Cognitive-Behavior Modification
Chapters (9)
Now that you are forewarned by Paivio, let me convey in this chapter how one cognitive-behavior therapist has tried to tame the seductress.
Cognitive strategies as described by Gagné and Briggs are similar to Skinner’s (1968) self-management behaviors. The self-instructional training regimen is designed to teach such cognitive strategies and self-management skills; to teach clients “how” to think. In a number of laboratories an exploration of the potential therapeutic value of self-instructional training procedures with various other clinical populations has begun. Examples of three of these populations are now offered.
Since my initial study with Goodman in 1971, self-instructional training has undergone substantial refinement. This chapter brings together the various observations from our laboratory and from others’ concerning the process of conducting self-instructional training. The chapter deals primarily with children because most of the work with the procedure has been with children. However, these same observations apply to self-instructional training with adults. The treatment suggestions offered are not based upon careful empirical studies but rather represent a sort of cumulative “wisdom” culled from our own experiences and from the literature. I hope attention to the sorts of details presented in this chapter will enable us to avoid the “negative” results with which the last chapter concluded.
Initial research on self-instructional training indicated that the likelihood of obtaining generalization and persistence of treatment effects was increased if we attended to the client’s cognitions. If operant training procedures could be improved by explicitly including in the treatment regimen a client’s thoughts and images, then perhaps other behavior therapy techniques could similarly be improved. In other words, if the Risley and Hart quote that introduces this chapter has any validity, then altering behavior therapy procedures in “reorganizing and restructuring the patient’s verbal statements” should enhance their efficacy. This hypothesis was translated into a program of treatment studies in which we assessed the efficacy of “standard” behavior therapy procedures (such as desensitization, modeling, aversive conditioning) relative to behavior therapy procedures that included self-instructional components (that is, procedures that supplemented the behavior therapy techniques with an explicit concern for the client’s cognitions). This chapter will describe this phase of our research program and summarize the available evidence for the role of cognitions in behavior therapy procedures.
By now, it should be apparent that something is happening to behavior therapy. Its “learning theory” basis is being challenged and is being replaced, in part by a cognitive orientation. The conceptual basis of “learning theory” that provided the framework and heuristic background for a variety of behavior therapy procedures is being oppugned on both theoretical grounds (e.g., Bandura, 1974; Breger & McGaugh, 1965; McKeachie, 1974) and empirical grounds (e.g., Brewer, 1974; Mahoney, 1974; Meichenbaum, 1974a). Such time-honored concepts as the automaticity of reinforcement and the continuity assumption between overt and covert events are being seriously questioned. As Bandura stated in his presidential address to the American Psychological Association:
So-called conditioned reactions are largely self-activated on the basis of learned expectations rather than automatically evoked. The critical factor, therefore, is not that events occur together in time, but that people learn to predict them and to summon up appropriate reactions. (1974, p. 860)
Cognitive restructuring therapy and semantic therapy are generic terms that refer to a variety of therapeutic approaches whose major mode of action is modifying the patient’s thinking and the premises, assumptions, and attitudes underlying his cognitions. The focus of therapy is on the ideational content involved in the symptom, namely, the irrational inferences and premises. Thus, the semantic or cognitive therapist attempts to familiarize himself with his patient’s thought content, style of thinking, feelings, and behaviors, in order to understand their interrelationships.
Central to the theory of behavior change proposed in this book is the phenomenon of internal dialogue or inner speech. Before we consider the theory, per se, let us first examine the function and structure of internal dialogue.
The student of psychotherapy is faced with a conundrum. Many therapists, espousing a wide variety of theories and techniques, claim to be therapeutically effective. In some instances their claims are empirically supported. Moreover, behavioral change results from nonprofessional contacts which persons encountered during the course of day-to-day life. The conundrum, then, is attempting to understand and explain the behavioral change process as it occurs in so many different contexts. What are the underlying mechanisms of change that are common to the various procedures and contexts in which change occurs?
Although one may disagree with Shapiro and Ravenette’s evaluation of the various tests cited, their quote does sensitize us to the need to develop more explicit ways of assessing our client’s affects, cognitions, and volitions. The present chapter conveys some preliminary attempts at developing this assessment armamentarium, which follow from a cognitive-behavioral treatment approach. Specifically, the present chapter has two purposes. The first is to examine various assessment strategies that have been employed to study psychological deficits. This analysis indicates some shortcomings and an alternative, namely a cognitive-functional analysis approach. The second purpose of the chapter is to describe specific techniques that can be employed to assess more directly the client’s cognitions. Let’s begin with an examination of the current assessment and research strategies.
... Confronting a trauma, then, may reduce the long-term work of inhibition. Second, by confronting the trauma, individuals may assimilate, reframe, or find meaning in the event (Horowitz, 1976;Meichenbaum, 1977;Silver, Boon, & Stones, 1983). ...
... Clinical psychologists within the cognitive and psychodynamic traditions are currently addressing some of the processes underlying this confrontational strategy (Horowitz, 1976;Meichenbaum, 1977). Through writing or talking about an up-This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. ...
Can psychotherapy reduce the incidence of health problems? A general model of psychosomatics assumes that inhibiting or holding back one’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors is associated with long-term stress and disease. Actively confronting upsetting experiences—through writing or talking—is hypothesized to reduce the negative effects of inhibition. Fifty healthy undergraduates were assigned to write about either traumatic experiences or superficial topics for 4 consecutive days. Two measures of cellular immune-system function and health center visits suggested that confronting traumatic experiences was physically beneficial. The implications for psychotherapy as a preventive treatment for health problems are discussed.
... Annesi and colleagues (Annesi, 2003;Annesi, Unruh, Higgins, & Knight, 2003) found that an exercise counseling treatment, based on cognitive behavioral (Meichenbaum, 1977) and social cognitive (Bandura, 1986) theory, was associated with significantly improved attendance at exercise sessions and lower drop-out rates in medically based and community wellness centers. The 6-mo. ...
Attendance rates from two groups incorporating a cognitive behavioral treatment system (male counselor group, n = 53; female counselor group, n = 56) and a control group using standard methods of exercise counseling (n = 56) were contrasted with new and returning female exercisers (overall M age = 40 yr.). Analysis of variance with follow-up Scheffé tests indicated significantly greater attendance for the treatment groups (54 and 58%) than for the control group (37%) over 6 months. No significant difference between the treatment groups was found. Findings suggest that the sex of exercise counselors does not appear to influence attendance of exercise sessions.
... Supplementary Materials: The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https: //www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/jcm14030924/s1, Table S1: The TIDieR-Rehab checklist describing the distributed models of upper limb therapy implemented [55][56][57][58][59][60][61][62][63][64][65][66][67]. ...
Background/Objectives: There is high-level research evidence supporting task-focused upper limb therapy models for children with unilateral cerebral palsy (CP). However, a knowledge gap exists in understanding how to effectively implement distributed practice approaches in clinical practice and the effect on the development of bimanual performance. This study aims to evaluate clinical outcomes, examine key considerations for implementation outcomes, and propose a Model of Care for children with unilateral CP. Methods: A mixed-methods approach was applied, including a retrospective case series with an observational descriptive design. A convenience sample of nine children (<5 years of age) with unilateral CP who received multiple blocks of distributed, evidence-based upper limb therapy approaches between 2014 and 2020 were included. Outcomes were evaluated using the Assisting Hand Assessment family of assessments. A Model of Care framework was informed by the Updated Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research and the Conceptual Model for Implementation Research. Results: A total of 59 blocks of upper limb therapy (10 mCIMT and 49 bimanual therapy) were delivered, ranging from two to nine blocks (mean = 6.6) for each child. All children demonstrated improved outcomes in bimanual performance with an average change of 14 AHA units (range 1–22). Barriers to implementation included complexity and cost. Facilitators included the evidence base and adaptability of the approaches that allowed clinicians to respond to an individual child and family’s needs. Informed by evidence-based protocols and visual analysis of data, and in consideration of the barriers and/or facilitators to implementation from this study, a Model of Care for implementation of upper limb distributed practice approaches for children with unilateral CP in clinical practice is proposed. Conclusions: Implementing repeated, distributed blocks of evidence-based upper limb therapy in a clinical setting for children with unilateral CP led to incremental improvements in bimanual performance. There are a range of barriers and facilitators to the implementation of distributed practice approaches in clinical practice. The Model of Care outlines best practice care and service delivery for children with unilateral CP and their families and aims to support clinical practice and the future examination of implementation-effectiveness in practice.
... Self-instructional training procedures have been developed to stimulate inner speech use to effectively lower impulsive behavior in children when working on various tasks (Meichenbaum & Goodman, 1971; also see Meichenbaum, 1977). ...
Free will typically refers to any form of significant control over one's actions. This definition is remarkably similar to that of self-regulation-the control of one's behavior, emotions, and thoughts in pursuit of long-term goals. Indeed, several scholars have proposed that the latter constitutes the psychological equivalent of the former. A large body of empirical work demonstrates that both covert (inner) and overt (private) forms of self-directed speech are causally associated with self-regulatory outcomes such as action planning, problem solving , emotion regulation, attention, cognitive flexibility, working memory, and self-reflection. It thus seems logical to propose that free will too recruits self-directed speech. This argument is explored by reviewing the relevant literature pertaining to free will, self-regulation, and inner/private speech. More specifically, free will is defined and contrasted with self-regulation, whose definition ends up being remarkably similar. Examples of typical research on private and inner speech are presented and show a key involvement of self-directed speech in self-regulation. The notion that free will depends on inner speech is further explored based on Wiley's work (2009). One outstanding implication is that individual differences in self-directed speech use could be linked to different levels of free will. That is, people using in-ner/private speech more efficiently could exhibit freer will, and vice-versa.
... Career Thought Inventory (CTI) of Sampson et al (1996) (Meichenbaum, 1977), and information processing theory (Newell & Simon, 1972). The CTI is a self-administered instrument consisting of 48 negative statements to which individuals respond using a 4-point rating scale ranging from "Strongly Agree" (0) to "Strongly Disagree" (3). ...
Choosing a professional career is an important step that influences the aspirations of students. Students sometimes are unable to make a decision about the career they wish to pursue later in life. Career practitioners in Nigeria have observed that most secondary school leavers in Nigeria often make poor career decisions due to unrealistic vocational aspirations. Despite vast researches on adolescents' career problems, irrational career thought remain largely understudied within the field of vocational psychology in Nigeria. This study examined the effectiveness of Career Development (CD) and Cognitive Reframe (CR) therapy in reducing irrational career thoughts of secondary school students. A sample of 96 Senior Secondary School one students with irrational career thoughts were purposively selected from three randomly selected Senior Secondary Schools in Ogun State Nigeria. There were two treatment conditions (CD and CR) that lasted for seven weeks. Career Thought Inventory (α = 0.86) was use to collect data. Data were analyzed using Analysis of Covariance. There was a significant main effect of treatment on dysfunctional career thoughts of secondary school students. CD and CR were found to be effective in reducing irrational career thoughts of secondary school students. Implications of these on career development in Nigeria were discussed.
... Until recently, the majority of mental evaluations of both children and adults included painting or sketching. Drawings have been used throughout history to assess information that has been purposefully or accidentally compressed, and more recently, to get an understanding of how cognitive processing works (Meichenbaum, 1977). Due to the vital role that pictures play in communication, the process of identifying and conceiving images may have both practical and theoretical implications. ...
... So, even if the CBT panorama at the beginning of its development was not so complex, several case conceptualizations already existed, with commonalities and differences (Kuyken et al., 2005). Many other theorists followed Beck and Ellis by structuring their own formats for case conceptualization (i.e., Lazarus, 1976;Mahoney, 1974;Mansell et al., 2008;Meichenbaum, 1977). The previously mentioned Easden and Kazantzis (2017) review revealed that there are several ways to conceptualize a patient's situation, but there is no significant data about which kind of conceptualization is the most efficient. ...
Case conceptualization is a widely used tool to describe and organize patient information and plan interventions in psychotherapy. Life themes and semi-adaptive plans: Implications of biased beliefs, elicitation, and treatment (LIBET) is a new method for case conceptualization that validates the diathesis-stress model and incorporates elements from the most important theories in the CBT field. LIBET also includes process-based components as maintaining factors of psychological distress, and it is not anchored to a specific kind of psychotherapeutic approach. The LIBET-Questionnaire (LIBET-Q) is a structured interview which helps clinicians achieve a LIBET case conceptualization, co-constructed with patients. The aim of the present study was to validate the process-based section of the LIBET-Q by analyzing its factorial structure, internal consistency, convergent validity, and clinical relevance. A sample of 396 outpatients was recruited to validate the LIBET-Q, which was administered along with interviews and self-report questionnaires to investigate the presence of diagnoses, anxiety, and depression levels and global functioning and wellbeing. Results from both exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses showed a four-factor structure, with adequate consistency and good convergent validity. Process-based elements investigated with the LIBET-Q resulted in identifying different clinical populations. With satisfactory psychometric properties, the LIBET-Q turned out to be a suitable support for case conceptualization and treatment formulation. The independence of the LIBET method from a specific intervention can improve its sharing between clinicians by offering a common frame in which the rationale of every specific technique can be explained.
... CA Reduction Techniques. The most popular techniques recommended for reduction of CA are systematic desensitization (SD) (McCroskey, 1972), cognitive restructuring (CR) (Fremouw & Scott, 1979), visualization (Ayres & Hopf, 1985), rational emotive therapy (RET) (Meichenbaum, 1977), skills training (ST) (Phillips & Metzger, 1973). Different combinations of these therapies are reported to be more successful (Allen et al., 1989;Ayres & Hopf, 1987;Kelly & Keaten, 2000). ...
Classroom communication, especially interpersonal communication skills, is an integral aspect of a successful classroom teaching-learning process. Students with high levels of communication apprehension in classes face serious negative outcomes on intra- and inter-personal relationships and academic performance, leading to an unpleasant schooling experience. Following the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) checklist, we present a systematic review of the characteristics and effectiveness of communication apprehension reduction interventions used for k-12 students in the past 30 years. Five electronic databases were searched for literature from 1992 to January 2022 that returned six studies for the final analyses. Self-modelling, communication mentoring, and speech training were found to be successful interventions in reducing communication apprehension among school students. The majority of interventions focus on public speaking anxiety, and there is a paucity of research in the interventions on CA reduction based on small groups and interpersonal communication among school students. The public speaking interventions were majorly implemented in separate courses, which cannot be incorporated into regular classes by teachers. Findings suggest that there is a need for more intervention studies on communication apprehension at the school level, especially communication at interpersonal and informal levels in regular classrooms, preferably implemented by teachers.
... In Behaviorism learning is understood as the successive approximation of the intended partial behaviors using reward and punishment. Behaviorism doctrines (Honig and Fetterman, 1992, Mahoney 1974, Meichenbaum 1977) that learners cannot discover knowledge by themselves and they do not have interior learning incentives; punitive and reward methods can change the behavior of an individual; learning takes place when observable reaction is changed through control and the use of punitive and reward methods; repetitive tasks, drill exercises, memorization, tests and deductive methodologies assist in changing learners' behavior and in this way learning is achieved (Skinner 1968). Some of the critics of Behaviorism involve the denial of free will and of the social dimensions of learning, the implication that what happens in animals is the same with humans, the lack of self-regulation and the undermining of intrinsic motivation and critical thinking skills. ...
The article begins with a discussion on the importance, subjectivity, and longstanding search for a definition for Quality Education (QE). It conceptualizes QE in terms of “resilience” and “responsibility towards other”. It reviews the theoretical landscape and philosophical contributions of philosophers and learning theories to the field of education. It seeks to identify salient principles of QE from ancient times to the digital era and it speculates of how philosophers and learning theories would have thought about digital pedagogy today. Three principles of QE are proposed: 1) mutual respect and reciprocity, 2) differentiated and student-centered instruction, 3) attainment of knowledge for a virtuous humanity, along with two universal, timeless values: Equity and Democracy. The paper concludes with a discussion of how democracy and equity could be supported by Nussbaum’s model of human development as to cultivate the ethos of schools in the digital ages and transform QE into classroom practices.
... The first wave (~1960) was Ellis [93] and Beck [92] postulating that thinking about anxieties can relieve anxieties and promote more adaptive behavior. The second wave (~1980) included the contributions of Meichenbaum [111], Lazarus [112], and Mahoney [113] and the new version of Ellis' [114] formulation as Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy (REBT). These approaches like those of the subsequent waves, have tried to provide strategies for overcoming any reluctance to engage with the cognitive work. ...
A review of the past one hundred and fifty years of child and adolescent mental health practice, in five three-decade periods, is presented to background the upcoming developments in this century, while also documenting what has been of value as the field moves forward. There has been much loss of corporate memory as we have moved into the Twenty-First Century. Professional amnesia is a condition with grave consequences. The final list of twenty lessons provide a view as to how these lessons can be absorbed into clinical training and into clinical practice. This summary is necessarily brief, but the references will provoke enquiry and the learning of old ideas.
... The standard steps of self-management (Marlatt & Parks, 1982;Meichenbaum, 1991) used here include selfmonitoring of target behaviors, defining specific behaviors to be changed, setting quantifiable intervention goals, breaking down behaviors into smaller steps, specifying an action plan, evaluating and obtaining feedback, and reinforcing progress. Skills training relates to modifying fat in the diet and includes problem solving, assertiveness, stress management, and cognitive-restructuring skills. ...
Studies collectively named the Women's Health Initiative (WHI) are currently enrolling 164,500 postmenopausal women in several overlapping clinical trials and an observational study. The overall goals of WHI are to understand the determinants of postmenopausal women's health and to evaluate the efficacy of practical interventions in preventing the major causes of morbidity and mortality in older women. This article reviews the research leading to the WHI studies; describes the study designs and protocols, with an emphasis on what's new about WHI from a psychological perspective; and outlines the major psychosocial hypotheses under investigation and the major challenges WHI presents to psychological science.
... Like the idealized image of the scientist espoused by Vienna Circle philosophers, the well-adjusted human being envisioned by theorists such as Beck (Beck, Rush, Shaw, & Emery, 1979) and Ellis (1973) is viewed as a paragon of rationality, avoiding illogical inferences and objectively testing hypotheses against publicly observable outcomes. However, whether as a result of environmental conditioning (Jaremko, 1987) or a biological tendency to think crookedly and childishly (Ellis, 1973), human beings in this view frequently deviate from the principles of rationality and scientific method to form conclusions about themselves, others, and the future that are absolutistic, overgeneralized, and illogical (cf. Beck et al., 1979;Burns, 1980). ...
Predicated on a postmodern epistemology, constructivist theories emphasize the proactive, self-organizing features of human knowing and their implications for psychotherapy. This article outlines the potential contributions of 4 clinical lineages sharing a constructivist philosophy—personal construct theory, structural–developmental cognitive therapy, narrative reconstruction, and constructivist family therapy—and briefly reviews emerging trends in psychotherapy research compatible with this perspective. Although current constructivist approaches confront problems as well as prospects, they represent a growing force within psychotherapy, contributing to the sophistication of psychological theory, the diversification of clinical research, and the extension of therapeutic technique.
... Empirically, there is just no evidence that self-reinforcement works and some evidence that it does not work (Castro & Rachlin, 1980). The other road taken by behavior therapists has led to cognitive-behavioral therapy (Mahoney, 1974). Cognitive-behavioral therapists retain Skinnerian techniques for acts that are clearly reinforced. ...
A psychological science of efficient causes, using internal mechanisms to explain overt behavior, is distinguished from another psychological science, based on Aristotelian final causes, using external objects and goals to explain overt behavior. Efficient-cause psychology is designed to answer the question of how a particular act is emitted; final-cause psychology is designed to answer the question of why a particular act is emitted. Psychological psychology, modern cognitive psychology, and some parts of behaviorism including Skinnerian behaviorism are efficient-cause psychologies; final-cause psychology, a development of Skinnerian behaviorism, is here called teleological behaviorism. Each of these two conceptions of causality in psychology implies a different view of the mind, hence a different meaning of mental terms.
... Coping instructions. After the baseline cold-pressor immersion, subjects in this condition received 20 min of instruction in procedures taken from Meichenbaum (1977) and from Scott and Barber (1977) that were designed to enhance their ability to cope with pain. The instructions presented a number of different strategies that subjects could use to "reduce the discomfort of the pain." ...
A social learning model of pain perception and tolerance was evaluated. Responses to cold-pressor pain were examined in 4 groups of 20 Ss each. One group was given instruction in cognitive coping strategies, the 2nd was given a monetary incentive contingent on tolerance time, the 3rd was given both cognitive training and monetary reinforcement, and a no-treatment control group was given neither. Incentive and coping instructions significantly increased tolerance but did not alter pain perception. A path analysis indicated that pain tolerance was affected by self-efficacy, which in turn was predicted by pain expectancy and the provision of incentives. Incentive also had an impact on tolerance that was independent of self-efficacy. Pain perception was strongly affected by pain expectancy, but was unrelated to self-efficacy.
... In recent years, behavioral clinicians have utilized complex theories that consider the role of cognitions as well as the environment (Mahoney, 1974;Meichenbaum, 1977), the importance of covarying clusters of behavior (Kazdin, 1985), and the broader system in which the problem behavior is imbedded (I.M. Evans, 1985;Kanfer, 1985). The behavioral clinician thus engages in a complex problem-solving and decision-making process in which there is a continuous interplay between information gathering, formulation of treatment objectives, and feedback from the implementation of interventions. ...
This article addresses training issues in behavior therapy. Methods and skills that are most important for affecting changes in client behavior are identified, and the progress that has been made in demonstrating that these skills can be taught effectively are reviewed. Among the skills discussed are the decision-making skills used to identify problems, to select appropriate interventions, and to evaluate client progress as well as the relationship and technical skills used to implement interventions effectively. A critical goal of professional training is to prepare students to be active learners over the course of their careers. Within this context, issues of quality assurance, the role of broad-based scientific training, and the importance of research on training are examined.
This article presents an instructional model for intervention researchin learning disabilities. Essentially this model provides a frameworkor scheme for the instructional phase in intervention research withlearning disabled students. Professionals have recognized the needfor theoretical rationales in intervention research. They appear, how-ever, unaware that the instructional phase of the research also re-quires some form of conceptual framework or scheme. Because theinstructional phases of extant intervention research studies have notbeen guided by any conceptual framework, they tend to be narrowand imbalanced because training of strategic knowledge sufficedas the goal. In contrast, the proposed instructional model includesthree foci for intervention studies with learning disabled students:knowledge inculcation where knowledge includes declarative, pro-cedural, and metacognitive knowledge; students' cognitive process-ing of their training activities to overcome processing problems, andstudents' motivation to learn. This comprehensive framework shouldaugment the effectiveness of the intervention, as well as result inenhanced understanding of what happened during the intervention.Moreover, the instructional model can be linked with any theory thata researcher chooses to use in generating the intervention study.
The Cognitive Orientation to daily Occupational Performance (CO‐OP) approach, a goal‐oriented intervention focused on participation, is designed to improve performance by addressing personal goals important to children and their families. Introduced in 2001, CO‐OP involves client‐chosen functional goals, identifying performance issues through a process of dynamic performance analysis, and guiding the discovery of cognitive strategies to enhance skill acquisition, all within a problem‐solving framework. The objectives of the approach are skill acquisition, strategy use, generalization, and transfer of learning. Developed within a research paradigm, a review of the literature indicates that CO‐OP research has expanded, documenting its use across various paediatric populations, including children with neurodevelopmental disorders, cerebral palsy, and movement disorders, addressing a myriad of functional goals. In this review we illustrate the iterative development of CO‐OP from single‐case experimental designs to randomized controlled trials to evaluate the approach. The Canadian Occupational Performance Measure and the Performance Quality Rating Scale are the most common outcome measures. Methodological advancements, limitations, and an initial exploration of mechanisms of action are discussed, providing a foundation for further research and clinical application. Recommendations include the use of consistent measures, robust longitudinal studies, implementation research, and health economic analyses.
This chapter reviews studies on instructional approaches to revision in both L1 and L2 contexts. It begins with a review of strategy instruction in writing classrooms, with a focus on the self-regulation strategy-based instruction in both L1 and L2 contexts; it then reviews studies on the teaching of evaluation criteria, a crucial component embedded in the strategy instruction. Specifically, this chapter summarises studies that compares instructional effects of general evaluation criteria and genre-specific evaluation criteria in both L2 and L2 contexts, arguing for a need for further research that compares the effects of genre-specific criteria with those of more general analytic evaluation criteria in an L2 context.
Background
Young adults with intellectual and/or developmental disabilities lack access to mental health supports. Peer‐delivered services may fill this gap. We adapted a theory‐driven and evidence‐based peer mentoring intervention for virtual‐delivery and investigated its acceptability and participants' preliminary response.
Methods
Twelve young adults with intellectual and/or developmental disabilities participated in the 16‐week intervention and completed outcome measures at pre‐mentoring, post‐mentoring and 1‐month follow‐up. To evaluate acceptability, participants completed interviews and a survey. Preliminary response was measured with the Alexithymia Questionnaire for Children and PROMIS short forms (Self‐efficacy for Managing Emotions, Anxiety, and Physical Stress).
Results
Participants felt emotionally supported, increased self‐understanding, and learned to use coping strategies. Participants reported improvements in alexithymia, self‐efficacy for managing emotions and anxiety; no changes were observed for physical stress symptoms.
Conclusions
Participants were satisfied with peer mentoring and data suggest it may have promise to support development of skills that support mental health outcomes.
This is the first book to analyze empirically supported treatments by using the newest criteria from the American Psychological Association's Society of Clinical Psychology, Division 12. Clinicians, scholars, and students all need to stay updated on the treatment research, and this book goes beyond providing updated treatment information by pointing readers to other useful treatment manuals and websites for continuing to stay up-to-date. The chapters, all written by prominent experts, highlight the best available evidence for specific disorders by breaking treatments down into credible components. With an emphasis on treatments for adults, chapters also share information about treatments for youth. Other variables that influence treatment are discussed, including assessment, comorbidity, demographics, and medication. Each chapter also corresponds with a chapter in the companion book, Pseudoscience in Therapy, presenting a full picture of the evidence base for common treatments.
Background/Objectives: Rock climbing is a multifaceted athletic activity that requires both psychological and physiological resilience. This study aimed to examine the differences in psychological factors and fatigue predictors between novice and advanced climbers, with a focus on the interplay between experience and performance. Methods: The study included 60 participants categorized based on climbing experience (novice or advanced). Psychological and physiological assessments were conducted, including heart rate variability (HRV), grip strength, rate of force development (RFD), subjective perceived stress (SPS), and anxiety levels using validated questionnaires. Results: Advanced climbers exhibited lower anxiety levels and better sympathetic modulation compared to novices. Significant differences in HRV parameters, grip strength, and RFD were observed, reflecting the impact of experience on physiological responses. Advanced climbers demonstrated notable strength decreases post-climbing, supporting the utility of a force sensor on a 20 mm edge for assessing forearm fatigue. Correlations between cortisol levels, anxiety, and self-confidence during climbing were also identified. Conclusions: The findings highlight the importance of psychological and physiological factors in climbing performance. Forearm fatigue emerged as a critical predictor, suggesting that portable force sensors can optimize training and injury prevention. Insights from this study may enhance training protocols and improve real-time performance monitoring in climbers.
The article announces a theoretically complete and methodically substantiated author’s concept of personal self-efficacy, which justifies this integral psychosocial f u n c t i o n a l as one of the basic cognitive mechanisms of human developmental presence in the world. Essentially, it is said about the three-factorially formed (personality, environment, behavior) conscious ability and self-valued ability of a person to carry out behavior in accordance with a complex task or newly appeared problem situation and eventually successfully cope with life problems. The first two subsections, outlining the functional possibilities and various effects of self-perception of one’s efficacy (intensification of learning, mobilization of effort, selection of activity, increase in productivity, etc.), reveal the strategy and principle of the micro-analytical methodology, specifically offering graded self-efficacy scales as a set of tasks of varying difficulty, problematics, stress resistance, and other traits-parameters of the subject being examined, leading to a detailed assessment of the degree, strength, and total coefficient of self-efficacy compared to benchmark productivity in behavioral actions. In general, the micro-analytical procedure in the author’s experience of methodologization encompasses at least four s t e p s of psychological observation of a person’s or group’s behavior: focusing attention, accumulating all possible information, reproducing a behavior model, and sufficient motivation to intellectually process all this. In this important dimension of the researcher’s consciousness expansion, the author’s reflection rightly states: “A special merit of the micro-analytical approach is that specific indicators of self-efficacy provide refined predictions of human action and the affective reactivity of a person to leisure challenges.” Notably, in the subsequent subsections, causal, inductive-comparative, general-prognostic, self-motivational, causal-career, goal-oriented, and competent types of analysis of the perceived self-regulatory effectiveness of a person in his invariants, modalities, gender trajectories and peculiarities of personal and collective functioning are carried out. Here, an idea of the author of self-efficacy probes is original, which has received both conceptual understanding and empirical implementation in the treatment of phobias and other mental ailments. It is worth noting that such a separate probe is positioned as an effective psychodiagnostic tool, constructed in personalized locations of coping-strategy modeling, enabling the conduction of therapeutic procedures regarding the subjects’ perception of their own self-efficacy at a predefined low, medium, or high (maximum) level. It is argued that within the framework of the highly complex theoretical subjectification – dynamic interaction between self-referential thought, action, and social influence – there are: 1) four main sources of information (achievement of productivity, experience of observation of others’ behavior, verbal persuasion, and partners’ relationships, certain physiological states revealing the ability, strength, and vulnerability of the person); 2) four factors for successful treatment of phobic dysfunctions (identification of essential features, managing anxious excitement through thought, self-relaxation, purposeful mastery of fear overcoming skills); 3) four parameters for measuring self-feeling of physical efficacy (physical load, heart capacity, emotional stress, sexual activity); 4) four most important external stimuli of human functioning (interest in activity, reward, management of one’s own productivity, cultivation of personal effectiveness); 5) four classes of incentive-motivators to increase self-efficacy (goal-oriented, self-motivational, competency-conditioned, career advancement); 6) four channels for asserting the feeling of control over one’s actions, situations, and threats (emotional reactions, thought modeling, behavioral and cognitive control); 7) four key internal factors of perceived by a person one’s own inefficacy (anxiety due to the inability to influence events and social conditions, a sense of uselessness due to unproductiveness or ineffectiveness of actions, apathy and a tendency to dipression generated by stereotypical centering on negative results of activity, despondency as a result of irreparable loss or inability to achieve existentially desired, urgent); 8) several important prerequisites for weakening self-efficacy through a person’s refusal of personal control (difficult-to-perform personal investments of time, effort, resources and self-limits in his knowledge and organizational competence, misuse of proxy-control when pressure is exerted on authorities or rulers, etc.); 9) a number of factors slowing down the development of collective effectiveness (widespread dependence on the dominance of technique and technology, the pressure of bureaucratic structures, ethno-local disagreements, the militant factionalism of political organizations and professional groups, the pressure of social institutions, the dominance of the transnational companies interests, etc.); 10) four decisive internal barriers created by the perception of collective self-efficacy and perniciously demoralize the manifestation of joint efforts (personal passivity, feeling of societal helplessness, fragmented goal perception by participants, disappointment from the ineffectiveness of collective efforts and institutional means). At the same time, quite convincing are the author’s psychologically grounded empirical facts regarding the fundamental importance of self-efficacy as a complex-system cognitive mechanism-mediator (in the aggregate of sources, factors, internal conditions, traits-qualities) between the person and the environment, which causes the actual forms and models of their behavior. For example, observation, modeling, and reinforcement play a primary role in why and how people learn; the choice made by the person of activity “during the formation of their self-efficacy constructs one’s life path through selective development of competencies, interests, and partner preferences; a personality’s awareness of their self-efficacy leads to greater effort in performing complex tasks, and the higher the level of personal self-efficacy, the higher their productivity; people can acquire new behavior patterns through observation of the behavior models of those around them, which they can later replicate; high personal self-efficacy, enhancing the desire for successful outcomes, contributes self-respect, while low self-efficacy – being a source of failure expectations – reduces self-respect.
Throughout 2023 and 2024, we served as co-guest editors of a topical collection in Educational Psychology Review on The Past, Present, and Future of Theory Development in Educational Psychology. In this topical collection, authors of prominent theories in the field were invited to reflect upon how they generated, developed, and iterated their ideas, as well as what the future might hold for their theories. Our hope was these articles could serve as examples of how theory building happens, normalizations of the often difficult and circuitous paths theories can take from initial observations to formalizations, and inspirations to others to begin their own theory development journey. In this reflection on the topical collection, we present themes that emerged as we curated the articles, including themes we anticipated (e.g., the many different ways theories can be generated) as well as ones we did not (e.g., the mix of boldness and intellectual humility theory generation requires). Also, we examine the epistemic virtues our authors used to evaluate their theories, such as practicality, as well as the virtues that were less commonly mentioned, such as internal consistency. Finally, we identify future directions for theory development in educational psychology, including the need to improve the climate for theory development in the field, particularly in terms of creating structures that incentivize and reward natural history work.
Background
There is little knowledge about home care services personnel competencies and beliefs concerning oral healthcare for home-dwelling, dependent older adults. This study aims to map oral healthcare beliefs among home care services personnel, and have the following question: How do the education level, years of work experience and training in oral health have impact on home care services personnel oral healthcare beliefs?
Methods
A cross-sectional study among home care services personnel working with older people receiving home care services was conducted across four municipalities in south-eastern Norway. The questionnaire consisted of background information (gender, education level, years of work experience, training in oral healthcare, employment status) and the nursing Dental Coping Beliefs scale. Ethics approval for this study was obtained from the Norwegian Centre for Research Data.
Results
Two hundred and sixty-two homecare services personnel responded to the questionnaire, 16.5% males and 83.5% females; 40.5% had had training in oral healthcare. Home care services personnel believed that gum diseases and cavities can be prevented by dental flossing (61.4%) and toothbrushing (98.4%). 59% disagreed that preventing sickness and medicines from destroying teeth is impossible. However, the majority of the home care services personnel were uncertain about how oral mucosal disorders can be treated. Having more than three years of higher education was positively associated with being in higher quartiles of oral healthcare beliefs, and external locus of control, and having training in oral healthcare was positively associated with being in the lower quartiles of internal locus of control and self-efficacy dimensions. Males were more likely to be in the lower quartile of oral healthcare beliefs, which wasn’t positive.
Conclusion
In the population studied, the home care services personnel beliefs about oral healthcare improved with an increasing level of education and having had training in oral healthcare. This suggests that home care services personnel need more education and training in oral healthcare.
In this article, I provide the first publication thoroughly detailing how the theoretical foundation for the self-regulated strategy development (SRSD) instructional model was developed. I explain the development of the theoretical base for the SRSD model of instruction and the initial focus on writing instruction. I detail the reasoning and research that provided the base for the theory underlying the SRSD model of instruction. The theoretical base relies, in part, on both theoretical integration and triangulation; I define and provide examples of each process. I address the role of multiple theories, early studies, and iterations that led to the current SRSD instructional model. The tenets of the theoretical base, theoretical principle, and four initial and foundational research questions for the SRSD instructional model are detailed. Research regarding the four initial research questions is summarized, demonstrating the tenets and theoretical principle behind the SRSD model of instruction are valid and meaningful. A sizeable body of research across multiple countries indicates moderate to large effect sizes across many outcomes of SRSD instruction in writing and other complex learning areas. Finally, I address both directions for future research and significant challenges in scaling up SRSD instruction, including paradigm wars and other barriers.
The importance of enhancing entrepreneurial STEM education has become accentuated to foster sustainable, collegial, and innovative STEM practices. The study aimed to enhance high-school students’ entrepreneurial skills, namely resourcefulness and problem-solving skills, and investigate their experiences and feelings of entrepreneurial STEM education. Three entrepreneurial STEM activities were implemented with 30 students in a private high school in Turkey. The qualitative data were collected through pre- and post-interviews and group reflective journals and analysed with content analysis. The quantitative data were collected through the Self-Control Schedule (SCS) and the Problem-Solving Scale (PS) and analysed through SPSS. The quantitative data indicated that the participants’ average SCS results increased from 117.63 to 122.40 (no significant difference) and their average PS results increased from 130.00 to 135.55 (no significant difference) following an intervention. This may be because of participants’ prior experiences or the number of participants attending the study. However, there were significant changes in the subscales of SCS and PS, showing that participants’ approach-avoidance style (PS subscale) as well as planning of behaviour and control of emotions (SCS subscales) can be enhanced by implementing entrepreneurial STEM activities. The qualitative data showed that participants started to face their problems more and try to find them different solutions rather than avoiding them. The qualitative data also pointed to the changes in participants’ capability of making connections between the subject disciplines and everyday life. Moreover, students found entrepreneurial STEM activities entertaining and helpful for improving understanding of chemistry topics. The study contributes to the field by bringing authenticity to STEM education by incorporating social and green entrepreneurship, supporting students’ entrepreneurial skill development, and helping teachers and students make connections between STEM, real-world, and public.
The purpose of this chapter is to inform educators and teachers about the central role of communication in today's classroom, confronted with the actual reality of cultural diversity. That includes the cultural diversity of children but also of the educators. The author ia particularly interested in helping teachers understand the ways in which diversity influences classroom communication and learning orientations. Analyzing intercultural competencies, there will be a better understanding of student-teacher communication and interaction. The new way of implementing the intercultural education ideas is the culturally responsive teaching, presented in this chapter with its most important characteristics. Teachers can also use different means of communication in classrooms, and that is why the author gave a great importance to exploring the communication skills that are indispensable to any teacher in his/her educational interaction. All these modern educational elements are included in a larger ecological perspective, which includes behavioral modification and a better integration in the environment.
Achieving mental stability and personal growth is a profound journey that
encompasses various dimensions of human experience. This paper introduces the “Pathway to Mental Clarity” (PMC), a novel therapeutic framework that
integrates cognitive restructuring, behavioral activation, self-reflection, ethical living, and mind-body practices. By addressing cognitive distortions, fostering emotional resilience, and promoting ethical integrity, PMC offers a
comprehensive approach to mental health that aims to achieve a Clear State of Mind—a state free from aberrations and characterized by cognitive clarity,
emotional balance, and ethical living.
There are different perspectives on the psychological constructs of resilience and hypnotizability, and both are related to aspects of mental health. Resilience has been associated with protective variables, whereas hypnotizability has been related to psychopathological variables. This systematic review aims to identify the studies that associate hypnotizability with resilience and self-control. This review included studies with adults in which hypnotizability and resilience/self-control were associated with each other. Articles were identified by searching in PubMed, PubPsych, EMBASE, Scopus, ProQuest, and Web of Science databases. The search yielded 315 studies published until October 2022. None of them met the inclusion criteria. In these studies, hypnosis is used to generate changes in resilience. Findings show that hypnosis has beneficial effects on coping and symptoms associated with sickness and improves patients’ quality of life. However, studies exploring the possible association between resilience and hypnotizability have yet to be found. There continues to be a research bias by which hypnotizability is associated with psychopathological aspects. Given the positive effects of hypnosis and resilience on mental health, it is relevant to design studies investigating the relationship between hypnotizability and resilience.
This research aims to conduct a comprehensive literature analysis, employing a comparative synthesis process, to elucidate the distinctive features of two counseling approaches rooted in the transpersonal psychology paradigm. The objective is to scrutinize, compare, and synthesize the perspectives, focal points, techniques, and outcomes inherent in these two transpersonal approaches. This endeavor is imperative in light of the growing demand for therapeutic methodologies grounded in spiritual dimensions and belief systems encompassing forces beyond the confines of human material existence. The employed methodology involves a thorough literature study, culminating in the synthesis of the two transpersonal paradigms. The resultant synthesis is intended to serve as a robust reference for forthcoming therapeutic counseling practices. By doing so, it aims to contribute to the ongoing evolution of more specialized counseling models within an expanding transpersonal paradigm. This synthesis, in turn, is poised to serve as a cornerstone for counseling models that transcend the constraints of materialism and modernis
Purpose: Enhance well-being; acquire adaptive decision-making skills; Relationship breakdown, mental health enhancement, and unemployment problem-solving are all focus areas. Design/Methodology/Approach: Secondary data for this study came from a wide range of places, such as case studies, books, periodicals, journals, articles, and online searches. Findings/Results: Stress has many facets, both in terms of its causes and its effects. It’s more of a personal journey than a general truth to determine what helps you cope with pressure. The client will be taught techniques for dealing with every day and unexpected tension sources. Cognitive and behavioral strategies are helpful for stress management. Mindfulness-based stress reduction therapies have received much research and attention recently. Due to its association with numerous diseases, stress management is paramount. Outcome: The outcomes include the concept of stress management, various stages of stress and how to overcome the stress, the causes and effects of individual stress, the management of stress effectively through the use of cognitive behavioral techniques, and how to use mindfulness-based interventions for stress management. Originality/Values: This research sheds light on the many sources of stress in the lives of humans, including but not limited to increased workload, increased risk of physical and mental illness, and strategies for coping with stress at different levels. How one chooses to spend one’s life determines the particular sources of stress that they will face. Type of Paper: Literature review
The cognitive behavioural therapies (CBTs) are the choice psychotherapies for many clinicians treating a wide range of adult psychological disorders including various anxieties, mood, substance use, eating, schizophrenia and personality‐related. Empirical research in the CBTs is ever increasing, and the accumulating evidence supporting efficacious treatments is substantial and well documented. However, with prolific research comes a seemingly accelerating and worrying trend of purportedly different therapies, and numerous hybrids and combinations of therapies and techniques. For many clinicians this is increasingly confusing and not helpful in clinical practice. This article is a critique of current trends and directions in clinical research, which show signs of limited effectiveness, fragmentation, and obfuscation. An alternative strategy is proposed—examining transdiagnostic therapeutic effects, which appear related to treating pervasive dysregulated emotions, with component analyses of four principal self‐regulation components (viz., self‐monitoring; functional analysis; identifying values, goals and treatment‐plans; and feedback). Such a strategy is likely to lead to a more coherently synthesized and effective CBT.
A primary prevention, behavioral intervention designed to reduce HIV risk behavior was tested in a randomized, controlled trial with single, inner-city women. A total of 935 women were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 conditions: a small group, 6-session communally oriented HIV prevention intervention; a yoked general health promotion intervention control; or a standard care control. Both interventions involved the interactive use of videotapes by live group leaders. The HIV prevention intervention, in particular, resulted in significant positive effects on self-reported and behaviorally assessed safer-sex behavior. Women in the HIV prevention group showed reduced point prevalences of medically tested sexually transmitted diseases at follow-up in some comparisons.
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