Digital Methods for Ethnography: Analytical Concepts for Ethnographers Exploring Social Media Environments
Abstract
The aim of this article is to introduce some analytical concepts suitable for ethnographers dealing with social media environments. As a result of the growth of social media, the Internet structure has become a very complex, fluid, and fragmented space. Within this space, it is not always possible to consider the “classical” online community as the privileged field site for the ethnographer, in which s/he immerses him/herself. Differently, taking inspiration from some methodological principles of the Digital Methods paradigm, I suggest that the main task for the ethnographer moving across social media environments should not be exclusively that of identifying an online community to delve into but of mapping the practices through which Internet users and digital devices structure social formations around a focal object (e.g., a brand). In order to support the ethnographer in the mapping of social formations within social media environments, I propose five analytical concepts: community, public, crowd, self...
... Empirically, we combine some principles of netnographic sensibility (Reid & Duffy, 2018) with the digital method approach (Caliandro, 2018;Caliandro & Gandini, 2017;Rogers, 2013) to study pro-gun YouTubers in Brazil -an under-investigated context dominated by conservative and illiberal audiences (Ulver, 2022), which regularly attack institutions (e.g. traditional media, NGOs, left-wing political parties, politicians) and progressive groups (e.g. ...
... This study was conducted by combining some principles of netnographic sensibility (Reid & Duffy, 2018) with the digital methods approach (Caliandro, 2018;Caliandro & Gandini, 2017;Rogers, 2013). We started by exploring several social media platforms -YouTube, Instagram, Facebook and Twitter, before deciding which was more appropriate for our research purposes. ...
... While on the other platforms the content about guns was characterised by the massive presence of news, journalistic discourses, and polarised views about rights and social consequences of individuals owning and carrying guns, on YouTube it was configured as a consumption collective formed by SMI, who created channels dedicated to the topic of guns, and their followers, who expressed favourable worldviews and affectivities about guns and clear oppositional affectivities and discourses about those with whom they disagree. Thus, to follow the medium (Rogers, 2013) and the natives (Caliandro, 2018), we adopted YouTube channels as the ideal space to study online consumer gatherings with an oppositional social identity. Importantly, we only noticed the counterpublic nature of these consumer gatherings after the initial rounds of data analysis (i.e. ...
There is growing concern about the proliferation of radical groups and violent content on social media platforms such as YouTube. These platforms present unique capacities to promote radicalised content, as they allow the flourishing of digital creators who amass large audiences and communicate their ideas in a compelling video format. Notwithstanding, consumer research has not yet provided a conceptualisation of such antagonistic online consumer gatherings in the ephemeral social media context. We investigate this phenomenon by combining netnographic sensibility with digital methods to explore the case of pro-gun YouTubers in Brazil. We propose the notion of online consumer counterpublics, which are online consumer collectives socio-technically shaped and promoted by social media influencers and their audiences on social media platforms based on strong oppositional discourses, ideas, affectivities, and values associated with a consumption topic, and who develop a compelling counter-hegemonic social identity.
... Se implementó una estrategia metodológica fundamentada en la etnografía virtual (Caliandro 2018), comenzando con entrevistas en profundidad. Posteriormente, se realizaron dos observaciones de sesiones en línea de los estudiantes; la primera radicó en cómo buscan información educativa en entornos virtuales, y la segunda, por igual pero al explorar los resultados a partir del diseño de una secuencia didáctica. ...
A raíz de la pandemia por SARS-CoV-2, la exposición a los medios digitales se ha incrementado en la educación superior, lo que acentúa la dificultad de los estudiantes para reconocer, evaluar y utilizar la información que obtienen en la web. Cabe destacar que, producto del aislamiento, se requiere de nuevas formas de investigar, sintetizar e interpretar la información de internet. Estas suelen desarrollarse al leer en internet, no solo con la alfabetización digital sino con la alfabetización informacional. Por lo tanto, el objetivo es problematizar el uso de información académica en entornos mediados por la tecnología, específicamente, analizar cómo los estudiantes de Ciencias de la Educación utilizan la información y cuáles son sus estrategias en entornos mediados por la tecnología. Para esto, se realizó una reflexión interrelacionada de dos escuelas de pensamiento: los nuevos estudios de literacidad desde el enfoque sociocultural y, la segunda, la teoría de los saberes digitales en la educación desde un enfoque de capital tecnológico y hábitus digital. Para comprender mejor cómo los futuros docentes interpretan la teoría y utilizan la información en línea, la etnografía virtual, aportó la metodología y la técnica para analizar estos fenómenos educativos. La estrategia metodológica se implementó bajo un contexto virtual, primeramente, a través de entrevistas en profundidad. Después, se efectuaron dos observaciones de las sesiones en línea que realizaron los estudiantes, la primera al momento de buscar información educativa en entornos virtuales y la repetición de la observación permitió interpretar los resultados a partir del diseño de una secuencia didáctica. Así pues, se observa cómo el futuro docente genera estrategias propias de acceso a la información y cómo estas convergen en la planeación de una secuencia didáctica. Los resultados indican, con base en las entrevistas y las observaciones, que el manejo de información académica incluye la práctica de lectura y escritura, pero, previamente, hay un fenómeno mayor que son las habilidades digitales informacionales. Por consiguiente, existe la necesidad de discutir y promover estrategias renovadas para el desarrollo de las habilidades informacionales desde el campo disciplinar y el nivel educativo donde se desempeñarán los futuros docentes.
... We understand case-study as the lens, strategy, and research design for an empirical inquiry that «investigates a phenomenon in its real-life context» (Priya, 2021, p. 94). Since this is an 'exploratory'case study, we used «multiple methods of data collection» (Priya, 2021, p. 94), including ethnographic digital explorations (Caliandro, 2018) that is, online press reviews -to identify key actors. ...
Renewable energy communities (RECs) are a new energy model promoted by the EU for a sustainable and just transition. This explorative case-study examines a supposedly successful REC in a socially disadvantaged suburban area. The research centres on the Renewable and Solidarity Energy Community of East Naples (ReSECEN), led by the Famiglia di Maria Foundation (FMF). The aim is to outline a preliminary framework to understand the factors that make energy community projects (and their impacts) possible in urban districts such as East Naples, characterised by social, economic and environmental challenges. ReSECEN was established in 2021 through collaboration between the FMF and Legambiente Campania, with external financial support. The project relies on trust and pre-existing relational networks. The analysis reveals limited participation of members in management of REC, behavioural and perceptual changes mainly for direct participants, and limited impact of the initiative in the district. Thus, the study offers some insights into the process of engaging individuals with fewer resources (social, cognitive, economic), considering the importance of local context and network of actors that enables these experiences to take place. In these cases, the need for a balance centra-lised management and active participation seems to emerge for the success of RECs in complex urban contexts, like the suburbs of large cities.
This book is a first-of-its-kind critical interdisciplinary introduction to the economic, political, cultural, and technological dimensions of work and labor in the rapidly growing digital media and entertainment industries (DMEI). The book presents a comprehensive guide to understanding the key contexts, theories, methods, debates, and struggles surrounding work and labor in the DMEI. Packed with current examples and accessible research findings, the book highlights the changing conditions and experiences of work in the DMEI. It surveys the DMEI’s key sectors and occupations and considers the complex intersections between labor and social power relations of class, gender, and race, as well as tensions between creativity and commerce, freedom and control, meritocracy and hierarchy, and precarity and equity, diversity, and inclusivity. Chapters also explore how work in the DMEI is being reshaped by capitalism and corporations, government and policies, management, globalization, platforms, A.I., and worker collectives such as unions and cooperatives. This book is a critical introduction to this growing area of research, teaching, learning, life, labor, and organizing, with an eye to understanding work in the DMEI and changing it, for the better. Offering a broad overview of the field, this textbook is an indispensable resource for instructors, undergraduates, postgraduates, and scholars.
As part of a transnational project focused on creating Open Education Resources (OERs) on selected digital methods, the authors are currently developing an OER on netnography. Designing this OER, we have identified two pertinent methodological issues of netnography that have been debated during recent years: the need to shift focus from “community” to “consociality” and the issue of active versus passive approaches. Using these two methodological issues as a starting point, this paper outlines our understanding of netnography. It provides examples of consequences for how netnography can be taught and practiced in action. Two cases with practical assignments are discussed in relation to the methodological considerations together with insights for teaching and netnographic practice. In the first case, students are invited to investigate a digital community of their own choosing that they know well. The second case introduces students to an accessible online tool suitable for learning about fundamentals of Social Network Analysis (SNA) for studying consociality using data from Twitter.
This study concerns the issue of online child sexual exploitation and abuse (OCSEA) of children and adolescents. This study aims to identify the vulnerability factors of children and adolescents exposed to OCSEA and the measures to prevent and overcome this problem. The systematic literature review method was used including the formation of PICO, language terminology, inclusion and exclusion criteria, and data selection through PRISMA. The literature review found OCSEA vulnerability factors caused by a young age, perception, communication, economy, accessibility, emotional stability, population, gender, parental supervision, and children's internet knowledge. The handling is still at the stage of developing a framework, although there are relevant policies, but it is necessary to make new comprehensive laws to deal with OCSEA more explicitly. The limited prevalence and evidence related to the OCSEA problem led this study to take the initiative to conduct a literature review aimed at understanding the concept, development, and context of online child sexual exploitation and abuse.
The relationship between learning, sexualities, and the media is complex
and has usually been approached from two positions. On the one hand, the media is
considered to generate representations and spaces for discussion and interaction that can create myths, stereotypes, and gender inequalities (Fedele et al., 2019). On the other hand, it is said that the media also has the power to promote debates and generate counternarratives that challenge those same myths and stereotypes (Masanet and Buckingham, 2015; Tortajada et al., 2021). However, both claims need further exploration in order to reduce the over-simplification of ideas while shedding light on two important aspects of today’s societies: (a) the media’s potential to inform and teach about gender and sexualities, and (b) the need to investigate and detect misogynic, sexist and/or anti-LGBTIQ+ media spaces together with the dynamics that promote hate speech and inequalities. Both phenomena need to be discussed and addressed in educational environments (Masanet and Dhaenens, 2019). These are precisely the main objectives of this issue, which include five articles that seek to advance comprehension of the relationship between the media and the way people learn about gender and sexuality. By adopting a variety of theoretical perspectives and methods, these five articles engage with diverse media theories, and gender, feminism, and LGBTIQ+ studies.
In Digital Methods, Richard Rogers proposes a methodological outlook for social and cultural scholarly research on the Web that seeks to move Internet research beyond the study of online culture. It is not a toolkit for Internet research, or operating instructions for a software package; it deals with broader questions. How can we study social media to learn something about society rather than about social media use? Rogers proposes repurposing Web-native techniques for research into cultural change and societal conditions. We can learn to reapply such “methods of the medium” as crawling and crowd sourcing, PageRank and similar algorithms, tag clouds and other visualizations; we can learn how they handle hits, likes, tags, date stamps, and other Web-native objects. By “thinking along” with devices and the objects they handle, digital research methods can follow the evolving methods of the medium.
Rogers uses this new methodological outlook to examine such topics as the findings of inquiries into 9/11 search results, the recognition of climate change skeptics by climate-change-related Web sites, and the censorship of the Iranian Web. With Digital Methods, Rogers introduces a new vision and method for Internet research and at the same time applies them to the Web's objects of study, from tiny particles (hyperlinks) to large masses (social media).
Digital methods have previously been described as ‘a term that seeks to capture a recent development in Internet-related research, summarized as approaches to the web as data set’. Using this as a starting point, this paper positions digital media methods as a methodological approach that incorporates internet-based data, while also including other communicative and social media platforms such as Instagram, Vine, Twitter, giffy, Periscope, and Facebook amongst others. Digital media methods also extends to database research, data generated by sensors, drones and autonomous automobiles. Contemporary research engaging digital media methods is built upon the ‘computational turn’ where ‘computational approaches is increasingly reflected across a number of disciplines, including the arts, humanities and social sciences, which use technologies to shift the critical ground of their concepts and theories’. As media and communication scholars, our ‘research is increasingly being mediated through digital technology… affecting both the epistemologies and ontologies that underlie a research program’. This paper highlights three significant points of departure for digital media methods in the media and communication discipline: the increasing need for typologies and ontologies in social media research; the significance of mapping public issues; and the difficulties researchers face as text-based communication shifts to visually oriented platforms.
Exploring the new professional scenes in digital and freelance knowledge, this innovative book provides an account of the subjects and cultures that pertain to knowledge work in the aftermath of the creative class frenzy. Including a broad spectrum of empirical projects, The Reputation Economy documents the rise of freelancing and digital professions and argues about the central role held by reputation within this context, offering a comprehensive interpretation of the digital transformation of knowledge work. The book shows how digital technologies are not simply intermediating productive and organizational processes, allowing new ways for supply and demand to meet, but actually enable the diffusion of cultural conceptions of work and value that promise to become the new standard of the industry.
This paper explores the four difficulties of actor-network theory: the words "actor," "network," "theory," and the hyphen. The originality of ANT lies in the fact that this not so much an alternative social theory as it is a method of unravelling the activities of the actor who constructs their own world. By focusing on operations of structuring and summation rather than on concepts of "actor" and "network," we are able to show that the tension between the macro and the micro levels in the social sciences is largely artificial. ANT allows us to overcome this tension by channeling our attention away from objects and towards circulations instead. According to the author, the main contribution of this theory to the social sciences is the transformation of the social from the surface, territory, or region of reality into circulation. In the latter half of the paper, the author discusses the potential of ANT as a symmetrical anthropology of the modern and the defining structure of modernity. This implies accounting for the emergence of the ontological opposition between "out there" and "in there" (the nature and the subject), and (the deletion of) political and theological interests. The difference between ANT and many kinds of reflection on modernity, post-, hyper-, pre-, and antimodernity, is simply that it took to task simultaneously all of the components of what could be called the modernist predicament. According to the author, ANT is not a theory of the social any more than it is a theory of the subject, or a theory of God, or a theory of nature. It is a theory of the space or fluids circulating in a non-modern situation. In the conclusion of the article, the author offers an optimistic take on the potential of developing ANT further and giving it new forms.
Social media play a prominent role in mediating issues of public concern, not only providing the stage on which public debates play out but also shaping their topics and dynamics. Building on and extending existing approaches to both issue mapping and social media analysis, this article explores ways of accounting for popular media practices and the special case of ‘born digital’ sociocultural controversies. We present a case study of the GamerGate controversy with a particular focus on a spike in activity associated with a 2015 Law and Order: SVU episode about gender-based violence and harassment in games culture that was widely interpreted as being based on events associated with GamerGate. The case highlights the importance and challenges of accounting for the cultural dynamics of digital media within and across platforms.
Twitter’s hashtag functionality is now used for a very wide variety of purposes, from covering crises and other breaking news events through gathering an instant community around shared media texts (such as sporting events and TV broadcasts) to signalling emotive states from amusement to despair. These divergent uses of the hashtag are increasingly recognised in the literature, with attention paid especially to the ability for hashtags to facilitate the creation of ad hoc or hashtag publics. A more comprehensive understanding of these different uses of hashtags has yet to be developed, however.
Previous research has explored the potential for a systematic analysis of the quantitative metrics that could be generated from processing a series of hashtag datasets. Such research found, for example, that crisis-related hashtags exhibited a significantly larger incidence of retweets and tweets containing URLs than hashtags relating to televised events, and on this basis hypothesised that the information-seeking and -sharing behaviours of Twitter users in such different contexts were substantially divergent.
This article updates such study and their methodology by examining the communicative metrics of a considerably larger and more diverse number of hashtag datasets, compiled over the past five years. This provides an opportunity both to confirm earlier findings, as well as to explore whether hashtag use practices may have shifted subsequently as Twitter’s userbase has developed further; it also enables the identification of further hashtag types beyond the “crisis” and “mainstream media event” types outlined to date. The article also explores the presence of such patterns beyond recognised hashtags, by incorporating an analysis of a number of keyword-based datasets.
This large-scale, comparative approach contributes towards the establishment of a more comprehensive typology of hashtags and their publics, and the metrics it describes will also be able to be used to classify new hashtags emerging in the future. In turn, this may enable researchers to develop systems for automatically distinguishing newly trending topics into a number of event types, which may be useful for example for the automatic detection of acute crises and other breaking news events.