of various categories of consumers. keywords Zea mays L.; wholegrain maize flour; in vitro digestibility; nutritive properties; particle size; coloured grain
... It is widely used in food products such as bakery products, pasta, breakfast cereal, crackers/cookies, and cakes due to its unique rheological properties (Cappelli et al., 2022). In addition, wheat consumers are becoming more health conscious, and as a result, new products based on whole-wheat flour (WWF) are being developed (Bressiani et al., 2017). WWF products are well-known to have a high dietary fibre and bioactive phytochemicals content, e.g., phenolic compounds (PC) (Aune et al., 2016). ...
... Its consumption is associated with a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease, cancer and type II diabetes (Aune et al., 2016). However, regardless of the health benefits, producing WWF foods that maintain functionality and quality is challenging since it can change the physicochemical, sensory, and rheological properties (Bressiani et al., 2017). ...
... The small-scale baking instrumental test was performed according to the method developed by Bressiani et al. (2017) with modifications. The formulation was composed of wheat flour (100 g), hydrogenated vegetable oil (3 g/100 g flour ), sodium chloride (12 g/100 g flour), ascorbic acid (0.01 g/100 g flour ), sugar (5 g/100 g flour ), yeast (3 g/100 g flour) and water at 30 • C, based on the water absorption of flour to obtain 650 UF (±20) in a Farinograph equipment. ...
... Bread made from all parts of the whole wheat grain is known as wholemeal bread. According to the Indonesian Ministry of Health in 2013, 15.6% of the Indonesian population aged ≥10 years consumed bread at least once per day [5]. This consumption behaviour has the potential to influence the level of bread production. ...
... This discrepancy may be attributed to the material used in the earlier study, which was finely ground wheat flour [9], resulting in a lower dietary fiber content compared to whole wheat flour. Based on Bressiani et al. (2017), larger wheat particle size is associated with the higher the dietary fiber content [15]. In addition, the earlier study used a slightly higher proportion of Bambara groundnut flour (25%), which may have contributed to a greater increase in the dietary fiber content of bread. ...
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Foods rich in dietary fiber may have a lower glycemic index (GI). The use of whole wheat and Bambara groundnuts in wholemeal bread production enhances its fiber content, offering significant dietary benefits. Wheat has a dietary fibre content of 11.6-17 g/100 g, and based on the Indonesian food composition table, dried Bambara groundnuts have a fiber content of 26.3 g/100. This experimental study compares the glycemic index of wholemeal bread made from 100% whole wheat flour (WW) with wholemeal bread made from 80% whole wheat flour and 20% Bambara groundnut flour (WB). The result showed that both breads had high total dietary fiber (TDF) content (WW: 6.1 g/100g and WB: 6.9 g/100 g), as well as medium glycemic index values (WW: 55.1 and WB: 61.1). This study suggests that Bambara groundnut has the potential as ingredients for producing high-fiber food products.
... In whole-grain wheat flour, gluten is more affected by coarse particles, which results in a lower specific volume of baking and less stability and resistance to extension. Conversely, higher fine whole-grain wheat flour baking quality involves a greater contact surface t h a t provides a combination of physical and chemical mechanisms that act efficiently on the development and function of the gluten network [27]. Mirza et al. [28] h ave showed that a particle size of <125μm gave a dough with the highest extensibility due to the high-quality high gluten content and relatively strong gluten network, which minimized dough rupture, and increased the gas retention capacity in the resting stage, resulting in high volume products. ...
... (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 November 2024 doi:10.20944/preprints202411.0373.v127 ...
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The quality of bread is mainly affected by the three key phases of the production chain: kneading, leavening and baking. Each step contributes to the final rheological and sensory properties of the bread. However, especially during the mixing phase, the choice of ingredients and the optimization of processing parameters such as mixing time, dough temperature, mixing speed and total water content, affect the development and microstructure of the dough. In general, rheological tests measure the technological properties of doughs and represent the main analyses carried out in the bakery sector. Considering the heterogeneity and variability of raw materials and processing conditions, rheology aids in process control and in the simulation of the response of the dough to the complex deformation that it undergoes during its processing. The results obtained can be related to the final structure and the texture of the bread. Although the effects of mixing and rheological behaviour of wheat doughs have been systematically examined in the literature, there is no comprehensive review of the current knowledge about the effect of the processing on sensory quality and final texture characteristics. This paper aims to shed light on factors that affect the quality of bread, emphasizing both technological and sensory aspects.
... It can be due to the higher content of fiber in pumpkin seed protein concentrate than wheat flour (Fig. 1). Indeed, the granulometric fraction with the highest diameter of particles in the wheat flour is represented by bran that is rich in fiber [27] and the role of bran/fiber in interaction with starch have already been associated to influences on bread rheological features [27,28]. However, utilizing the sieve with the smaller holes (132 μm), the percentage of the residue of the pumpkin seed protein concentrate in the sieve was lower than that of the wheat flour (Table 2), likely due the lower presence of wheat flour in the enriched product and consequently of bran content, that was replaced by pumpkin seed protein concentrate, which predominantly comprises proteins with smaller particle sizes compared to both wheat flour and, in particular, wheat flour bran. ...
... It can be due to the higher content of fiber in pumpkin seed protein concentrate than wheat flour (Fig. 1). Indeed, the granulometric fraction with the highest diameter of particles in the wheat flour is represented by bran that is rich in fiber [27] and the role of bran/fiber in interaction with starch have already been associated to influences on bread rheological features [27,28]. However, utilizing the sieve with the smaller holes (132 μm), the percentage of the residue of the pumpkin seed protein concentrate in the sieve was lower than that of the wheat flour (Table 2), likely due the lower presence of wheat flour in the enriched product and consequently of bran content, that was replaced by pumpkin seed protein concentrate, which predominantly comprises proteins with smaller particle sizes compared to both wheat flour and, in particular, wheat flour bran. ...
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Pumpkin seed protein concentrate, a promising raw material with high biological value, holds potential for incorporation into bread technology. Protein structural changes occur during the bread-making process. This study aimed to investigate how pumpkin seed protein concentrate incorporated at different concentrations (5, 10, and 20%) affected the structural, mechanical properties, and conformational changes in protein substances within dough and bread made from wheat flour, utilizing near-infrared reflection spectroscopy. The gas- and shape-holding capacities of dough enriched and unenriched by pumpkin seed protein concentrate resulted similar. This aspect is important for the impact of the final product as bread on the consumers. The near-infrared reflection spectroscopy analysis revealed that the enrichment of bread with pumpkin seed protein concentrate not only introduced higher protein and unsaturated fat content in bread but also reduced the level of lignin, enhancing the digestibility of the final product. A deeper investigation into the nutraceutical and nutritional value of this enriched bread as well as of physio-chemical features investigated in the present work could be useful for the introduction of a new functional food in the market. Moreover, the enriched bread was acceptable in terms of sensory quality analysis, especially using 10% pumpkin seed protein concentrate. Therefore, to better understand the market potentiality of the enriched bread proposed in this study, future research should investigate how consumer acceptability could increase with a higher concentration of nutritional components perceived as beneficial for a lifestyle by specific consumer segments.
... It has been found that decreasing the particle size makes flours lighter, increases their luminescence ("L" value, associated with greater contact surface allowing the reflection of light), and promotes hydration properties [26]. Various studies on flours have shown that smaller particle sizes increase the percentages of water absorption and retention [27,28]. This could be related to the greater contact of water with the particles; in addition, with the grinding process, proteins and fibers tend to be more exposed, so they interact and form bonds with water more easily [28]. ...
... Various studies on flours have shown that smaller particle sizes increase the percentages of water absorption and retention [27,28]. This could be related to the greater contact of water with the particles; in addition, with the grinding process, proteins and fibers tend to be more exposed, so they interact and form bonds with water more easily [28]. However, there may be exceptions; Dat [29] found that as particle size increased from 0.18 mm to 0.45 mm in coconut flour, water retention capacity increased, while oil retention capacity decreased with particle size-the same results were reported by Ahmed et al. [26] working with chestnut flour. ...
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Consumption of fried foods is associated with a higher risk of cardiovascular and other diseases; therefore, consumers are looking to reduce fat intake. We evaluated the effect of high-protein breaders and fiber on oil absorption and quality attributes in chicken nuggets, using flour blends (wheat, chickpea, coconut, oil-quinoa-chia), soy protein concentrate, and brewers’ spent grain. We evaluated the chemical composition, water and oil retention capacity (ORC), viscosity profile, and flour particle size distribution, along with the developed breaders (Formulation 1 and 2) and a commercial breader (CB), in addition to texture, color, fat, and moisture contents of the fried chicken nuggets prepared with the developed breaders and the CB. The total dietary fiber content (TDF) of the nuggets breaded with only Formulation-1 and CB was determined. Nuggets breaded with Formulation-1 showed lower (p ≤ 0.05) ORC, better moisture retention (67.6%), and more TDF (4.5% vs. 2.3%, p ≤ 0.05) compared to CB-breaded nuggets. Nuggets with Formulation-1 showed the expected texture and color characteristics for fried products. Formulation-1 has the potential to be used as a breader due to its moisture, reduced ORC, and the texture and color it imparts to the fried nuggets, providing higher amounts of nutrients and possible health benefits.
... Fine flours generally had a higher content of damaged starch than coarse flours. A similar relation between flour granulation and the content of damaged starch has already been previously described [1,5,33]. Moreover, the content of damaged starch and flour particle size was significantly dependent on each other (p < 0.05). ...
... Bimodal particle size distribution in buckwheat flours, mainly the presence of coarse particles (detected as second peak), decreased slurry viscosity, since water slowly penetrated the inner parts of these flour particles and a part of water remained unbound, decreasing slurry viscosity. A similar observation was also previously described for wheat flour [33]. The viscosity at this phase of the test is impacted by the hydration of the substances present in flour [22]. ...
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The effect of botanical origin, the flour particle size, and the content of damaged starch on flour pasting properties, dough behavior during a uniaxial deformation test, and bread characteristics were evaluated on rice and buckwheat flours. The rice flour with a median particle size D(0.5) of 60.2, 70.6, 106.8, and 189.4 μm, and buckwheat flour with a D(0.5) of 56.4, 68.4, and 95.8 μm were prepared using the same milling technology. The botanical origin of the flours was the strongest factor influencing the flour pasting properties, stress accumulated in dough during the uniaxial deformation test, loaf characteristics, texture, and sensory characteristics of breads. The flour particle size significantly influenced mainly the flour pasting properties. The effect of the content of damaged starch was the weakest among the studied factors. The flour particle size and the content of damaged starch were closely related. The flour botanical origin was the strongest factor; therefore, it seems not to be possible to predict the bread-baking potential of gluten-free flours based on the results obtained for flour of a different botanical origin. More research on flours from different plants prepared by the same milling process is required to support this hypothesis.
... The evaluation of flours and bakery products showed that fiber content increased the absorption of water in bakery products made of various proportions of flours from wheat and roots and tubers. 21 This was reflected by the higher absorption of water in the composite flours compared to wheat flour. Also, the use of a greater amount of sweet potato and cassava flour reduced the stability of the dough and its tolerance to kneading compared to dough made from only wheat flour. ...
... This lower stability was also observed by Bressiani and co-workers. 21 The degree of decay was higher for the dough of wheat-sweet potato-cassava, which classifies them as weak flours, because wheat flour presents greater resistance to breaking by force, conferred by the gluten. 22,23 Based on results of the alveograph, the reduction in the strength of wheat-sweet potato-cassava flour mixes decreased the resistance of the dough to gas pressure, resulting in a weak and porous structure that allowed part of the gas produced during fermentation to escape. ...
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Background The consumption of foods such as sweet potato and cassava with high levels of carotenoids is a possible solution to reduce vitamin A deficiency. In this study, we evaluated the kinetics of thermal degradation of carotenoids. The content of carotenoids was quantified by high‐performance liquid chromatography, first in fresh material, then in flour and finally in bakery products using mixtures of wheat, sweet potato and cassava. The degree of acceptance of the bakery products by children was also assessed through a sensory acceptance test. Results The study found that the degradation of carotenoid compounds in sweet potato followed first‐order kinetics and fitted the Arrhenius equation with correlations of R² > 0.9. The retention rates of all‐trans‐β‐carotene were 77%, 56% and 48% at cooking temperatures of 75, 85 and 95 °C respectively, during a cooking time of 20 min. The concentrations of all‐trans‐β‐carotene, after baking, for bread, cookies and cake were 15, 19 and 14 μg g⁻¹ db, respectively. In a sensory acceptance test carried out in a school, 47.6% of the boys and 79.2% of the girls rated the cookies made from a mixture of cassava, sweet potato and wheat flour with the indicator I like it a lot. Conclusion The content of carotenoid compounds was reduced by exposure to high temperatures and long cooking times. The combinations of cooking time and temperature which minimized degradation of all‐trans‐β‐carotene occurred at 75 °C–20 min and 95 °C–10 min. All‐trans‐β‐carotene retentions for bread, cookies and cake were 25%, 15% and 11% respectively. The mixture of wheat, sweet potato and cassava flour can be considered in the development of cookies with positive contributions of all‐trans‐β‐carotenes and with a good acceptance by children between 9 and 13 years old. © 2023 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.
... Besides the quality, the reduced particle size of semolina, the high surface area of the granules, and the holes and channels in the damaged starch granule increase the susceptibility to enzyme penetration, thus increasing starch digestibility . Conversely, numerous studies have shown that increasing flour particle size could have a potential role in decreasing the starch digestibility of products made with wheat endosperm flour (Bressiani et al., 2017;Lin et al., 2020). For instance, Mandalari et al. (2018) found an inverse relationship between flour particle size and starch digestibility in porridge. ...
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Reducing starch digestibility in bread while maintaining its quality has been a trending topic in recent decades. This study explores the effects of different fermentation methods-Direct Method (DM), Poolish (PO), and Sourdough (SD)-combined with semolina of varying granulometry (Fine Semolina (FS), ~150 µm; Coarse Semolina (CS), ~550 µm) on bread properties. A full factorial design was employed to assess the influence of these variables on dough properties (pH and total titratable acidity (TTA)), bread quality (porosity, texture profile analysis, and volume), and in vitro digestibility (using Englyst's method). Results indicate that SD-fermented doughs exhibited higher TTA and lower pH, leading to bread with reduced porosity and volume compared to PO and DM, and a reduced starch digestibility due to a dense crumb structure. CS produced slightly more porous bread with lower resistant starch than FS. To conclude, the fermentation method was the major factor influencing bread quality and digestibility.
... Understanding how different particle sizes affect the physicochemical and rheological attributes of bread is essential for optimising the formulation and production of baked goods with improved nutritional profiles. Indeed, fine milling may expose a larger surface area, facilitating mixing and integration, while coarse milling could retain larger particles, potentially preserving certain bioactive compounds and fibre content [10]. For this reason, this study aims to investigate the effects of particle size variation (flour versus grits) in sprouted chickpea on dough rheology and bread-making performance. ...
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This study investigated the effects of incorporating sprouted chickpeas, at a 25% enrichment level, into bread production as either grits (90% of particles ≥500 µm) or flour (90% of particles ≤250 µm). The focus was to investigate the role of particle size on dough and bread. In addition to the functional, mixing and pasting properties of ingredients, gluten aggregation, mixing, extensional, leavening, and pasting properties of the blends were assessed during bread-making, as well as bread volume and texture. Chickpea particle size influenced water absorption capacity (1.8 for grits vs. 0.75 g/g for flour) and viscosity (245 for grits vs. 88 BU for flour), with flour showing a greater decrease in both properties. With regard to dough properties, dough development time (16.6 vs. 5.3 min), stability (14.6 vs. 4.6 min), and resistance to extension (319 vs. 235 BU) was higher, whereas extensibility was lower (105 vs. 152 mm) with grits, compared to flour. During bread-making, grits resulted in a higher specific volume (2.5 vs. 2.1 mL/g) and softer crumb (6.2 vs. 17.4 N) at all the considered storage times. In conclusion, sprouted chickpea grits can be effectively used as a new ingredient in bread-making favouring the consumption of chickpea, without compromising product quality.
... The least ash content was revealed with refined white wheat flour which has the smallest particle size. Also, when they came into the end product such as paste and bread, they were led to the higher viscosity peak and greater water absorption [56]. Therefore, the method employed herein is promising for controlling the properties of wheat flour end products. ...
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In the food industry, meeting food quality demands is challenging. The quality of wheat flour, one of the most commonly used ingredients, depends on the extent of debranning done to remove the aleurone layer before milling. Therefore, the end product management can be simplified by predicting the properties of wheat flour during the debranning stage. Therefore, the chemical and rheological properties of grains were analyzed at different debranning durations (0, 30, 60 s). Then the images of wheat grain were taken to develop a regression model for predicting the chemical quality (i.e., ash, starch, fat, and protein contents) of the wheat flour. The resulting regression model comprises a convolutional neural network and is evaluated using the 2 coefficient of determination (R ), root-mean-square error, and mean absolute error as metrics. The results demonstrated that wheat flour contained more fat and protein and less ash with in creasing debranning time. The model proved reliable in terms of root-mean-square error, mean absolute error, and R2 for predicting ash content but not starch, fat, or protein contents, which can be attributed to the lack of features in the collected images of wheat kernels during debran- ning. In addition, the selected method, debranning, was beneficial to the rheological characteristics of wheat flour. The proportion of fine particles increased with the debranning time. The study experimentally revealed that the end product diversity for wheat flour can be controlled to provide selectable ingredients to customers.
... Meanwhile, wheat four plays a vital role in the creation of bakery items owing to its gluten content. Tis constituent provides elasticity and structure to the dough, enabling optimal retention of the gas generated by the yeast and resulting in fufer texture [52]. Table 3 includes the results for water, fat, and ashes' content; bulk density; and water and oil interaction properties of the blends prepared replacing wheat four by hot air-dried or lyophilized almond bagasse in the range from 10 to 25%. ...
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Almond bagasse, a by-product derived from the production of almond vegetable drink, contains antioxidants, fibre, protein, and a high-fat content, presenting itself as a potential functional ingredient for the food industry. This study aimed to assess the powder derived from almond bagasse as a suitable alternative in the formulation of bakery goods. Various formulations substituting wheat flour with almond bagasse powder, obtained by air drying or freeze-drying at 10%, 15%, and 25%, were analysed in terms of technological and rheological properties. Furthermore, the physical and antioxidant attributes of biscuits with superior nutritional and functional values produced using these blends were examined. The results revealed significant changes in oil retention capacity, stability, and emulsifying activity, influenced by both the level of wheat flour replacement and the drying method used to obtain the almond bagasse powder. The most significant changes were observed in the emulsifying activity, which was zero in the wheat flour and showed values of 20% in the hot air-dried almond bagasse powder and 59% in that obtained by freeze-drying. In the blends, the values of this variable ranged from 1.8% to 7.1%. The highest value was obtained with a 25% replacement of wheat flour by freeze-dried almond powder. On the other hand, the lack of starch and the high concentration of fat (around 25%) and insoluble fibre (higher than 20%) in the almond bagasse powder determined the viscoelastic behaviour of the hydrated blends. As the percentage of substitution with the almond bagasse powder increased, the final viscosity decreased, being reduced from 2302 MPa·s in the wheat flour to 873 MPa·s in the blend containing 25% hot air-dried almond powder. It is worth noting that, the use of these blends for biscuit preparation resulted in a final product with a higher content of antioxidant components. The highest increase in antiradical capacity was 33% and was observed in the biscuits obtained with the mixture containing 25% hot air-dried almond powder.
... The global market is expected to reach USD 130.34 billion by 2032, up from USD 72.71 billion in 2022 [27]. However, despite its health potential, whole-wheat products face challenges like sensory issues and quality concerns due to insoluble polysaccharides in brans [28]. Sourdough fermentation has the potential to enhance the sensory attributes of whole-wheat products, offering diverse flavor compounds and mitigating the issues associated with dough rheology and texture [29]. ...
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Hard red spring (HRS) wheat cultivated in the Northern Great Plains of the United States is often considered as premium-quality wheat because of its potential to produce high-quality end- products. The potential of HRS wheat mainly stems from its high protein and strong gluten contents, which make it a valuable ingredient for baking, especially specialized bakery products. It can also be blended with other wheat types for improved flour protein content and is well suited for sourdough, frozen dough, and clean-label baking. However, keeping its quality attributes consistent is often challenging due to the complex interplay of genetic and environmental factors in regulating them. This is further intensified by unpredictable weather events and pest infestations which cause a deterioration of quality. Although HRS wheat is widely used to improve the quality of end-products, comprehensive information about the scientific reasons behind these quality attributes is still lacking. This review summarizes scientific information regarding the unique quality attributes of hard red spring (HRS) wheat and its exclusive applications in the food industry, particularly for high-quality baking. It also identifies the challenges in upholding the standards of HRS wheat and discusses possible strategic approaches to further elevate its quality attributes. The insights gained from this review will be beneficial to a broad spectrum of stakeholders in the food industry, including bakers, millers, breeders, growers, and the scientific community.
... This interaction weakens gluten proteins, influencing the rheological and baking properties of the bread. The gluten proteindietary fiber interactions in bran-containing wheat flour dough play a significant role in affecting dough rheology by decreasing its elasticity, leading to negative effects on the quality of the baked product, such as reduced loaf specific volume and an uneven distribution of gas cells in the crumb matrix (Bressiani et al., 2017;Sui et al., 2018). ...
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What bran contains valuable molecules having high nutritional value. However, the characteristic dark color and the poor functional properties of this material make its use as an ingredient in foods very limited. Thus, to improve its potential application in the food industry, it is important to modify its color and structure by appropriate treatment. The aim of this study was to bleach wheat bran using hydrogen peroxide and optimize the bleaching conditions. Response surface methodology was employed to determine the optimal concentrations of hydrogen peroxide and wheat bran (WB), as well as the process duration required to achieve the best chromatic profile. The optimized conditions successfully eliminated the brown color of the wheat bran, resulting in a final product characterized by a chromatic profile compatible with commercial wheat flour, exhibiting the following values: L* = 78, a* =-2.6, and b* = 18.8. These results were achieved using a hydrogen peroxide concentration of 20 %, a wheat bran concentration of 10 %, and a contact time of 20 min. Under these bleaching conditions at pH 11, the resulting bran exhibited lower water retention capacity and a significantly increased extractability of dry matter in aqueous media, rising from 20 % for the unbleached bran to 90 % for the bleached bran. Additionally, when mixed with wheat flour, the results indicated a uniform color when combining wheat flour with 10 % bleached bran. In contrast, the unbleached wheat bran showed the presence of two colors on the surface of the mixtures, as revealed by digital analysis.
... Whole wheat flour retains the bran and germ, 66 thereby offering higher fibre content compared to refined wheat flour. However, the use of 67 whole wheat flour in bakery formulations often leads to poor-quality baked goods 68 characterized by a dense texture, reduced volume, and compromised sensory attributes 69 (Bressiani, et al., 2017). These undesirable characteristics limit the widespread acceptance 70 of whole wheat bakery products. ...
Article
This work explores the potential of short-chain fructooligosaccharides (sc-FOS) as a sugar replacer in bakery products, particularly croissants. The effects of sucrose replacement with sc-FOS on croissant dough properties, as well as the quality of baked croissants, are studied. It was found that the changes in croissant on inclusion of sc-FOS are primarily related to changes in water redistribution and the binding state of water in the dough, with minimal role of change in secondary structure of proteins. Rheological properties of sugar-reduced croissant dough were characterized. The use of sc-FOS as a sucrose replacement increased storage and loss moduli, indicating enhanced interactions and a firmer dough. Creep compliance revealed less deformation and improved elastic recovery, suggesting strengthened bonding, especially in the gluten network. The upper crust of croissants showed no significant differences in colour, but the lower crust darkened slightly with sc-FOS. Texture analysis revealed a firmer texture with complete sucrose replacement, while the porosity remained consistent. Sensory evaluation indicated changes in hardness and overall acceptability with sc-FOS, emphasizing the need for reformulation and consideration of the impacts on starch gelatinization.
... Furthermore, the breakage of the bran layer into coarser particles compared to the wheat flour is also encouraged (through wheat tempering) to achieve higher separation efficiency. Fat content on the other hand is present in minimal amounts (0.01 to 0.56%) for all samples of straight grade flours as the wheat germ which contains most of the fat content of the seed is separated during milling [18]. ...
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Flow properties of wheat flours are influenced by their intrinsic properties and environmental conditions during handling. This study evaluated the effects of environmental conditions (temperature and relative humidity- %RH) and flour properties (particle size and wheat class) on the flow properties of wheat flours. Size fractions from hard red winter (HRW) and soft red winter (SRW) wheat were produced through sieving. Flour fractions were then exposed to various temperature (25 and 35 oC) and relative humidity (50, 60, and 70%RH) combinations (t = 3 h) to evaluate the effects of environmental conditions. Flow indicators (Hausner ratio – HR and compressibility index - CI) and flow (bulk, dynamic, and shear) properties were measured for the wheat flours after treatment. Shape analysis showed that all flour fractions were spherical based on their aspect ratio (> 0.7) and elongation (< 0.3) values. Flow properties indicate that soft wheat flours had poorer flowability compared to hard wheat flours. Lower flow function (FFc) were observed for finer flour fractions (FFc < 4.0) of both flour types relative to the coarser particles (FFc > 4.0) which indicates poorer flowability. Higher humidity levels (60 and 70%) also caused poorer flowability for the wheat flours after exposure. The results from this study show that both environmental factors and flour characteristics have significant effects on flour flow properties. Handling wheat flours at lower humidity levels and higher temperatures improve flowability. Hard wheat flours were more flowable than soft wheat flours; coarser fractions from both wheat types flow better than finer fractions.
... Variations in the particle size of wheat flour lead to changes in the physicochemical properties of wheat flour, resulting in a corresponding change in the quality of the final pastry product. The volume of the cake produced by wheat flour is significantly related to the flour particle size (Bressiani et al., 2017). With regard to sensory quality, smaller grain sizes are more suitable for cakes (G omez et al., 2010). ...
Article
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Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is one of the most important food grains worldwide, mainly consumed in the form of wheat flour or flour‐based foods. Milling reduces the particle size of wheat grains or wheat endosperm, which strongly affected the physical and chemical properties of wheat flour and subsequent product characteristics. In this paper, the differences in physical and chemical properties of wheat flour due to its particle size distribution, the sources of the differences and the applicability of flour products were reviewed. Furthermore, the modern wheat milling process, the mathematical modelling, and mechanical modification of wheat milling process in recent years were introduced. The research prospect of the influence of milling process on the formation of particle size and quality of wheat flour was put forward.
... exposed grains. As for the rheological properties of flour, especially the effect on the protein of gluten, which is mainly responsible for the quality of baked goods, the results indicated above were not significantly affected in Table (4), as the percentage of gluten in fresh wheat ranges between 5.65% -15.3% (Liu et al., 2015;Bressiani. et al., 2017), This is consistent with most of the previous research. Wang et al. (2016) indicated that the protein and starch content in the ozone treated samples was without significant change, and all the ozone treated samples were less stretchy and yellowish in addition to higher consistency and higher whiteness. ...
Article
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This study was conducted to find out the potential efficiency of Ozone treatment in detoxification of mycotoxins Nivalenol (NIV) and Fumonisine B2 (FB2) and Deoxynivalenol (DON) associated with Triticum aestivum, grains, as well as their effect on wheat seeds quality including, essential amino acids (EAA), free fatty acids (FFA), and the protein (Gluten). For this purpose, ozone gas was applied at a concentration of 2000 mg / hour at 40 ° C at a period of 24 hours exposure. The results showed that ozone gas was effective in reducing NIV and DON. The reduction percentages were 28.8 and 60.7%, respectively, while the reduction rate of FB2 was 100%. Ozone treatment had a significant effect on chemical components of wheat grains unevenly; the results showed EAA was divided into two groups, the first group revealed an increase in the levels of EAA including: Aspartic, Glycine, Cystine and Methionine, whereas the second group showed a decrease EAA such as Glutamic, Serine, Histidine, Threonine, Arginine, Alanine, Tyrosine, Valine, Phenylalanine, Isolieucine, and Lysine. However, Leucine was found undetected after the treatment. Fatty acids profile showed similar pattern of results; two distinct groups were examined; the first one with an increased level of FFA including Oleic and Linolenic; another FFA group included a decreased level of Palmitic, Palmitoleic and Linoleic. Finally, there is no significant difference in Gluten protein levels in the treated wheat grains with Ozone compared to the control treatment, with average of 2.1 and 2.17 g, respectively.
... As previously shown by Lin et al. (2020), the presence of bigger flour particle can inhibit the formation of a dense and structured network, through limiting protein crosslink. Moreover, Bressiani, Oro, Santetti, Almeida, Bertolin, & Manuel (2017) studied the effect of the particle size on the gluten density of dough made with flour with different granulometry. The authors demonstrated that finer flour formed denser gluten due to the greater interactions between the flour's components. ...
Article
Reduction of starch digestibility in starchy foods is beneficial for lowering the risks for major non-communicable diseases. Preserving cell integrity is known to delay starch digestibility in flour but its effect in bread is not clear. In this study, the effect of increasing particle size on in vitro starch digestibility of durum wheat flour, dough, and bread was investigated. Cell integrity was retained during bread processing for medium (1000 µm-1800 µm), and large (>1800 µm) flour, whereas in small one cell walls were mostly damaged (<350 µm). In vitro starch digestibility of flour decreased increasing particle size, but no difference was found in dough. In bread, instead, a modest decrease of starch digestibility for the bread made by large particle was observed, likely due to its dense structure. In conclusion, a high particle size could limit starch digestibility in durum wheat flour but not in bread.
... The determination of free sulfhydryl groups (-SH) in the gluten was performed according to the spectrophotometric assay method reported by Bressiani et al. [17] and Cao et al. [18]. The dough sample was freeze-dried and ground (75 mg) to determine the content of free SH and total SH. ...
Article
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In order to improve the nutritional value and reduce starch the digestibility of black soybean cookies, superfine black soybean flour was modified by heat-moisture treatment (HMT). The physicochemical properties, structure analysis of the flour samples and corresponding dough, and nutritional, physical, and textural properties of the cookies were investigated. After HMT, the water and lactic acid retention capacity and the oil binding capacity of mix powder dramatically increased, being almost twice the value of the untreated sample. HMT increased gelatinization temperature by about 10 °C but decreased gelatinization enthalpy. HMT had no apparent effect on the morphology and size of granules, but some cracks and pores appeared on the HMT-mix powder granules and corresponding dough. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analysis showed that the ordered structure of dough was unaffected during HMT. After HMT, the thickness, density, and baking loss of the cookies increased, and the spread ratio decreased. HMT dramatically increased the chemical score of cookies from 12.35% in mix powder cookies to 19.64% in HMT-mix powder cookies. HMT decreased the rapidly digestible starch content, while the slowly digestible starch increased from 45.97% in mix powder cookies to 49.31% in HMT-mix powder cookies, and RS increased from 21.64% to 26.87%. Overall, HMT did not have a negative effect on the processing properties and microstructure and secondary structure of the dough, or the physical properties and quality of the cookies, but significantly improved the nutritional properties and decreased the starch digestibility of the cookies.
... The bread samples were prepared according to a method described by Bressiani et al. (2017) using a small-scale baking instrumental. Briefly, the formulation was composed of flour, hydrogenated vegetable oil, sodium chloride, ascorbic acid, sugar, yeast and water. ...
Article
Untargeted metabolomics analysis was applied to evaluate the phenolic profile of whole wheat bread with yerba mate (YM) during the bread-making process (flour, dough and bread). The free, bound and total phenolic contents of the samples evaluated by the Folin-Ciocalteu method showed the highest values for the flour, dough and bread samples prepared with 4.5% YM in fine and medium particle sizes (flour 181.48 – 175.26 mg GAE/g; dough 149.62 – 141.40 mg GAE/g; and bread 148.32 – 147.00 mg GAE/g). Globally, 104 phenolic compounds were tentatively identified, belonging to the five subclasses: flavonoids (35), phenolic acids (32), other polyphenols (10), stilbenes (2) and lignan (1). Of these compounds, 24 had the same m/z but showed different fragmentation profiles. A higher number of polyphenols was identified in the bound extracts (77%) than in the free extracts (59%). The addition of 4.5% of YM promoted an improved and more abundant profile of phenolic compounds in the dough and bread. The major compounds found in the samples containing YM were 5-caffeoylquinic acid and caffeic acid. The baking process did not adversely affect the abundance of phenolic compounds. The bread-making process positively affected the phenolic profile due to the release of bound phenolic compounds. At the same time, the addition of YM as a natural ingredient promoted an increase in the polyphenols in the bread.
... In particular, the values of hardness and cohesiveness were inversely correlated and M425 showed significantly lower values of hardness and significantly higher values of cohesiveness. The data were in accordance with those found by Dhen et al. [44] in gluten-free cakes fortified with soy flour and Bressiani et al. [23] in wheat bread. These authors observed greater values of hardness when flours with smaller particle was used. ...
Article
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Every year, the winemaking process generates large quantities of waste and by-products, the management of which is critical due to the large production in a limited period. Grape pomace is a source of bioactive compounds with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, cardioprotective and antimicrobial properties. Its chemical composition makes it potentially suitable for preparing high-value food products. The aim of this research was to study the effect of adding grape pomace powder with different particle size fractions (600–425, 425–300, 300–212 and 212–150 µm) to the chemical, technological and sensorial characteristics of muffins. The addition of 15% of grape pomace powder, regardless of particle size, led to muffins rich in antioxidant compounds and total dietary fiber (>3/100 g), which could be labelled with the “source of fiber” nutritional claim according to the EC Regulation 1924/2006. As particle size decreased, total anthocyanins, total phenol content and antioxidant activity (evaluated by ABTS and DPPH assays) increased, while muffin hardness and lightness were negatively influenced. The latter observation was confirmed by the sensory evaluation, which also showed that a smaller particle size led to the presence of irregular crumb pores.
... According to the author the aggregates were seen segmented into smaller segments which was attributed to the increased intensity of flour milling. Bressiani et al. (2017) also stated that in the whole wheat flour the bran and starch granules can be easily depicted because of the less interaction between starch granules and protein that can be attributed to the presence of outer layer. In a study by Srivastava et al. (2014), the microstructure of wheat flour showed both small and large granules of starch entrapped in protein matrix. ...
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The purpose of the research was to use food to food fortification of staples, as a tool to deliver micronutrients especially minerals to the population. In this research moringa leaves powder (MLP), a local nutrient dense source, was utilized for increasing the micronutrients in whole wheat flour biscuit. Microstructural and mineral analysis of whole wheat flour (WWF) and MLP was carried out. WWF biscuit were prepared by incorporating MLP in different percentages (0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10%). Mineral profile, phytic acid content and microstructure of the biscuit were analyzed. The microstructural analysis showed that the gluten network was infered by inculsion of MLP, creating some cavities, but the entire protein matrix was not disrupted. The results of the mineral analysis indicated a significant increase in magnesium (42.34%), calcium(84.91%), potassium(49.82%), phosphorus (32.32%) and iron content(50.92%) of the cookies fortified with MLP. Phytic acid of the biscuit decreased from 0.66 to 0.39%. It can be concluded that MLP can be a tool to alleviate malnutrition and solve food insecurity especially in the developing counteries.
... In recent years, the demand for whole grains has increased tremendously with an increased interest in healthier products. Despite the potential health benefits, the majority of cereal products are produced from refined cereal grains which are low in dietary fiber and have fewer health promoting benefits when compared to whole grains ( Bressiani et al., 2017 ). Whole grain and whole grain products have encouraged a healthy and sustainable plant-based diet. ...
Article
The objective of this research was to optimize feed composition (whole wheat flour (WWF), whole barley flour (WBF), whole corn flour (WCF) and Indian horse chestnut flour (IHCF)) and evaluating the effects of different ratios of feed composition on the functional, physical and mechanical characteristics of extrudates. Response Surface Methodology was used to optimize the ingredients. Results found that breakfast cereals with 8.3% of WWF, 8.75% of WBF and 3.75% of IHCF had higher rehydration ratios and desirable hardness, porosity, bulk density and color as compared to other treatment samples. Increasing the whole-grain reduced water solubility index, water absorption index and surface mechanical energy. The optimum processing conditions obtained by numerical optimization for the development of breakfast cereals were 10% WWF, 10% WBF, 2.5% IHCF, and 77.5% WCF at 14% of moisture, 110ºC temperature and screw speed of 380rpm. Therefore, the development of breakfast cereals through extrusion cooking of mixture of whole-grains and IHCF is feasible, providing the base for fibre rich healthier snack food products.
... Most of the nutritional values are concentrated in the bran layers and germ of wheat (Borneo et al., 2011). However, regardless of the health benefits, there are difficulties in producing wholemeal flour that maintains the desired functionality and quality equivalent to refined grain products (Bressiani et al., 2017). An increase of surface area to mass of wheat bran increased extraction of antioxidant and phenolic compounds with reduction in particle size (Brewer et al., 2014). ...
Conference Paper
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The aim of this research was to investigate the drop size distribution of the standard flat fan nozzle in different positions of its spray fan. Moreover, the symmetry of the drop size distribution of the spray fan was checked by comparing the right and left side of the spray fan. Drop size distribution was measured by laser diffraction device (Sympatec GmbH-HELOS-VARIO/KR). There were fifteen measurement positions alongside the spray fan, seven position on the right side and the same number on the left beside one measurement on the spray fan centreline. The measurements were done with 3.0 bar pressure and in 50cm bellow the nozzle tip. The results showed that almost two-third of the spray volume is consisted of drops sizes ranging from 100 to 300 mu m. The two sides of the spray pattern were identical at the middle positions (near the centreline) for all drop size ranges. However, there was a slight difference between right and left side of the spray pattern concerning the drop size ranges at the edge positions.
... Particle size influences the flour properties; reducing the particle size of the flour leads to increase starch damage and increase the surface area that causes more dough absorption and consequently more dough stickiness (Gaines, 1985). Further, Bressiani et al. (2017) reported that particle size affects the functionality of the gluten network and subsequently the bread volume. Therefore, FPQ and FPB should be controlled to be similar to FPI to express its quality appropriately. ...
Article
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Three types of mills (Buhler, Quadrumat, and industry mill) have been used to determine the effect of mill type on the quality of the produced flour. Quadrumat and Buhler mills are usually used to produce flour at a laboratory level. Flour quality has been determined physically, chemically, and rheologically. Results showed that the particle size of flour produced by Buhler mill (FPB) was finer (mostly less than 132µm) than other produced flour, while flour produced by Quadrumat mill (FPQ) had 8% particle size bigger than 50gg, which is more than Iraqi accepted limit (5%). The moisture content of FPQ exceeded the moisture content limit (14%). While, all flour produced by industry mills (FPI) was within the Iraqi standard in term of particle sizes and moisture content. Gluten content of FPB was higher than other produced flours; however, most increments were not significantly different. The results also showed that using different mills has no clear effect on the gluten index and alpha-amylase activity. Farinogram and extensogram results showed that FPQ was stronger than other produced flour followed by FPI. In conclusion, the quality of FPQ was closer to the quality of FPI, however, Quadrumat mill needs to be adjusted to produce flour with finer particle sizes and lower moisture content. The Buhler mill, on the other hand, needs to be adjusted to produce flour with bigger particle size. Both laboratory mills (Quadrumat and Buhler) need to be adjusted to produce flour that expresses FPI correctly.
... It is often used in the manufacture of bakery and pasta products and cereals. Products made from whole grains and whole grains are usually used for dietary nutrition [23][24][25][26][27]. ...
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The research was aimed at developing recipes for buns studying the nutritional value of securities. In the work, an assortment of bakery products was developed from flour, composite mixtures of leguminous crops and dry powders of sugar beets. As a result, bakery products with useful properties and improved qualities were obtained. In the recipe, sugar was completely replaced by dry powders of sugar beet. The optimal combination for making a bun from composite flour and dry sugar beet powder was 10% chickpea and 5% mung bean flour with 9.23 g of dry sugar beet powder added per 100 g flour. Physical and chemical indicators, including mineral elements, vitamin composition, and safety indicators, were determined. It was proven that the use of composite flour from leguminous crops contributes to a contraction of the technological process of the production of bakery products, reducing the time needed for dough preparation and baking. The use of technology for obtaining bakery products and recipes in production allows expanding the range of bakery products, reducing the duration of the technological process of production, improving the quality of finished products, and increasing labour productivity. It also helps to improve the socioeconomic indicators of bakery and confectionery enterprises.
Article
Background and Objectives Effects of the physicochemical properties of buckwheat flour (BKF), quinoa flour (QF), proso millet flour (PMF), and whole wheat flour (WWF) were evaluated in a pancake product made with unbleached fine wheat pastry flour (FWF). Pancakes were formulated with 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% (w/w) substitution levels. FWF was used as the control. Findings The flours varied in composition, affecting their functional properties. BKF was characterized by high total dietary fiber (TDF), FWF had the highest starch content, WWF had the highest protein content, and PMF had the highest peak and onset temperature. The influential functional properties on pancake quality were the content of TDF and insoluble dietary fiber, as well as the water and oil holding capacity. Due to the rapid cooking time in pancakes, the PMF starch did not gelatinize adequately, likely due to the amylose content or shape and size of the starch, resulting in a low‐hardness pancake without a continuous matrix. When a pancake was prepared with partial pregelatinized PMF, the pancake had a continuous matrix. Conclusion BK, QF, and WWF can be incorporated into pancake formulations without flour modification. PMF must be modified before usage in a pancake application to ensure that a continuous matrix is formed. Significance and Novelty This research sheds light on the importance of considering the functional properties of alternative grains in baked product formulations. Nonetheless, further information was found on PMF starch gelatinization in pancake applications.
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Purpose A strategy to reduce starch digestibility is to limit its accessibility to α-amylase by preserving the integrity of cells where starch is encapsulated. Coarse flour is rich in intact cells and can be used for this purpose. However, making bread with coarse flour negatively affects crumb cohesiveness, which may increase the gastric disintegration rate, and enhance starch accessibility. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the combined effect of coarse semolina and its 20% gluten substitution in bread in healthy volunteers on glycemic and insulinemic responses, oral processing and bolus characteristics. Methods Apparently, healthy volunteers (n = 16) randomly consumed bread made with coarse semolina and 20% gluten substitution (80CS_20G), its counterpart with fine semolina (80FS_20G), and bread with fine semolina and 5% gluten (95FS_5G). The glycemic and insulinemic responses were measured over 2 h after bread consumption. Mastication behaviour, bolus properties and reducing sugar were also evaluated. Results No differences in glycemic responses and mastication were observed among the samples. 80CS_20G and 80FS_20G exhibited similar textural properties but 80CS_20G released less reducing sugars and elicited a lower insulin response at 30 min than 80FS_20G, probably due to intact cells that limit starch accessibility. Also, 95FS_5G released lower reducing sugars and had lower insulin peak than 80FS_20G. The compact structure of 95FS_5G may have delayed starch hydrolysis by restricting α-amylase accessibility. Conclusion Combining gluten and coarse semolina resulted in bread with a lower release of reducing sugars, a reduced insulinemic peak and textural properties similar to the counterpart with fine semolina. Clinical trial Registration Number The trial is registered at ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT06152874.
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Grain products are a fundamental element in ensuring food security for the population. In recent years, the demand for whole grain products has significantly increased. Whole grain products are highly nutritious due to their balanced content of amino acids and other macro- and microelements. The aim of this study is to investigate the chemical and amino acid composition of whole grain raw materials such as triticale grain of the «Dauren» variety, buckwheat grain of the «Dikul» variety, and lentil grains of the «Sakura» and «Shyrayly» varieties. The chemical research revealed that whole leguminous crops have a high protein content, which is approximately twice as high as that of whole grains, with protein content values of 28,75% and 24,67%, respectively. The analysis of the conducted studies showed that the amino acid composition of the proteins in whole grains and whole leguminous crops is characterized by a high content of essential amino acids. Leguminous crops have a higher content of arginine and lysine compared to whole grains. Whole leguminous crops have a higher protein content than whole grains, making them important for increasing the nutritional value of food products when mixed. Additionally, various processing methods and their effects on preserving nutritional properties were studied.
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This review examines the glycemic impact of cereal and legume-based bakery products and their potential role in chronic disease management, particularly in type II diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. The primary objective is to assess the glycemic index (GI) and glycemic load (GL) of bakery products made from cereals such as wheat and barley, and legumes like chickpeas, and to explore their effects on postprandial blood glucose response. Cereal-based products typically exhibit higher GIs (55–80), while legume-based bakery products demonstrate lower GIs (40–50), potentially contributing to better glycemic control. Incorporating legumes into bakery formulations can lower their glycemic index by up to 25 %. Legume-enriched bakery products may effectively manage blood glucose and reduce chronic disease risks like diabetes. However, more long-term studies are needed to confirm their broader benefits. This review emphasizes the need for innovation to improve the nutritional and sensory appeal of functional foods.
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In this study, the impact of exopolysaccharides (EPS)-positive strain Weissella cibaria (W. cibaria) fermented sourdough on the quality of whole wheat fresh noodles (WWNs) and its improvement mechanisms were studied. The optimal fermentation conditions were found to be 30% sucrose content, fermented at 25 °C for 12 h, which yielded the highest EPS, 28.06 g/kg, in the W. cibaria fermented sourdough with sucrose (DW+). During storage, the sourdough reduced polyphenol oxidase activities and delayed the browning rate of noodles. The DW+ increased the hardness by 11.98% from 2184.99 to 2446.83 g, and the adhesiveness increased by 19.60%, i.e., from 72.01 to 86.13 g∙s of the noodles. The EPS mitigated acidification of sourdough, prevented the disaggregation of glutenin macropolymers (GMP), and increased sourdough elastic modulus. In addition, scanning electron microscope and confocal laser scanning microscopy of noodles containing EPS sourdough also demonstrated the uniform distribution of gluten proteins. The starch granules were also closely embedded in the gluten network. Thus, the present work indicated that the EPS produced sourdough delayed browning and improved the WWNs texture, indicating its potential to enhance the quality of whole grain noodles.
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Whole-grain food ingredients enable the most balanced food products to be obtained, thus forming an important part of a healthy and sustainable diet. Wheat and barley grains are a traditional source of food ingredients for breads, breakfasts, drinks, and snacks in Russia. Such foods are suitable for all ages with many health benefits. However, the modern metropolitan citizen consumes large quantities of refined cereal products, thus impoverishing their diet. An alternative in dietary fortification could be sprouted and fermented food ingredients with an increased nutritional value. The present work was carried out to study the effect of a combination of germination with ultrasound treatment and fermentation with a complex starter of cereal crops on antioxidant activity and γ-aminobutyric acid content of food ingredients with the possibility of using them in the matrix of food products. In order to obtain germinated food ingredients, we used crops with the highest yield in the Ural region (Russia): two samples of soft spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and a sample of spring barley grain (Hordeum vulgare L.). Obtaining food ingredients was divided into successive stages: ultrasonic treatment (22 ± 1.25 kHz) was performed by means of changing power and length of time (245 W/L, intensity for 5 min); germination and fermentation used complex starter “Vivo Probio”. The proposed technology of germination with haunting fermentation of cereal crops resulted in food ingredients with a more uniform distribution of granulometric composition, a low proportion of fine particles (4.62–104.60 µm) (p < 0.05) and large particles (418.60–592.00 µm) (p < 0.05). The particle size range (31.11–248.90 μm) (p < 0.05) was predominant. The germination and fermentation process resulted in 26 to 57% (p < 0.05) lower phytic acid content, 35 to 68% (p < 0.05) higher flavonoid content, 31 to 51% (p < 0.05) higher total antioxidant activity, 42.4 to 93.9% (p < 0.05) higher assimilability, and 3.1 to 4.7 times (p < 0.05) higher γ-aminobutyric acid content, which will allow production of food products with pronounced preventive action. The data was analyzed via one-way ANOVA analysis of variance using the free web-based software. The combination of the germination process with ultrasound treatment and subsequent fermentation with a complex starter can be used to support the development of healthful food products with increased GABA and antioxidant activity.
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The rheological properties and microstructure of doughs, and the texture properties of whole wheat breads and noodles were investigated. The gluten strength of doughs were discriminated due to wheat cultivar. Reduced flour particle size led to the doughs with a stronger gluten strength (i.e., smaller C2), lower degree of starch retrogradation (i.e., smaller C5), and longer relaxation time (i.e., larger n values). Firmer crumb of breads were prepared by flours with smaller particle size. With increased bran content, the gluten strength of dough weakened (i.e., increased C2), the development and relaxation time of dough and the degree of starch retrogradation decreased (i.e., decreased C1 time, n values and C5), the dough structure became more porous, and the product texture appeared to be firmer. As such, outcomes from this research will provide a practical guidance for the bakery industry to improve the consumer acceptability of whole wheat products.
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The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of wheat bran dietary fibre (WBDF, 3%, 6%, 9%, 12% and 15%) and raw wheat bran (RWB, 6%, 12%, 18%, 24% and 30%) on the flour and dough properties. Under the same content of TDF in blended flour, WBDF could better inhibited the starch retrogradation. The dough with WBDF possessed higher water absorption, longer development and stability time, more excellent mechanical resistance during mixing but worse when heating. Both storage modulus (G′) and loss modulus (G″) of dough containing WBDF were higher than those of RWB, while loss tangent (tanδ), creep strain and recovery strain were opposite, WBDF more effectively improved the viscoelasticity, strength of dough and enhanced the solid elastic behavior of dough. The microstructure showed that RWB destroyed the continuity and order of gluten network more seriously than WBDF, led to more starch granules leaking out. This study showed that purified WBDF represented better performance than RWB on the whole, and possessed more potential to develop high-fibre wheat flour products.
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To benefit the consumers with a variety of health benefits, the incorporation of wheat bran into the bread formula has been widely conducted. This leads to changes in the rheological properties of dough that is associated with the overall quality of bakery products. This review has demonstrated the utility of a wide range of measurements at large and small deformations for determining dough rheological properties. Particularly, the rheological models have been proven with a good application in characterizing the viscoelastic behavior of whole wheat dough during breadmaking. The objective of this review was to build up a solid theorical foundation on how the rheological properties and baking performance of doughs are modified by manipulating the ingredient (i.e., the composition of gluten proteins from refined wheat flour, the properties of dietary fibre, the flour particle size, and the addition of hydrocolloids and enzymes) and processing (i.e., the time, temperature, speed and work input of mixing, the time, speed and geometry type of kneading, and the resting time) conditions throughout breadmaking processes. We also aimed to demonstrate the interactions of gluten proteins, dietary fibre and water molecules that play critical roles in affecting the dough rheology and the resultant bread quality. This will bring us a future research focus on how the gluten protein-dietary fibre-water interactions respond to the effects of dough formulation and processing parameters.
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Bakery products are an important sector of the food industry globally and are part of the regular diets of many people. Texture encompasses many product characteristics and plays a pivotal role in consumer acceptance. This review focuses on the studies that evaluate textural properties in a set of bakery products, either using instrumental texture measurements or sensorial evaluations. A search was conducted on scientific databases, and selection was based on some eligibility criteria, resulting in a total of 133 articles about the textural properties of bakery products. Of these studies, the majority reported only instrumental analysis of texture (62 out of 133), and a minor number of studies reported only sensorial analyses (n = 14). Still, there was an expressive number of studies in which both methodologies were used to assess the texture of the bakery products (n = 57), i.e., instrumental measurement complemented with sensory evaluation. The results showed that most studies focused on bread (37%) and cakes (33%). With respect to instrumental texture analysis, most tests were TPA (texture profile analysis), and the most commonly used probe was a cylinder disc with a 75 mm diameter. Instrumental tests usually determine textural properties like hardness, cohesiveness, chewiness, and springiness. Regarding the sensorial analyses of texture, mostly descriptive tests were used (72%), particularly sensory profiling, with a lower number of studies performing discriminating (18%) of preference/acceptance tests (10%). In most cases, untrained panels were used, with a most common number of panelists equal to ten, and the most representative evaluated textural attributes were hardness, cohesiveness, chewiness, and springiness. In conclusion, this review provides insight into the methods used to assess the texture of bakery products and which characteristics of these products should be on focus. Furthermore, it was verified that both types of methodologies are complementary in evaluating texture for these types of food products.
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In this study, black soybean powders of five different particles sizes (coarse, regular, fine, very fine, and superfine) were prepared and mixed with wheat flour to evaluate the effects of particles sizes on the characteristics of mixed powders prepared with black soybean powders and wheat flour, and the dough prepared from these mixed powders. The black soybean powder was rich in ash, protein, lipid, and fiber, especially the superfine black soybean powder, which had the highest lipid (26.85%) and fiber (13.12%) content. Compared to wheat flour, the addition of black soybean powders altered the water retention capacity (WRC), lactic acid capacity, and oil binding capacity (OBC) of mix powders; superfine black soybean powder had the lowest WRC and OBC (0.76 and 0.95 g/g, respectively). The digestibility was significantly affected by black soybean powder particle size. Larger particles tended to result in higher resistant starch content. The water absorption of dough was independent of particle size, and the particle size significantly altered the stability time, development time, pasting and viscoelastic properties, and secondary structure of the dough. Determination of the disulfide bond content and scanning electron microscopy of dough revealed that dough prepared from black soybean flour of large particle sizes had a more stable gluten structure.
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In order to enrich the cookies' nutrition, black soybean was used to develop cookies, and the effect of its particle size on the characteristics of cookies was analysed. The results showed that the chemical score of black soybean cookies (12.02–13.24) was significantly greater than that of wheat flour cookies (9.14), which was significant for improving cookies’ nutrition. The cookies thickness decreased when the particle size of black soybean flour decreased, but the spread ratio increased. The addition of black soybean flour greatly decreased the lightness of the cookie from 74.79 to 51.32. The decrease in particle size affected texture of cookies, especially for hardness and fracturability, they increased from 12.22 to 13.86 N, and decreased from 1.26 to 1.02 g, respectively. The addition of black soybean remarkably increased the slowly digestible and resistant starch, especially for cookies made from coarse black soybean flour, up to 50.22% and 26.10%, respectively. The black soybean flour enhanced the binding force of free water in cookies system, giving cookies a higher crispness. Based on physicochemical properties and nutrition analysis, using black soybean flour to develop cookies is feasible in industrial practice. And from sensory analysis, superfine black soybean flour was preferred for cookies production.
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The increase in the consumption of pulses can perform a key role in preventing protein deficiency among people specifically in developing countries. The fortification of whole wheat bread with pulses is an efficient approach to boost the nutritional profile of bread as protein, starches, dietary fiber, vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, and phytochemicals are all abundant in pulses. The optimum ratio of the pulse to whole wheat flour is necessary to determine for producing bread with good quality, sensory attributes, and handling properties. This review investigated the impact of the pulse addition on the whole wheat dough rheology, bread quality, and sensory characteristics, with a particular focus on dough stability, elasticity, strength, and bread volume. The improvement in the nutritional value as well as the negative impact of pulses on whole-wheat bread was also reviewed. The research gaps in pulse supplemented whole grains bread were identified, and further study directions were recommended. Fortification of whole wheat bread with pulses produced affordable bread with a balanced diet for all classes of people. The addition of a higher level of pulses develops a weak gluten structure, which negatively affects dough stability, strength, elasticity, and handling properties. The volume of bread also decreased, and the off-flavor compound produced at a higher level of pulse fortification. The addition of additives and prior processing of pulses not only promote the nutritional value but also produce bread with better dough stability, bread volume, and sensory score.
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In recent years there has been growing interest in whole grain products. However, few studies have analyzed the influence of whole wheat flour on the quality of Chinese steamed bread. This study determined the influence of different milling processes on the physicochemical properties and steamed bread quality of whole wheat flour. A medium hard red wheat, soft white wheat and Canada hard wheat was used as raw materials. The milling processes including three entire grain grinding and four bran recombining processes. The wheat flour ground by roller mill was used as a control. Results showed that whole wheat flour made from entire grain grinding processes had higher viscosity values but lower particle size than bran recombining processes. Appropriate processes can improve the farinograph characteristics of whole wheat flour. Chinese steamed bread of whole wheat flour obtained from bran recombining had larger height/diameter ratio, specific volume than that from entire grain grinding processes. Ultrafine entire grain grinding process especially when using white wheat improved the color of steamed bread. The texture differences of steamed bread between whole wheat flour and flour were significant. Steamed bread of red wheat from heat-treated bran recombining (HTBR) process got the highest sensory score.
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The impact of the hydration capacity and rate of wheat bran on optimal bread dough development and loaf volume was investigated using coarse bran, both native as well as after toasting, milling, presoaking and combinations of the latter. It was found that toasting reduces bran's hydration rate which, during mixing, results in a temporary excess of water in which dough development takes place inefficiently and hence requires additional time. This mechanism was further substantiated by the observation that delayed dough development can be counteracted by presoaking of bran. Milling of bran increases its hydration rate and results in faster optimal dough development. Presoaking of non-milled bran, however, did not result in faster dough development. Smaller bran particles do lead to faster dough development, probably due to increased proper contacts between flour particles. Optimal loaf volumes did not change upon milling and toasting.
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An interchange experiment showed that it was the gluten/starch fraction of flour and not the level of ferulic acid that controlled rapid breakdown of overmixed doughs. This finding also explains why a large amount of exogenous ferulic acid is needed to cause rapid breakdown. Quantitative analysis of the phenolic acids in wheat flour and doughs showed ferulic acid to be the predominant phenolic acid. During overmixing of wheat flour doughs, ferulic acid was lost from those fractions that initiated breakdown in gluten/starch doughs. As wheat flour dough was overmixed, the concentration of ferulic acid in the free form decreased from 1·0 to 0·3 mg/kg and in the soluble, bound form from 3·8 to 0·9 mg/kg. Ferulic acid in the insoluble, bound form did not decrease in concentration, remaining at about 36 mg/kg. These data are in agreement with the theory that ferulic acid in the water-soluble fraction of wheat flour interacts with the gluten/starch fraction to bring about rapid dough breakdown.
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Two wheat varieties ‘C 306’ and ‘WH 542’ were milled to obtain flour fractions of different particle sizes. Various physicochemical parameters such as wet and dry gluten, falling number, solvent retention capacity (SRC), alkaline water retention capacity (AWRC) and damaged starch content of the flour fractions were analyzed. The damaged starch values ranged from 5.14% to 14.79% for different flour fractions and increased significantly with decrease in particle size. AWRC and SRC of the flour fractions also increased with decrease in particle size. AWRC(r00.659) showed positive correlation and cookie spread ratio (r0−0.826) was strongly negatively correlated with the damaged starch levels. Hardness of the cookies in term of compression force showed increasing trend as damaged starch of the flour fractions increased. Spread ratio of the cookies ranged from 6.72 to 10.12. Wheat flour of particle size greater than 150 μm produced cookies with best quality.
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The use of bran and whole grain flour changes dough rheology and causes difficulties in manufacturing bakery products. The aim of this study was to analyse the influence of substituting refined wheat flour (WF) by wheat bran (WB; 5%, 10%, 20%, 30% and 40%) or whole grain wheat flour (WGWF; 10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 50%) on dough rheological properties and pan bread quality characteristics. The addition of WB and WGWF increased water absorption and resistance to extension and decreased stability, extensibility and peak viscosity. Effects with WB were more pronounced. The presence of WB or WGWF increased crumb moisture content, firmness and hardness and decreased specific volume of pan bread. It is important to set new farinographic and extensographic standards when using WB and WGWF, allowing for a correct correlation between rheology and quality characteristics of bakery products, as the same standards used for WF are not valid.
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Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the analysis of total phenols and other oxidation substrates and antioxidants by means of Folin-Ciocalteu reagent. Analyses of the Folin-Ciocalteu (FC) type are convenient, simple, and require only common equipment and have produced a large body of comparable data. Under proper conditions, the assay is inclusive of monophenols and gives predictable reactions with the types of phenols found in nature. Because different phenols react to different degrees, expression of the results as a single number—such as milligrams per liter gallic acid equivalence—is necessarily arbitrary. Because the reaction is independent, quantitative, and predictable, analysis of a mixture of phenols can be recalculated in terms of any other standard. The assay measures all compounds readily oxidizable under the reaction conditions and its very inclusiveness allows certain substances to also react that are either not phenols or seldom thought of as phenols (e.g., proteins). Judicious use of the assay—with consideration of potential interferences in particular samples and prior study if necessary—can lead to very informative results. Aggregate analysis of this type is an important supplement to and often more informative than reems of data difficult to summarize from various techniques, such as high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) that separate a large number of individual compounds .The predictable reaction of components in a mixture makes it possible to determine a single reactant by other means and to calculate its contribution to the total FC phenol content. Relative insensitivity of the FC analysis to many adsorbents and precipitants makes differential assay—before and after several different treatments—informative.
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Commercial hard red spring, hard red winter, soft white and durum wheat brans were used to evaluate the particle size effect of wheat bran on bread baking performance and bread sensory quality. Three different particle size bran samples were obtained from each bran by grinding, not by sifting, the bran samples. The bran samples were similar in chemical composition, but different in particle sizes. Results of baking experiments showed that breads containing fine bran had lower specific loaf volume and darker crumb colour than breads containing coarse or medium size bran. Sensory test panellists found that fine bran contributed smoother crust appearance and less gritty mouthfeel than the coarse bran. The sensory panel also indicated that breads containing soft white wheat bran had significantly better flavour and mouthfeel than breads containing hard red spring wheat bran. © 1999 Society of Chemical Industry
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The nature of the adverse effects of wheat bran fractions on bread-making quality was studied. Two fractions of bran, representing different tissue layers and having different compositions, were used. The particle size of the bran fractions was varied by various milling techniques. All fractions were added to white flour and water addition was adjusted to obtain dough with a constant consistency.Both dough-mixing properties and bread-making quality were affected by the addition of bran. The negative influence was enhanced when bran particle size was reduced. The effects on bread quality are strongly correlated to negative effects of bran on gluten network formation. The results show that fibre–gluten interactions are the main cause for the negative effects of fibres, rather than dilution of gluten, piercing of gas cells or particles disturbing the gluten network.Two possible explanations for the enhancement of the adverse effects when reducing the particle size of bran fractions are discussed: 1) increased interaction surface 2) liberation of reactive components due to cell breakage.
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Organic wheat production has increased in Sweden, and there is a need to describe the quality of the final product. To optimize utilization of alternatively grown wheat for human consumption, it is necessary to understand the effects of crop and processing variation on the sensory qualities of the final product. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of farming systems, milling technique, and variation in formulation on the sensory attributes of whole wheat pan bread. Six samples of wheat (Triticum aestivum, variety Kosack) from field trials, three grown in conventional farming systems and three in organic farming systems (biodynamic and ecological), were roller-and stone-milled, respectively. Breads were baked according to an experimental design in which two levels of flour and two levels of kneading were also included. Sensory analysis, achieved through a descriptive profiling test, was conducted with eight trained assessors using 19 sensory attributes for 48 different bread types in two replicates. Image analysis was used to establish the slice area of the breads. Milling technique had a greater impact on the sensory qualities of bread and on the slice area than did farming system and baking technique. Conventional wheat had lower protein and ash contents, but higher volume weight than did the organic wheat. Damaged starch, extensographic values ðR m ; EÞ and farinographic values for water absorption, dough development time and dough stability were higher for roller-milled samples than for the stone-milled. Whole meal breads of roller-milled wheat were dominated by sweetness, juiciness and compactness attributes, whereas those from stone-milled wheat were characterized by saltiness, deformity and roasted cereal attributes. The six wheat samples revealed that variation in breads' sensory qualities was larger for the three organic samples than for the three conventional samples.
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Gluten from wheat damaged by heteropterous insects loses its functionality after a short period of resting. In this study the properties of the gluten from damaged wheat are compared with that from sound wheat in order to understand the changes produced during incubation at 37 °C. The amounts of free thiol and amino groups were quantified, obtaining a marked increase of those groups during incubation of the damaged wheat. The thermal characterization of the damaged gluten showed a decrease in the denaturation temperature and a pronounced increase in the protein denaturation enthalpy after a short incubation, although the value of that enthalpy greatly dropped with a longer incubation period. The high-molecular-weight glutenin subunits (HMW-GS) were rapidly hydrolysed while the low-molecular-weight glutenin subunits (LMW-GS) showed a slower degradation. It seems that the HMW-GS backbone was first hydrolysed, leading to a protein structure with higher thermal stability but, as the hydrolysis proceeded, a deeper degradation of the structure yielded a protein structure with lower denaturation enthalpy. The loss of gluten functionality results from complex changes in the gluten structure at the first and second level of the protein organization structure. Copyright © 2005 Society of Chemical Industry
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A new method, a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technique characterized by T(2) relaxation time, was developed to study the water migration mechanism between arabinoxylan (AX) gels and gluten matrix in a whole wheat dough (WWD) system prepared from whole wheat flour (WWF) of different particle sizes. The water sequestration of AX gels in wheat bran was verified by the bran fortification test. The evaluations of baking quality of whole wheat bread (WWB) made from WWF with different particle sizes were performed by using SEM, FT-IR, and RP-HPLC techniques. Results showed that the WWB made from WWF of average particle size of 96.99 μm had better baking quality than those of the breads made from WWF of two other particle sizes, 50.21 and 235.40 μm. T(2) relaxation time testing indicated that the decreased particle size of WWF increased the water absorption of AX gels, which led to water migration from the gluten network to the AX gels and resulted in inferior baking quality of WWB.
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In an attempt to improve intake of dietary fibre and antioxidants and quality of whole grain products, whole grain meals from barley, millet, rye and sorghum were evaluated individually and in blends with wheat flour in terms of starch pasting properties and protein heat damage, during cycles of heating and cooling in RVA tests. The whole grain meals were blended with either hard or soft wheat flour and processed into bread, cake, cookie or snack products. The products were then evaluated with regard to physical properties and acceptability. Significant differences were observed between cereals in starch peak, breakdown and setback viscosities as well as in protein peak viscosity. The results showed that RVA could be used to help formulate cereal blends with certain pasting properties. Substitution of wheat flour, with 15% of barley, rye, millet or sorghum whole grain, did not have significant detrimental effects on physical properties or acceptability of pita bread. Additionally, replacement of wheat flour with up to 30% of barley, rye, millet or sorghum whole grain meal had no significant effects on quality of cakes or cookies. A multigrain snack-like food was also developed as a healthy product and was highly acceptable in a sensory test. The developed product would help enhance consumption of whole grain foods, resulting in improved intake of fibre and health-enhancing components.
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Dough and bread prepared from wheat flour containing varying amounts of added Gastrodia elata Blume (GEB) rhizome powder [0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0% (w/w)] were examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) during fermentation and baking. The structure of the doughs containing added GEB was found to be related to the protein matrix. Further, it was found that large starch granules and strings of small starch granules play an important role in dough structure. The control dough (no added GEB) had a membrane-like structure, and doughs with 0.5–1.0% added GEB had membrane-like structures that were more developed than those of the control, resulting in increased bread volumes. At 1.5–2.0% GEB levels, however, the doughs tended to have mesh-like structures and result in decreased bread volumes. The dough samples with 0.5 and 1.0% added GEB powder had well-developed gluten matrices with evenly dispersed starch granules. These samples resulted in breads with numerous gas bubble eruptions on their surfaces and consequently in larger loaf volumes than were obtained at other levels of GEB. After the second fermentation, many expanded starch granules were observed and these starch granules were dispersed more evenly than after the first fermentation. In 0.5–1.0% GEB bread, many of the large starch granules had expanded after fermentation, but small starch granules had not. The data obtained in this study suggest that bread baked with 0.5–1.0% GEB exhibits a better loaf volume due to the more complete development of a gluten matrix.
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Phytochemicals and antioxidants in whole grains have not received as much attention as the phytochemicals in fruits and vegetables although the increased consumption of whole grains and whole grain products has been associated with reduced risk of developing chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, some cancers and all-cause mortality. Recent research has shown that the total phytochemical content and antioxidant activity of whole grains have been commonly underestimated in the literature, and that whole grains contain more phytochemicals than was previously reported. Most whole grain phenolics are in bound form, 85% in corn, 76% in wheat, and 75% in oats. In addition, whole grains contain unique phytochemicals that complement those in fruits and vegetables when consumed together. The beneficial effects associated with whole grain consumption are in part due to the existence of the unique phytochemicals of whole grains. The majority of phytochemicals of whole grains that are beneficial for health are present in the bran/germ fraction. In whole wheat flour, the bran/germ fraction contributed 83% of total phenolic content, 79% of total flavonoid content, 78% of total zeaxanthin, 51% of total lutein, and 42% of total β-cryptoxanthin. The bran/germ fraction of whole wheat may therefore impart greater health benefits when consumed as part of a diet, and help reduce the risk of chronic diseases. This paper will review recent research on the phytochemicals and antioxidant activity of whole grains and their unique contribution to the health benefits of whole grains.
Article
Effects of bran concentration, bran particle size distribution, and enzyme addition – fungal phytase, fungal alpha-amylase – on the mixing and fermentative behaviour of wheat dough and on the amount of phytic acid remaining in bread have been investigated using a factorial design of samples 24. Bran concentration and bran particle size significantly affected all Farinograph parameters, whereas enzyme effects were particularly observed on both the water absorption of the flour and the parameters characterizing the overmixing. Water absorption was maximized in doughs with higher fine bran addition and/or in doughs with no enzymes, and was minimized in blends containing coarse added bran and alpha-amylase and/or alpha-amylase and phytase. alpha-Amylase addition had a significant positive effect on dough development and gassing power parameters during proofing. At low bran addition, phytate hydrolysis takes place to a greater extent than at high bran addition levels. Combination of bran with amylolytic and phytate-degrading enzymes could be advisable for overcoming the detrimental effect of bran on the mineral availability (phytase) or on the technological performance of doughs (alpha-amylase).
Article
The effects of different phenolic acids on the rheological properties and gluten proteins of hard wheat flour dough and bread were investigated. Caffeic, ferulic, syringic and gallic acids were each blended with hard wheat flour at a concentration of 4.44 µmol L(-1) g(-1) flour. Mixing time and tolerance were reduced with the addition of phenolic acids. The phenolic acids reduced the maximum resistance to extension (R(max)) and increased the extensibility of dough, with effects in the following order: gallic < syringic < ferulic < caffeic acid. The effect on R(max) was more pronounced in overmixed dough. Loaf volume was most significantly decreased with the addition of caffeic acid. Extraction of sodium dodecyl sulfate-soluble high-molecular-weight proteins was increased in both mixed and fermented doughs by the addition of ferulic and caffeic acids. The order of influence of the phenolic acids on the rheological properties and protein structure of dough and bread was consistent with that of their antioxidant activity. The addition of caffeic and ferulic acids reduced R(max) and increased the extensibility of hard wheat flour dough by modifying the high-molecular-weight gluten, which resulted in decreased bread volume.
Article
Wheat bran is an undervalued by-product of white flour and has great nutritional potential due to its high content in fibres and bioactive compounds. Micronized bran could be used as a food ingredient to improve the nutritional potential of cereal products, or be used as a starting material for other processes (bioactive compound extraction or bran fractionation). The aim of this work was to find a way to efficiently decrease the particle size of bran. The influence of the grinding temperature (ambient or cryogenic grinding) on the granulometric distribution of particles, their composition, and their microstructure was studied, at lab-scale and pilot-scale. It showed that the intrinsic characteristics of bran (glass transition within intermediate layers at -46 degrees C) had more influence on its grinding behaviour than the type of grinding device used: the particles size distributions obtained after grinding at lab-scale and pilot-scale were very similar. At both scales, the granulometric curves were narrow for cryogenic grinding, while for ambient grinding they were spread over the whole particle size range. Ultrafine particles were obtained in both ambient and cryogenic conditions. Negative temperatures, by increasing the material's brittleness, favoured a fast fragmentation of bran: one step of cryogenic grinding allowed a median particle size of nearly 50 mu m to be reached, whereas three successive steps of ambient grinding were needed for the same result. On the other hand, ambient temperature favoured the dissociation of the different constituent layers of wheat bran, and produced less composite particles than cryogenic grinding.
Article
A whole grain consists of the intact, ground, cracked, or flaked caryopsis, whose principal anatomical components--the starchy endosperm, germ, and bran--are present in the same relative proportions as they exist in the intact caryopsis. Whole grain food products can be intact, consisting of the original composition of bran, germ, and endosperm, throughout the entire lifetime of the product, or reconstituted, in which one or more of the original components of a whole grain is recombined to the relative proportion naturally occurring in the grain kernel. Increased consumption of whole grains has been associated with reduced risk of major chronic diseases including cardiovascular disease, type II diabetes, and some cancers. Whole grain foods offer a wide range of phytochemicals with health benefits that are only recently becoming recognized. The unique phytochemicals in whole grains are proposed to be responsible for the health benefits of whole grain consumption. In this paper, whole grain phytochemicals and the health benefits associated with their consumption are reviewed.
Article
Recent consumer interest in controlling and preventing chronic diseases through improved diet has promoted research on the bioactive components of agricultural products. Wheat is an important agricultural and dietary commodity worldwide with known antioxidant properties concentrated mostly in the bran fraction. The objective of this study was to determine the relative contributions of genotype (G) and growing environment (E) to hard winter wheat bran antioxidant properties, as well as correlations of these properties to growing conditions. Bran samples of 20 hard winter wheat varieties grown in two locations were examined for their free radical scavenging capacities against DPPH, ABTS cation, peroxyl (ORAC), and superoxide anion radicals and chelating properties, as well as their total phenolics and phenolic acid compositions. Results showed significant differences for all antioxidant properties tested and multiple significant correlations between these properties. A factorial designed analysis of variance for these data and pooled previously published data showed similar results for four of the six antioxidant properties, indicating that G effects were considerably larger than E effects for chelating capacity and DPPH radical scavenging properties, whereas E was much stronger than G for ABTS cation radical scavenging capacity and total phenolics, although small interaction effects (GxE) were significant for all antioxidant properties analyzed. Results also showed significant correlations between temperature stress or solar radiation and some antioxidant properties. These results indicate that each antioxidant property of hard winter wheat bran is influenced differently by genotype and growing conditions.
Adaptation of Methods for Whole Wheat Flour Technological Quality Assessment
  • T Oro
Oro, T., 2013. Adaptation of Methods for Whole Wheat Flour Technological Quality Assessment. PhD Thesis. Federal University of Santa Catarina, Brazil. https:// repositorio.ufsc.br/bitstream/handle/123456789/107225/319262.pdf? sequence¼1 [3 July 2015].
American Association of Cereal Chemists International
  • Aacci
AACCI. American Association of Cereal Chemists International, 2010. Approved Methods of Analysis, eleventh ed. AACC International, St Paul, MN, USA.