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Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 1
63
doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2016.24107
Attitudes and Adoption of Rainwater Harvesting: Influence of Gender, Awareness, and
Social Status
Michael Kanyi
Imperial Valley College, El Centro, California
David E. Lawver
Texas Tech University
Jonathan Ulmer
Kansas State University
Mary Murimi
Rudy Ritz
Texas Tech University
Abstract
Inadequate potable water often leads to hygiene-related infections while general lack of water
for agriculture is a precursor to malnutrition in Sub-Saharan Africa. There is a widespread low
adoption of rooftop rainwater harvesting in Kenya. Attitudes influence the level of farmers’
participation in water harvesting. Literature on the influence of gender, level of education, and
socioeconomic status (SES) on attitudes toward rainwater harvesting among smallholder
farmers is inadequate. This study was conducted to fill that knowledge gap. The study was
conducted in four sub-counties in Kenya. Data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for
Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20. Level of significance was set at α = .05. Effect size was
calculated and presented as Cohen’s d for the independent t-tests and as omega squared (ω2) for
the one-way ANOVA. Post hoc tests were conducted using Gabriel’s procedure. Results
indicated that women had statistically significant better attitudes toward rainwater harvesting
than men. Level of formal education among smallholder farmers did not indicate a statistically
significant difference in attitudes. Comparisons across SES levels indicated a statistically
significant difference in attitudes toward rainwater harvesting. Attitudes were determined to be a
statistically significant predictor of adoption of rainwater harvesting. The researchers envision
that these findings will be helpful to program planners, policy makers, agricultural educators,
and curriculum designers in Kenya. The study expounded on knowledge on demographic-related
attitudinal barriers to prioritization and adoption of rainwater harvesting. Recommendations to
policy makers and educators on enhanced extension and outreach programs were proposed.
Involvement of women as change agents was recommended. Further research on suitable and
relevant extension methods was recommended.
Keywords: Adoption, attitudes, education, rainwater harvesting, socioeconomic status
Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 1
64
Introduction
Studies have indicated that there is
low adoption of rooftop rainwater harvesting
in Kenya (Berger, 2011). The increase in
human population has resulted in an
unprecedented surge in the need for clean
and safe water. Water has many purposes
such as industrial, agricultural, home, and
recreational uses. Natural ground water
reservoirs are over-used, leading to lowering
of water tables. Deforestation has seriously
reduced recharge rate to the water table in
many regions of the world (Mahe et al.,
2013). Many rural households rely on
natural ground water sources such as
shallow wells, boreholes, dams, rivers, and
lakes. Water conservation and utilization is
fundamental in fostering local, regional, and
international peace and development
(Baguma, Hashim, Aljunid, & Loiskandl,
2013). According to Silali and Njambi
(2014), about 37% of the total population in
developing countries lack adequate access to
clean and safe water. The problem is severe
in Sub-Saharan African countries.
The struggle for access to available
water in Sub-Saharan Africa is regarded
among many as the most likely cause of
intercommunity conflict in the region
(Matiza, 2000). Domestic conflicts over
access and use of water are constantly
reported in many parts of the world (Baez,
2011). In April 1, 2014, Gerald Bwisa, an
author with one of the largest and most
respected newspapers in East Africa, Daily
Nation, wrote a story about a domestic
conflict resulting from scarcity of water. He
narrated how an employer bit her house-help
worker alleging misuse of water. The author
quotes the house-help as saying; “I was
washing utensils as usual when my
employer came and questioned why I was
misusing water. She slapped me twice and
went ahead to biting me on my shoulder.
Previously she had threatened to discipline
me” (Bwisa, 2014, April 2, p. 1). Similar
stories are told in many households across
Kenya.
Theoretical Framework
This research was based on the
Diffusion of Innovations Theory (Rogers,
2003). Rogers defines diffusion as the
process by which an idea or innovation
spreads through certain communication
channels from the source to members of a
social system over time. Adoption is the
process that involves a series of stages that
an individual undergoes from the time of
first encounter with an idea to the point that
it becomes a part of his/her life.
The stages of adoption are: 1)
awareness; when an individual comes into
contact with an innovation, 2) interest; when
an individual develops liking for an
innovation, 3) evaluation; in this stage, an
individual seeks for rationale and judges the
merits of an innovation, 4) trial; an
individual puts the innovation into use in a
small scale, and 5) adoption; the individual
takes up the innovation and it becomes part
of his life (Rogers, 2003).
Rogers (2003) describes five
important, systematic, and logical steps of
the innovation-decision process. These are:
1) knowledge, 2) persuasion or conviction
that results in attitude formation, 3) decision
or making a choice to either accept and try
out or reject the innovation, 4)
implementation or execution which involves
putting the idea into practice, and, finally, 5)
confirmation which involves seeking more
ideas and resources to support the progress
of the decision made.
Ganpat, Harder, and Moore (2014)
indicated that agricultural extension systems
usually use collaborative strategies in the
decision making process aimed for a larger
program. The decision-making process
among smallholder farmers is related to
characteristics of an innovation: 1) relative
advantage of the innovation, 2) trialability or
Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 1
65
the propensity to put the innovation into
practical use, 3) compatibility with present
farming activities, 4) complexity or easiness
to adopt, and 5) observability or the
possibility of observable positive outcomes
because of adopting the innovation (Rogers,
2003).
According to Rogers (2003), five
distinct categories of adopters exist. Each
category has certain unique characteristics
but the boundary between categories is often
blurred. Since this categorization is rate
based, time is a common factor. He assigned
specific percentages to each category: (1)
innovators; 2.5%, (2) early adopters; 13.5%,
(3) early majority; 34%, (4) late majority;
34%, and (5) laggards; 16%.
In their research on goal-directed
behavior, Ajzen and Madden (1986) argued
that beliefs and attitudes toward an
innovation are associated with the expected
behavior or practice. Ajzen (1991) explains
that normative beliefs, attitudes, and
subjective norms are common factors that
lead to certain observable actions/behavior
among people. In his ground-breaking
study, Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB),
Ajzen asserts that intentions are guided by
attitudes and that they represent the
conscious motivation to a behavior.
Previous studies indicate that low adoption
of rainwater harvesting in developing
countries is mainly due to low
prioritization, and thus, farmers allocate
little income from their savings to the
activity (Lourete, Tsukada, & Lehmann,
2009). The construction of the research
instruments was guided by Ajzen and
Rogers works.
Purpose and Objectives
The purpose of this study was two-
fold: one, to develop an understanding of
how gender, level of education, and
socioeconomic status (SES) related to the
attitudes toward prioritization and adoption
of rainwater harvesting among smallholder
farmers, and two, to investigate whether
attitudes, socioeconomic status, and
awareness are related to adoption of
rainwater harvesting. The following
objectives guided the study:
1. Determine whether small holder
farmers’ attitudes toward rainwater
harvesting vary with their gender.
2. Determine whether small holder
farmers’ attitudes toward rainwater
harvesting vary with their levels of
education.
3. Determine whether small holder
farmers’ attitudes toward rainwater
harvesting vary with their socio-
economic status.
4. Determine whether adoption is related to
attitudes, awareness, and socioeconomic
status.
Methods
Participants in this study were
smallholder farmers drawn from four sub-
counties: Meru South and Maara in Tharaka-
Nithi county and Bahati and Subukia in
Nakuru county. A majority of rural dwellers
in both counties are predominantly farmers.
An ex-post facto design was used in this
study. In an ex-post facto design,
independent variables are studied after their
effects have occurred (Ary, Jacobs, &
Razavieh, 2009). The researchers
investigated independent variables in
retrospect for possible connectedness and
influence on the dependent variables
(Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2000).
Simple random sampling was used in
selecting participants for inclusion in the
study. The recommendation for getting a
sample size by Mugenda and Mugenda
(1999) was used. The sampling frame
comprised 1638 households. The sample
size for this study was 310 participants
where one adult participant represented a
household. This initial selection was done
Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 1
66
on household basis. To have parity in gender
representation, a simple random selection of
households was adopted where male and
female participants were alternated in the list
of households. In social science research
where quantitative type of data are collected,
a sample size of more than 30 participants
can be considered adequate to provide basis
for inference (Hinkle, Wiersma, & Jurs,
2003). Borg and Gall (1979) suggested that
in survey research, a sample size of not less
than 100 participants in each major grouping
and between 20 and 50 participants in a
minor subgroup should be ensured. The
primary variables of interest, namely, level
of education and SES, were considered the
major groupings and mutually exclusive. A
researcher-designed questionnaire was used.
Validity informs that the instrument is
measuring what it ought to measure (Field,
2013). Validity of each scale on the
instrument was established by a panel of
four experts comprised of faculty members.
Cronbach reliability coefficient was
established for the two sets of questions that
represented attitudes and awareness. An
alpha level of .70 and .72 was established
for attitudes and awareness, respectively.
Awareness was determined by knowledge-
based questions.
The level of adoption of rainwater
harvesting was determined by scores
obtained from questions that sought data on
the quantity of water reservoir in relation to
perceived income. The participants’ scores
on this variable constituted their level of
adoption of rainwater harvesting. A
summated composite score was computed
using SPSS. Attitudes toward rainwater
harvesting were determined using 14 items;
13 of the items were measured on a five-
point scale with responses as strongly agree,
agree, undecided, disagree, and strongly
disagree; and one item was measured on a
three-point scale. This one question stated
that, “How interested are you in obtaining
more information about rain water
harvesting? (Check (√) one answer) (a)Very
Interested (b) Slightly Interested (c) Not
Interested.” The maximum attainable score
was 68 points. A higher score indicated a
higher positive attitude.
Socioeconomic status was measured
on a nominal scale using the researcher
developed questionnaire. Indicators for
socio-economic status included, types of
house, owning and operating bank account,
owning a car, ability to own a car, owning
cattle, sheep, and/or goats. A composite
score was computed from the six questions.
The computed composite score was
recomputed to ordinal level yielding a new
variable with five levels of socioeconomic
category. The five socioeconomic status
groups were labelled as very low, low,
middle, above average, and high
(Antonovsky, 1967). Social economic status
is a rather complex phenomenon and has no
single agreed upon way of measuring. It
depends on several factors and context of
the research (Meyer et al., 2014).
Descriptive statistics used in data
analysis included frequencies, means, and
standard deviations. Inferential statistics that
were used to explain the data included
Pearson’s product moment correlation (r),
independent samples t-test, linear multiple
regression, and one-way analysis of variance
(ANOVA). Data were analyzed using the
Statistical Package for Social Sciences
(SPSS) version 20. Significance level was
set at α = .05 (Hinkle, et al., 2003).
Results
Objective one was to determine
whether small holder farmers’ attitudes
toward rainwater harvesting varied with
gender. A gender comparison of attitudes
toward rainwater harvesting indicated that
women participants scored an average of
73.2% (M = 49.79, SD = 6.55, n = 175)
while their male counterparts had an average
Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 1
67
of 70.4% (M = 47.87, SD = 5.61, n = 135).
Although the male and female numbers were
expected to be the same, it was difficult
finding male household heads in some
households as they were out for work. In
such a case, a female acting as the
household head was interviewed.
A comparison by gender was
conducted using an independent samples t-
test. Table 1 presents results of the
independent samples t-test between
attitudes’ scores of male and female
smallholder farmers (N = 310). Results
indicated a statistically significant
difference, t (308) = -2.72, p = .007, d =
0.34. The effect size, Cohen’s d = 0.34, was
small according to Cohen (1988).
Table 1
Independent Sample t-test on Attitude Scores of Rainwater Harvesting by Gender
Gender
n
M
SD
df
t
p
d
Males
135
47.87
5.61
308
-2.72
.007
0.34
Females
175
49.79
6.55
Note. N = 310, p < .05
Objective two was to describe the
influence of the level of formal education on
participants’ attitudes toward rainwater
harvesting. Participants were classified into
five categories as follows; 1) not literate, 2)
elementary/primary level, 3) secondary/high
school level, 4) middle level/community
college, and 5) university level. The
primary/elementary school category
indicated the highest attitudinal score (M =
49.79, SD = 6.32, n = 131) while those not
literate had the lowest attitudinal score (M =
47.15, SD = 5.84, n = 39). Table 2 shows
descriptive results of attitudes’ score based
on smallholder farmers’ level of formal
education.
A one-way ANOVA test indicated
that there was no significant difference in
the group means. F(4, 305) = 1.69, p = .15,
ω = .09. Effect size measured as omega
squared indicated negligible practical
significance, (ω2 = 0.008). Table 3 shows a
summary of the results.
Table 2
Participants’ Attitudes Scores by Level of Formal Education
Education level
M
SD
n
Not literate
47.15
5.84
39
Primary/elementary
49.79
6.32
131
Secondary/High school
48.46
6.32
100
College
49.61
6.08
28
University
48.25
4.94
12
Total
48.95
6.22
310
Note. N = 310
Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 1
68
Table 3
A One-Way ANOVA on Attitudes of Participants by the Level of Formal Education
Source
SS
df
MS
F
p
ω
Between
259.41
4
64.85
1.69
.15
.09
Within
11704.86
305
38.38
Total
11964.27
309
Note. N = 310, p ˂ .05
Objective three was to determine
whether small holder farmers’ attitudes
toward rainwater harvesting vary with their
socio-economic status. Five socioeconomic
status groups--very low, low, middle, above
average, and high were compared on the
mean score of their attitudes towards
rainwater harvesting. The low group had the
most positive attitudes with the highest
attitudes score (M = 50.04, SD 5.86, n =
112), while high socioeconomic status group
had the lowest positive attitudes as
expressed in the scores (M = 45.14, SD 5.52,
n = 14). Table 4 shows descriptive analysis
of participants’ attitudes towards rainwater
harvesting based on the socioeconomic
categories.
The attitudes mean scores for the five
socioeconomic categories were compared
using one-way ANOVA. Results showed
that there was a statistically significant
difference between the means of at least two
groups, F(4, 305) = 2.51, p = .04, ω = .14.
Table 5 provides results of the one-way
ANOVA.
Table 5
A One-Way ANOVA on Attitudes of Participants Based on Socioeconomic Category
Source
SS
df
MS
F
p
ω
Between
381.86
4
95.47
2.51
.04
.14
Within
11582.41
305
37.98
Total
11964.27
309
Note. N = 310, p ˂ .05
Table 4
Smallholder Farmers’ Attitudes Scores by Socioeconomic Category
Socioeconomic category
M
SD
n
Very low
48.11
7.26
47
Low
50.04
5.86
112
Middle
48.62
5.84
100
Above average
49.05
6.61
37
High
45.14
5.52
14
Total
48.95
6.22
310
Note. N = 310
Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 1
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Since the overall F-test yielded
significant results, (p = .04), follow up post
hoc tests were conducted for multiple
comparison of the attitudes means for the
five socioeconomic categories. Gabriel’s
post hoc procedure was used due to varying
small group sizes. There were two groups
that were statistically significantly different,
low (M = 50.04, SD 5.86, n = 112), and high
(M = 45.14, SD 5.52, n = 14), p = .02.
Objective four was to determine
whether adoption is related to attitudes,
awareness, and socioeconomic status. The
tank size was used as a determinant of
participant’s level of adoption in relation to
their income and family size. Equitable tank
size for an average family of five members
was scored highest in a five-point scale.
Pearson’s product moment correlation (r)
procedure was conducted to determine the
nature of relationship between adoption,
awareness, attitudes, and SES index (Field,
2013). Davis (1971) adjectives were used to
describe the magnitude of Pearson’s product
moment correlations (r).
Results indicated negligible positive
correlation (r = .03) between adoption (M =
5.41, SD = 2.08) and SES index (M = 13.17,
SD = 2.91). A negligible negative
correlation (r = -.08) was indicated between
adoption (M = 5.41, SD = 2.08) and
awareness (M = 21.81, SD = 2.95). Analysis
indicated low positive correlation (r = .23)
between adoption (M = 5.41, SD = 2.08) and
attitudes (M = 48.95, SD = 6.22). This
correlation was statistically significant.
Table 6 provides summarized results of the
analysis.
Table 6
Pearson’s Product-Moment Correlations Between Adoption, Awareness, SES Index and
Attitudes
Variables
Y
X1
X2
X3
M
SD
Adoption (Y)
-.08
.23
.03
5.41
2.08
Awareness (X1)
.02
.13
21.81
2.95
Attitude (X2)
-.05
48.95
6.22
SES index (X3)
13.17
2.91
Note: N = 310
Conclusions and Implications
Objective one was to determine
whether small holder farmers’ attitudes
toward rainwater harvesting vary with
gender. To get a deeper understanding of
how attitudes influence decision making, the
researchers investigated how attitudes
towards rainwater harvesting varied across
various levels of selected demographics.
Variation in attitudes across these levels was
used as implicative predictor of how
demographics influence prioritization of
rainwater harvesting (Little, 2013).
Data analysis on attitudes toward
rainwater harvesting indicated statistically
significant difference between male and
female participants. The effect size, Cohen’s
d, was small, t(308) = -2.72, p = .007, d =
0.34. These results led to the conclusion that
women have more positive attitudes toward
rainwater harvesting than men. These
findings support results by Berger (2011)
that indicated women have more positive
attitudes toward water conservation at the
family level. This implies that there is a
need for enhanced extension programs that
focus on rainwater harvesting among
women.
Objective two was to determine
whether small holder farmers’ attitudes
Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 1
70
toward rainwater harvesting vary with their
levels of education. From the results, it was
indicated that there was no statistically
significant mean difference in attitudes
toward rainwater harvesting across the five
groups of participants based on their level of
formal education. It was concluded that
small farmers’ attitudes toward rain water
harvesting did not vary with their levels of
education.
Objective three was to determine
whether small holder farmers’ attitudes
toward rainwater harvesting vary with their
socio-economic status. It can be concluded
that smallholder farmers in the low
socioeconomic status have better positive
attitudes toward rainwater harvesting than
those in higher socioeconomic status. These
findings concur with results reported by
Mwaniki (1986) who found that resource-
limited smallholder farmers in Mbeere,
Kenya, particularly women, have a lot of
intrinsic motivation toward making their
family lives better.
Objective four was to determine
whether adoption is related to attitudes,
awareness, and socioeconomic status. It was
concluded that attitudes represented the only
variable positively correlated with the
adoption of rainwater harvesting.
Conversely, SES is not likely to impact
adoption. The theory of Planned Behavior
provides important descriptions and
explanation of the close relationship
between expressed behavior of people and a
combination of norms, beliefs, attitudes, and
intentions (Ajzen, 1991).
A related study conducted in a
developing country in Asia (Rezvanfar,
Ghorbanian, & Shafiee, 2014) revealed that
attitudes have greater influence on the
decisions that are made by individuals
regardless of the codified knowledge that is
available to them. The findings by
Rezvanfar et al. agree with the premise of
the theory of planned behavior (TPB) that
attitudes and beliefs have great influence on
an individual’s behavior (Munro, Lewin,
Swart, & Volmink, 2007). It can be
concluded that if the attitude toward
rainwater harvesting is positive, then, there
is a great tendency of adopting rainwater
harvesting practice.
Recommendations for Practice
This research study investigated
smallholder farmers’ attitudes in relation to
prioritizing and adopting rainwater
harvesting. Based on prospect theory
(Griesdorn, 2011), it can be argued that
farmers are aversive to investing money for
long term rainwater harvesting as they are
not certain if the investment will pay off. It
is therefore recommended that curriculum
planners in agricultural education consider
integrating attitudinal and economic aspects
of rainwater harvesting in the curriculum.
Lourete et al. (2009) noted that
although some studies indicate that
inadequate resources among smallholder
farmers negatively impact their decision-
making process, many of the challenges in
rainwater harvesting have been attributed to
inadequate knowledge about economics of
rainwater harvesting. It was therefore
recommended that government extension
agents and other institutions offering
extension services make a deliberate effort
to educate farmers on the economics of
rainwater harvesting in relation to time
saved in man-hours for other income
generating activities.
Women indicated more positive
attitudes toward rainwater harvesting than
men. Based on these findings, we
recommend that women involvement in
outreach programs be enhanced. Also,
curriculum developers and extension
program planners should draw from the
findings of this study to promote rainwater
harvesting among women. This
recommendation is augmented by the fact
Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 1
71
that if the attitude toward rainwater
harvesting is positive, then, there is a great
tendency of adopting rainwater harvesting
practice.
Recommendations for Research
Research should be conducted on
extension methods that could enhance
positive attitudes toward adoption of
rainwater harvesting. Follow-up research
should be conducted to ascertain actual cost
of setting up a sustainable rainwater
harvesting system that can satisfy water
needs of an average family size of five
members. The researchers recommend
replicating this research in other regions of
the country (Kenya) and comparing it to the
findings of this research. Thus,
generalization of the results in regions with
similar geographic and socioeconomic
characteristics will be more realistic and
empirically tenable.
This study was primarily preliminary
research and it specifically employed a
classical quantitative approach (Ary et al.,
2009). Integrating qualitative methods in
quantitative research allows for thick and
richer data (Guba, 1990). It is recommended
that mixed method research be conducted to
provide more insight on why prioritization
of rainwater harvesting has generally
remained low among smallholder farmers.
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