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A review of water-sensitive urban design technologies and practices for sustainable stormwater management

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This review paper presents, in a critical and systematic way, the published researches on water-sensitive urban design (WSUD) technologies and practices. The aim of WSUD is the long-term sustainability for urban water cycle management; it minimises the hydrological impacts of urban development on the surrounding environments. It considers stormwater as a valuable resource. The applications of WSUD technologies in practice could be the solution of everyday problems of small-scale stormwater management—flood control, pollution control and stormwater harvesting. This paper focuses on the recent research outcomes of several frequently used WSUD technologies including infiltration systems, permeable pavements, bio-retention systems, vegetated swales and rainwater harvesting systems; their barriers and adaptations; and future research directions.
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Vol.:(0123456789)
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Sustain. Water Resour. Manag. (2017) 3:269–282
DOI 10.1007/s40899-017-0093-8
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
A review ofwater-sensitive urban design technologies
andpractices forsustainable stormwater management
FaisalAhammed1
Received: 21 December 2015 / Accepted: 15 February 2017 / Published online: 2 May 2017
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017
of underground pipes and linear engineered overland flow
paths to nearby streams and rivers. (Seybert 2006; Wong
2006). Although the prime objective was flood manage-
ment in the upstream of catchments, they ignored the natu-
ral hydrological cycle of urban catchments leading to major
socio-economic issues for urban planners (Pahl-Wostl etal.
2007). These systems concentrate pollutants resulting in
the degradation of waterway ecosystems (Brown 2005; Roy
etal. 2008). Newman (2001) termed this traditional storm-
water management approach as a “19th century solution”,
where stormwater was treated as a waste product.
An approach which takes account of long-term socio-
environmental sustainability was initiated in the early
1990s in Australia; it is presently termed as water-sensi-
tive urban design (WSUD) (Coombes et al. 1999). The
first guideline of WSUD was released in Western Aus-
tralia in 1994 (Whelans etal. 1994). Argue (2004) edited
and published a book which covered the concept, design
approach and technologies of WSUD in the Australian con-
text; “Water Sensitive Urban Design: Basic Procedure for
Source Control” is one of the most significant documents.
Thereafter, some cities in Australia started to adopt water-
sensitive practices relating in particular to treatment and
control of pollution conveyed in stormwater (Wong et al.
2008). These technical and cultural changes in urban plan-
ning were intended to be additional to traditional engineer-
ing flood control approaches, and were focussed on pollu-
tion treatment in the built environment. Collectively, these
initiatives have resulted in technologies that can capture
and temporarily retain stormwater and divert it away from
the drainage channel: possible diversions include rainwa-
ter tank storage and re-use, in-ground soakage (increasing
soil moisture) and aquifer recharge. This paradigm shift
is an aid for solving the everyday problems of small-scale
Abstract This review paper presents, in a critical and
systematic way, the published researches on water-sensitive
urban design (WSUD) technologies and practices. The aim
of WSUD is the long-term sustainability for urban water
cycle management; it minimises the hydrological impacts
of urban development on the surrounding environments.
It considers stormwater as a valuable resource. The appli-
cations of WSUD technologies in practice could be the
solution of everyday problems of small-scale stormwater
management—flood control, pollution control and storm-
water harvesting. This paper focuses on the recent research
outcomes of several frequently used WSUD technologies
including infiltration systems, permeable pavements, bio-
retention systems, vegetated swales and rainwater har-
vesting systems; their barriers and adaptations; and future
research directions.
Keywords Water-sensitive urban design (WSUD)·
WSUD technologies· Barriers· Adaptations· Future
research
Introduction
The stormwater management system in a traditional
urban planning scheme considers stormwater as a “nui-
sance” and not as a useful resource (Brown etal. 2009a).
It focuses on efficient disposal of the stormwater by means
* Faisal Ahammed
FaisalAhammed.Ahammed@unisa.edu.au
1 School ofNatural andBuilt Environments, University
ofSouth Australia, Mawson Lakes Campus, Adelaide,
SA5095, Australia
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
... The first formal WSUD guidelines in 1994 marked a turning point, focusing on reducing runoff, improving water quality, and promoting ecological health [10,13]. While the environmental aspects of WSUD (water quantity and quality aspects and hydraulics and hydrology components) have been extensively studied, its social and economic dimensions remain less explored, creating a significant research gap. ...
... WSUD minimizes the environmental impact of urban development by managing stormwater sustainably, thereby reducing the need for new drainage systems and lowering costs [56]. Its use of soft engineering solutions reduces reliance on traditional drainage systems, yet implementation costs, including maintenance and reestablishment, can vary due to geographic, climate, and legislative factors, necessitating innovative approaches from policymakers and developers [13]. ...
... Furthermore, innovative WSUD measures like permeable pavements have proven effective at managing stormwater and removing pollutants such as TSS, TN, TP, BOD, and E. coli. Their efficiency can be further enhanced with nanoparticles, which improve pollutant removal and increase the pavement's mechanical strength, making it more durable and effective in stormwater management [13]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) has emerged as a vital framework for integrating sustainable water management into urban planning, tackling the increasing challenges posed by urbanization and climate change. WSUD aims to align water systems with natural ecosystems by minimizing runoff, improving water quality, and promoting biodiversity while also offering recreational and aesthetic benefits for urban residents. While the environmental advantages of WSUD are well-established, its social and economic aspects warrant more in-depth exploration. This review analyses the social and economic impacts of WSUD, focusing on its effects on community well-being, property values, infrastructure costs, and public engagement. It also discusses the significance of citizen perceptions, socio-economic equity, and financing mechanisms in the adoption of WSUD. The findings highlight the necessity for interdisciplinary approaches and policy reforms that incorporate social and economic considerations into WSUD planning to ensure long-term success and sustainability. This analysis aims to enhance understanding of how WSUD can contribute to resilient, equitable, and sustainable urban communities.
... Faisal Ahammed [1] offered a thorough examination of water-sensitive urban design (WSUD) techniques and technology, emphasizing their critical contribution to the longterm sustainability of urban water cycle management as shown in Fig. 6. WSUD's main goal is to reduce the hydrological effects of urban growth on the area because stormwater is a valuable resource that can be used for a variety of things. ...
... Although it covers a variety of GI techniques, the integration of these techniques into smallscale stormwater management is the focus. Ahammed [1] emphasizes the usefulness of solutions like PICP by doing this. This section complements the claim made in article 1 that PICP can successfully address problems with urban water management. ...
... Key findings Sawant et al. [74] • PICP design enables temporary storage of surface runoff water within pavement layers • Ideal for non-potable uses like irrigation and car cleaning Ahammed [1] • PPS, as part of WSUD, reduce hydrological effects of urban growth • Promote stormwater infiltration, encouraging groundwater recharge Bateni et al. [9] • PPS, like StormPav, manage runoff during intense rainfall events • Focus on improving stormwater management • Encouraging infiltration to reduce runoff Wang et al. [98] • SCMs, including PPS, offer cost-effective and eco-friendly methods to manage urban runoff and reduce nonpoint source pollution • Mitigate urban flooding and improve water quality. Encourage groundwater recharge Aldrees and Dan'azumi [2] • Analytical probabilistic models (APMs) help understand the long-term performance of runoff control systems • BMPs, including PPS, mitigate adverse effects of urbanization, indirectly contributing to groundwater recharge Song [80] • PPS in the "sponge city" concept reduces runoff and waterlogging, and improve water quality • Nature-based solutions like PPS encourage groundwater recharge Fang et al. [29] • Eco-permeable pavement materials (Eco-PPMs) reduce noise pollution, improve water quality, and mitigate the urban heat island effect • Benefits reduce surface runoff and encourage groundwater recharge Arya and Kumar [5] • Nature-based solutions, including PPS, help combat urban flooding, reduce runoff, and improve water quality, which indirectly encourages groundwater recharge ...
Article
Full-text available
A comprehensive study was conducted to provide research clarifications and evaluations of measures aimed at controlling stormwater runoff from roads and highways. The study specifically focuses on sustainable strategies, particularly permeable pavement systems (PPS), as a solution for stormwater management within the framework of sustainable drainage systems (SuDS). This research paper offers insight into PPS effectiveness in addressing aspects such as hydrological features, environmental impact, and overall functionality. Comparing with traditional methods of stormwater management with modern PPS, this review highlights the benefits of PPS and how it has demonstrated positive impacts, influencing the stormwater pollutant removal efficacies, reduction in runoff volumetric flowrates, and benefits of increased groundwater recharge. The literature examined highlights the characteristics of PPS, and its permeability and stormwater retention capacities. The findings from this research study emphasize how PPS as a SuDS contributes to effective stormwater management from roads. Furthermore, the study explores how PPS mitigates urban heat island (UHI) impacts by minimizing heat absorption and promoting cooling effects, while simultaneously filtering pollutants, in reducing heat-related urban pollution with specific focus on interlocking permeable pavements. The research indicates that PPS continues to play a crucial role in managing stormwater runoff, providing solutions to flooding challenges reducing runoff and improving stormwater quality through pollutant retention and removal. The benefits of PPS contribute significantly towards creating more eco-friendly environments and green urban ecosystems, yielding practical, environmental, and financial benefits.
... Many authors have reported benefits both in water supply savings and runoff reduction after including RWTs in the sustainable drainage systems (SDS) [2,[6][7][8][9]. Nevertheless, many studies combine the uses of RWT with other WSUD technologies and few focus only on RWTs [10]. ...
... These water bodies are classified into two distinct types: (1) detention ponds, manage stormwater runoff by storing it and releasing it gradually until completed drained, while (2) retention ponds retain the water for an indefinite period of time. Ahammed (2017) compiled the results of recent studies on a number of widely used water-sensitive urban design (WSUD) technologies for sustainable stormwater management and their barriers. One major issue with stormwater ponds is that they can getextremely hot in the summer, which might negatively impactaquatic ecosystems and water quality (Booth et al. 2014;James 2021;Kordana and Słyś, 2020;Van Seeters et al. 2019). ...
Article
Full-text available
Transient energy simulation software TRNSYS is used to model and simulate the temperature of stormwater ponds and determine the relative importance of each energy-transfer mechanisms that affect the energy gains or losses of a pond. This model distinguishes itself from prior research by analyzing how runoff entering and connecting the pond to a heat exchanger (serving as a coolant) affects its temperature. The model was validated by comparing the predicted pond temperature with field data collected from a retention pond in Leamington, Ontario, Canada. The results indicate that the model’s average error in predicting the temperature of the pond relative to the observed values is 0.13 °C. A sensitivity study has been conducted on the system to verify the impact of each parameter on the pond temperature.The air temperature, solar radiation, wind speed, relative humidity, pond surface area, rain temperature, and rain flow rate were considered in the sensitivity analysis. The sensitivity analysis showed that, among the investigated parameters, air temperature had the most significant effect on pond temperature. A 3 °C increase in air temperature causes a 1.24 °C increase in pond temperature. The magnitude of the energy transfer mechanisms was investigated. The results showed that the contribution of runoff and return flow from the heat exchanger had the least effect on changing the average temperature of the pond. In addition, solar gain and evaporation had the largest share of the energy received and lost from the pond with 50% and 25–30%, respectively.
... The need to maintain such high thresholds of natural vegetation may be offset, to some degree, by the adoption of best management practices (BMPs) that may help to mitigate the negative impacts of anthropogenic land use activities on water resources. Relevant BMPs might include limiting the amount and type of fertiliser applied to agricultural land, or the implementation of Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) principles in built-up environments (D'Arcy & Frost, 2001;Ahammed, 2017;Liu et al., 2017;Kajitvichyanukul & D'Arcy, 2022). ...
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Many of South Africa’s current water quality problems have been attributed to diffuse pollution derived from poorly regulated land use/land cover (LULC) transformations. To mitigate these impacts, the preservation of an adequate amount of natural vegetation within catchment areas is an important management strategy. However, it is not clear how much natural vegetation cover is required to provide adequate levels of protection, nor at which scale(s) this strategy would be most effective. To investigate the possibility of estimating minimum thresholds of natural vegetation required to protect water resources, regression analysis was used to model relationships between water quality (measured using Nemerow’s Pollution Index) and metrics of natural vegetation at multiple scales across a sample of sub-catchments located along the western, southern, and south-eastern coast of South Africa. With conspicuous outliers removed, the models were able to explain up to 82% of the variability in the relationship between land use and water quality. Moreover, a statistically significant, nonlinear, and inverse relationship was found between proportions of natural vegetation cover and pollution levels. This relationship was strongest when measured (1) across the whole catchment and (2) within a 200 m riparian buffer zone. The models further indicated that approximately 80 to 90% natural vegetation cover was necessary at these scales to maintain water quality at ecologically acceptable levels. Additional nonlinear thresholds estimated using breakpoint analysis suggested that if proportions of natural vegetation fall below 45% (across the whole catchment) and 60% (within a 200 m riparian buffer zone) a dramatic increase in pollution levels can be expected. The estimated thresholds are recommended as guidelines that can be used to inform integrated land and water resources management strategies aimed at protecting water quality in the study area. Likewise, the methods described are recommended for the estimation of similar thresholds in other regions.
... 70 Generally speaking, bioretention cells effectively remediate contaminants such as total suspended solids, heavy metals, nitrogen, phosphorus, E. coli, and fecal coliform in stormwater. 71 A recent study by Dutta et al. (2021) documented that bioretention cells and vegetative swales improved water quality by removing total suspended solids, total nitrogen and total phosphorus and effectively reducing peak flow. 72 In addition, the study concluded that using bioretention cells, vegetative swales, and porous pavements in combination with each other was more efficient than using a single practice. ...
Article
Full-text available
Bioretention, or variations such as bioinfiltration and rain gardens, has become one of the most frequently used storm-water management tools in urbanized watersheds. Incorporating both filtration and infiltration, initial research into bioretention has shown that these facilities substantially reduce runoff volumes and peak flows. Low impact development, which has a goal of modifying postdevelopment hydrology to more closely mimic that of predevelopment, is a driver for the use of bioretention in many parts of the country. Research over the past decade has shown that bioretention effluent loads are low for suspended solids, nutrients, hydrocarbons, and heavy metals. Pollutant removal mechanisms include filtration, adsorption, and possibly biological treatment. Limited research suggests that bioretention can effectively manage other pollutants, such as pathogenic bacteria and thermal pollution, as well. Reductions in pollutant load result from the combination of concentration reduction and runoff volume attenuation, linking water quality and hydrologic performance. Nonetheless, many design questions persist for this practice, such as maximum pooling bowl depth, minimum fill media depth, fill media composition and configuration, underdrain configuration, pretreatment options, and vegetation selection. Moreover, the exact nature and impact of bioretention maintenance is still evolving, which will dictate long-term performance and life-cycle costs. Bioretention usage will grow as design guidance matures as a result of continued research and application.
Article
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A WSUD practice that has been implemented in the United States is the level spreader – vegetated filter strip (LS-VFS). A typical LS-VFS incorporates a concrete channel with a level control weir (level spreader) that evenly distributes flow to a downslope vegetated filter strip designed for stormwater infiltration. The application of LS-VFS in Australia has generally received little attention. Given the absence of local information, this paper provides a 'proof of concept' analysis of LS-VFS as applied to South East Queensland conditions. The main focus of the analysis is to determine how compatible LS-VFS are in terms of meeting the prescribed WSUD frequent flow targets for urban stormwater discharges. Key LS-VFS design requirements were identified from the literature. A MUSIC model analysis was performed to evaluate the expected runoff reduction associated with a LS-VFS receiving stormwater from a Brisbane residential subdivision. Indicative criteria are proposed for design discharges, soil suitability and sizing of the filter strip dimensions. The potential of LS-VFS to provide 'passive' irrigation was recognized and the application of LS-VFS for sustaining green cover within urban open space was also analysed. Recommendations are made on further research and investigations on the Queensland application of LS-VFS technology.
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On-site detention (OSD) of storm runoff decreases catchment peak flows through the routing effect of temporary storage; on-site retention (OSR) achieves the same objective by abstracting part of the urban flood wave and passing the retained water to disposal on site. The investigation explored both strategies applied to a set of hypothetical present/re-developed urban catchments ranging in size from 14 ha to 210 ha. Comparisons were made on the basis of site storage required (SSR) to achieve the same global peak flow reductions, environmental aspects and cost. OSR practice was shown to out-perform OSD generally in medium-large catchments with respect to SSR and, hence, cost. The retention option also has clear environmental benefits that fall beyond the scope normally ascribed to OSD practice. The paper cautions against use of OSR in unsuitable circumstances.
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Two infiltration trenches were constructed in a densely built-up area in central Copenhagen and equipped with on-line sensors measuring rain, runoff flow from the connected surfaces and water level in the trenches. The paper describes the field site, the measuring system and the results from an initial soil survey. Although the two trenches are placed close to each other they function rather differently, corresponding to effective soil permeabilities of 2·10−6 m/s in one trench and a factor 10 smaller in the other. During 2¾ years of measuring 89 events were recorded, of which 7 caused overflow. Analyses of falling water tables after rain indicated slight clogging, but this effect is less important than the general lack of knowledge about soil permeability for normal design situations. The results indicate that the stormwater infiltration in central urban areas with compressed soils and backfill is more feasible than previously anticipated.
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A 1 year-old parking lot in eastern North Carolina consisting of four types of side-by-side permeable pavement and standard asphalt was monitored from January 2007 to July 2007 for water quality differences among pavement types. The four permeable sections were pervious concrete (PC), two different types of permeable interlocking concrete pavement (PICP) with small-sized aggregate in the joints and having 12.9% (PICP1) and 8.5% (PICP2) open surface area, and concrete grid pavers (CGP) filled with sand. The site was located in poorly drained soils, and all permeable sections were underlain by a crushed stone base with a perforated pipe underdrain. Composite, flow-weighted samples of atmospheric deposition and asphalt runoff were compared to those of permeable pavement subsurface drainage for pH, TN, NO2,3-N, TKN, NH4-N, and ON concentrations and loads. All pavements buffered acidic rainfall pH (p<0.01). The pH of permeable pavement infsurface drainage was higher than that of asphalt runoff (p<0.01) with the PC cell having the highest pH values (p<0.01). Permeable pavement infsurface drainage had lower NH4-N(p<0.01) and TKN concentrations than asphalt runoff and atmospheric deposition. With the exception of the CGP cell, permeable pavements had higher NO2,3-N concentrations than asphalt (p<0.01), a probable result of nitrification occurring within the permeable pavement profile. The CGP cell had the lowest mean TN concentrations; however, results were not significantly different from those of asphalt runoff. The possible nitrogen removal exhibited by the CGP cell is similar to that observed in sand filter research, not surprising considering CGP contained a 10 cm (4 in.) sand bedding layer. Overall, different permeable pavement sections performed similarly to one another with respect to water quality, with the CGP cell appearing to best improve storm-water runoff nitrogen concentrations.