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Transmitting Trauma: A systematic review of vicarious racism and child health
Abstract
Racism is a pervasive stressor. Although most research focuses on direct targets, racism can also have unintended victims. Because children's lives are inevitably linked to the experiences of other individuals, and they are in critical phases of development, they are especially vulnerable to such stressors. Despite the growing body of literature on children's direct exposure to racism, little is known about the relationship between vicarious racism (i.e. secondhand exposure to racism) and child health. To examine the state of this literature, we performed a systematic review and screened 1371 articles drawn from 7 databases, with 30 studies meeting inclusion criteria. For these 30, we reviewed research methodology, including conceptualization and measurement of vicarious exposure, sample characteristics, significant associations with child health outcomes, and mediators and/or moderators of those associations. Most studies were published after 2011 in urban areas in the U.S., employed longitudinal designs, and focused on African American populations. Socioemotional and mental health outcomes were most commonly reported with statistically significant associations with vicarious racism. While all studies examined racism indirectly experienced by children, there was no standard definition of vicarious racism used. We organize the findings in a schematic diagram illustrating indirectly-experienced racism and child health outcomes to identify current gaps in the literature and ways in which to bridge those gaps. To further the field, vicarious racism should be uniformly defined and directly measured using psychometrically validated tools. Future studies should consider using children as the informants and follow children into early adulthood to better understand causal mechanisms. Given the recent national exposure to racially-charged events, a deeper understanding of the association between vicarious racism and child health is crucial in fueling research-informed social action to help children, families, and communities exposed to racism. PROSPERO registration number: CRD42016039608.
... Extensive knowledge has been generated about discrimination based on race/ethnicity and sexual orientation among adolescents (Benner et al., 2018;Greene et al., 2006;Heard-Garris et al., 2018;Huynh, 2012;Nadal & Griffin, 2015). This work has shown how discrimination is overt (e.g., harassment) and subtle (e.g., microaggressions; Greene et al., 2006;Sue et al., 2007;Umaña-Taylor et al., 2015). ...
... This work has shown how discrimination is overt (e.g., harassment) and subtle (e.g., microaggressions; Greene et al., 2006;Sue et al., 2007;Umaña-Taylor et al., 2015). Results have highlighted the ways that discrimination is directly and indirectly (vicariously) experienced by adolescents via their families, peers, and other adults (Heard-Garris et al., 2018;Huynh et al., 2017). Vicarious discrimination refers to the incident where adolescents witness or hear about discrimination that a peer, family member, or other adult has experienced (Heard-Garris et al., 2018;Huynh et al., 2017). ...
... Results have highlighted the ways that discrimination is directly and indirectly (vicariously) experienced by adolescents via their families, peers, and other adults (Heard-Garris et al., 2018;Huynh et al., 2017). Vicarious discrimination refers to the incident where adolescents witness or hear about discrimination that a peer, family member, or other adult has experienced (Heard-Garris et al., 2018;Huynh et al., 2017). Research has identified key individuals as sources of discrimination based on race/ethnicity for adolescents, including peers, teachers, and school personnel (Benner & Graham, 2013;McKown & Weinstein, 2008;Smith & Fincham, 2016). ...
This article introduces a new conceptual model for examining classism among adolescents and families. Classism refers to the discrimination that individuals experience because of their social class. For adolescents, social class refers to their family's social class and includes income, education, occupation, and position in society. Despite extensive research that has shown how social class is associated with adolescent development, there remains a gap in the knowledge about how classism might explain this association. To advance scholarship about classism among adolescents and families, I present a new model. This model integrates theories on (a) classism among adults, (b) discrimination among adolescents, (c) family science, (d) social class, and (e) intersectionality. I include hypotheses about the associations between classism and adolescent developmental outcomes and conclude with directions for future research.
... In a recent study, English et al. (2020) found that Black U.S. adolescents experienced, on average, five incidents of racial discrimination per day in person and online. There is also evidence that adolescents and adults have secondhand exposure to racial discrimination from their loved ones through witnessing, hearing about, or communicating about the racial injustice (Heard-Garris et al., 2018;Nuru-Jeter et al., 2009). Taken together, racial discrimination is a ubiquitous stressor experienced individually and vicariously by Black adolescents and adults; thus, it is necessary to understand the nature of racial discrimination experiences among adolescents and adults within the same family. ...
... Most of the research examining racial discrimination among family members, however, has focused on the intergenerational transmission of racial discrimination (i.e., from parent to child; Heard-Garris et al., 2018). There is less attention on how children's or adolescents' experiences with racial discrimination influence their parents' mental health. ...
... Interestingly, we find that parents in the parent-adolescent RD subgroup and parent RD subgroup have similar levels of mental health and perceptions of family social support, suggesting that children's experiences have little impact on parents. It is possible that the parent-adolescent RD group confers worse outcomes for adolescents than parents because children are vicariously affected by racism through parent-mediated mechanisms such as undesirable parenting practices, parental psychological distress, and disruptions in caregiver and parent-child relationships (Heard-Garris et al., 2018). It appears that such risk for vicarious effects is heightened when both parents and adolescents experience racial discrimination than when only parents experience racial discrimination, supporting the linked lives hypothesis (Gee et al., 2012). ...
Objectives: This study examines whether Black parents’ and adolescents’ experiences with racial discrimination (RD) combine to create distinguishable subgroups, whether demographic variables predicted membership into the derived subgroups, and whether membership into these subgroups influence parents’ and adolescents’ mental health and family social support. Method: Using data from Black parent–adolescent dyads (n = 401), a three-step latent class analytic approach was employed to examine study objectives. Results: Four distinguishable parent–adolescent subgroups were identified based on who experienced RD: (1) both parent and adolescent (parent–adolescent RD subgroup), (2) parent only (parent RD subgroup), (3) adolescent only (adolescent RD subgroup), and (4) neither parent nor adolescent (no parent–adolescent RD subgroup). Demographic variables did not predict membership into the subgroups. Parents and adolescents not exposed to RD generally had fewer psychological symptoms and more family social support than subgroups with RD exposure. The parent–adolescent RD subgroup conferred additional risk for poor mental health outcomes and less family social support for adolescents. Conclusions: Findings underscore the value of measuring patterns of RD and its consequences among family members. By not considering the influence of family members’ experiences, the negative psychological and social consequences of RD may be underestimated.
... Emerging evidence indicates that Latinx/Hispanic youth experience vicarious racism (N. J. Heard-Garris et al., 2018), but this has not been extended to cultural stressors more broadly, nor focused on the family more specifically. Such research may inform familial intervention development efforts addressing cultural stress, emotional reactions, and coping. ...
... Observing family members experience cultural stressors is consistent with meta-analytical work in which greater observations of racism against peers and family were associated with compromised mental health (e.g., greater anxiety) among Black, Asian/Asian American, and Latinx/Hispanic youth (N. J. Heard-Garris et al., 2018). In one qualitative study, youth (including Latinx/Hispanics) described the negative effects of observing family and friends experience racism (N. ...
... This may highlight the need for future research to ask focused questions around how youth may experience cultural stressors together with family members to uncover how else youth might experience cultural stressors and subsequent emotional reactions and coping elicited by these shared experiences. Consistent with the family-level vicarious racism model (Martin Romero & Stein, 2023) and prior vicarious racism scholarship (e.g., N. J. Heard-Garris et al., 2018), youth vicariously experienced cultural stressors by observing family members having these experiences. These findings provide evidence for the family-level vicarious model and expand upon CST by highlighting youths' vicarious cultural stressor experiences. ...
Objectives: This qualitative investigation examined how Latinx/Hispanic youth experience cultural stressors, emotionally react to, and cope with these stressors within the family context. Method: Forty-five youth participated in six focus groups (51% female; 49% male; 0% nonbinary; Mage = 15.26; SD = 0.79). Results: Using reflexive thematic analysis, we constructed two themes with four accompanying subthemes centering on (a) observing family members experience cultural stressors and (b) experiencing cultural stressors together with family members. Conclusions: Findings highlight the need for cultural stress theory to focus on the family context in Latinx/Hispanic youths’ experiences of cultural stressors, their emotional reactions and coping responses to these stressors.
... This literature focuses predominantly on the direct impact of racism on those who experience it. However, one person's experiences of racism may also indirectly impact the health of another (Heard-Garris, Cale, Camaj, Hamati, & Dominguez, 2018). We explore the indirect or vicarious consequences of racism in the context of parent-child relationships, asking 'How do parents' experiences of racism indirectly impact offspring's mental health?'. ...
... Racism experienced by parents correlates with several adverse child outcomes, including internalising and externalising psychopathology, poorer cognitive and social ability, physical health and sleep difficulties (see review by Heard-Garris et al., 2018;and Table S1 for updated literature summary). Research has been based on brief, broad measures of parents' exposure to interpersonal and some institutional forms of racism, with child outcomes examined across all stages of development. ...
... In this context, moderation by identity variables fits within the analytical framework of intersectionality, whereby individuals' various social and political identities combine to alter their experiences of oppression/discrimination (Crenshaw, 1989). Existing research on the indirect effects of racism between parents and offspring has been quantitative and observational, predominantly focussed on American families (Heard-Garris et al., 2018; Table S1). This existing research can inform academic hypotheses on how parents' experiences of racism indirectly impact children, but an absence of qualitative data prevents us from linking findings to priorities and perspectives in affected families. ...
Background
Experiences of racism are linked to negative physical and mental health outcomes among those exposed. According to quantitative research derived mainly from the United States, these negative outcomes can have cascading effects in families, when parents' experiences of racism indirectly impact offspring. New research is warranted for families in the United Kingdom, informed by a qualitative approach to canvassing community knowledge and perspectives, exploring how existing findings relate to lived experiences.
Method
We conducted four online focus groups with 14 parents of school‐aged children and 14 adolescents who had experienced racism in the United Kingdom. Participants were asked what children know of parents' experiences of racism, and how these experiences can impact parent–child interactions, mental health and well‐being. Focus group recordings were transcribed, data coded and analysed through iterative categorisation.
Results
Analyses drew four themes from participants' insights. Together, themes illuminated the pervasive nature of racism experienced by some families in the United Kingdom. Parent and child experiences of racism were connected and co‐occurring, with indirect effects impacting mental health and well‐being in both generations. These experiences were linked to both positive and negative changes in parenting behaviour and parent–child relationships, which could be moderated by intersecting identities such as the parent's generational status for immigration to the United Kingdom. Social cohesion, safe spaces and education programmes were highlighted for future intervention.
Conclusions
Findings corroborate existing literature, while further emphasising a broader bidirectional picture, requiring a family system and intersectional approach to understanding the mental health impact of racism in families. Avenues for future research are discussed to support development of equitable intervention and support strategies to prevent racism and support those affected.
... (Received 22 June 2023; revised 28 December 2023; accepted 5 February 2024) Black and Latinx caregivers 1 are commonly exposed to both parenting stress (i.e., Nam et al., 2015) and racism-related stress (e.g., Berry, 2021;Condon et al., 2022;Heard-Garris et al., 2018). Parenting stress and racism-related stress may convey secondary risks for their child's psychosocial outcomes (Anderson et al., 2015;Heard-Garris et al., 2018). ...
... (Received 22 June 2023; revised 28 December 2023; accepted 5 February 2024) Black and Latinx caregivers 1 are commonly exposed to both parenting stress (i.e., Nam et al., 2015) and racism-related stress (e.g., Berry, 2021;Condon et al., 2022;Heard-Garris et al., 2018). Parenting stress and racism-related stress may convey secondary risks for their child's psychosocial outcomes (Anderson et al., 2015;Heard-Garris et al., 2018). Racism-related stress in caregivers may also heighten distress in other domains, including parenting stress and mental health symptoms. ...
... Heightened parenting stress among ethnoracially minoritized caregivers may be explained in part by racism-related stress stemming from experiences of racial discrimination, or unjust treatment based on an individual's racial group affiliation (Anderson et al., 2015;Brody et al., 2008;Heard-Garris et al., 2018;Murry et al., 2018). The impact of racial discrimination may be influenced by both the frequency of experiences and the subjective distress appraisal, as both have unique effects on psychological outcomes (Sellers & Shelton, 2003). ...
Black and Latinx caregivers face high risk for parenting stress and racism-related stress due to experiences of racial discrimination (RD). This study aimed to explore the associations between RD, parenting stress, and psychological distress in caregiver-child dyads, as well as the impact of a mentalizing-focused group intervention on caregivers’ experiences of RD distress. Ethnoracially minoritized caregivers of children aged 5–17 years old participated in a non-randomized clinical trial ( N = 70). They received either a 12-session mentalizing-focused group parenting intervention or treatment-as-usual in outpatient psychiatry. We assessed self-reported frequency and distress related to RD, parenting stress, and psychological distress at baseline (T1) and post-intervention (T2). Caregiver- and self-reported child psychological distress were also measured. The results showed that greater RD frequency and greater RD distress separately predicted higher overall parenting stress and parental role-related distress. Greater RD distress was linked to increased psychological distress in caregivers. Similarly, greater RD frequency and distress among caregivers were associated with higher caregiver-reported, but not self-reported, child psychological distress. No significant changes in RD distress were observed between T1 and T2 for either of the treatment groups. These findings highlight the exacerbating role of RD on parenting stress and psychological distress among ethnoracially minoritized caregivers and their children.
... Although outside the scope of this review, we believe such an endeavor is feasible. In fact, pioneering theoretical works and evidence syntheses have documented how experiences of race-or ethnicity-based stigma can be understood through a family systems perspective (Anderson & Stevenson, 2019;Heard-Garris et al., 2018;Murry et al., 2018). We also believe that such an endeavor for LGBTQ+ parent families is worthwhile. ...
... We also believe that such an endeavor for LGBTQ+ parent families is worthwhile. In fact, we plan to take it on ourselves (Siegel et al., 2022) by drawing on foundational works from the fields of minority stress (Brooks, 1981;Hatzenbuehler, 2009;Hendricks & Testa, 2012;LeBlanc et al., 2015;Meyer, 2003;Nicholson et al., 2022;Pachankis, 2015;Rivas-Koehl et al., 2023), intergenerational experiences of racial/ethnic discrimination (Anderson & Stevenson, 2019;Heard-Garris et al., 2018;Murry et al., 2018), LGBTQ+ parent families (Prendergast & MacPhee, 2018;Siegel, Assenmacher, et al., 2021), models of stress proliferation in primarily heterosexual, cisgender couples and families (Conger et al., 2010;Feinberg, 2003;Masarik & Conger, 2017;Randall & Bodenmann, 2009), family systems theory (Minuchin, 1985), and intersectionality (Crenshaw, 1989;A. E. Goldberg, 2023). ...
Minority stress may be a family experience: Mounting evidence suggests that (a) LGBTQ+ parents experience marginalization based on their identities, relationships, and families (i.e., individual-, couple-, and family-level minority stress), (b) minority stress is associated with family-related outcomes (such as parenting stress and family functioning), and (c) children in LGBTQ+ parent families also experience minority stress. However, a formal synthesis of this evidence is currently lacking. Within this systematic review, we aim to elucidate whether minority stress is indeed a family experience by synthesizing associations between minority stress across all three levels of the family system and key outcomes for parents, children, and the family. We retrieved 43 publications (1982–2022) based on 30 samples (3,803 families, 332 effect sizes) from a systematic, multi-tiered literature search (including within PsycInfo, PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science). Multiverse-based meta-analyses (3,552 models) supported our hypotheses regarding meaningful associations between distal minority stress and child externalizing (mean r = .24), internalizing (.22), and total adjustment problems (.21), as well as parenting competence (-.17), parenting stress (.13), but not regarding the parent-child relationship (-.10), and family functioning (-.11) due to volatile specification patterns. These and further descriptive syntheses support the notion that parents and children in LGBTQ+ parent families experience minority stress, which is linked to key outcomes relating to the health and well-being of individual family members, as well as to the family system. Theoretical (i.e., a Family Minority Stress Model) and empirical advances (e.g., diverse sampling, intensive longitudinal designs) are needed to advance the field further.
... Racial discrimination, defined as the interpersonal, behavioral expression of prejudice that is perceptible and involves unfair treatment based on a person's racial or ethnic background, is a common experience for ethnoracially minoritized youth 1 (Nagata et al., 2021;Pachter et al., 2018;Seaton et al., 2008;Zeiders et al., 2021). Direct (i.e., personally experienced) and indirect (i.e., vicarious) exposure to racial discrimination can cause profound emotional and psychological distress (i.e., racial stress) (Benner et al., 2018;Cave et al., 2020;Galán et al., 2021;Heard-Garris et al., 2018). Although many adolescents will not develop mental health problems as a result of racial discrimination, some may experience prolonged stress reactions, making recovery more difficult. ...
... Racial trauma can be experienced through a range of mediums, encompassing direct in-person or online interactions, as well as vicarious exposure, where individuals bear witness to or hear about discriminatory acts directed at others from their same racial background (for a review, see Heard-Garris et al., 2018). Indeed, exposure to online racial discrimination and racial violence through traditional media and on social media platforms have been associated with traumatic stress symptoms among Black and Latiné youth (Maxie-Moreman & Tynes, 2022;Tynes et al., 2019). ...
Objective: Studies demonstrating associations between experiences of racism and traumatic stress symptoms have predominantly been conducted in adults, due in large part to the lack of available tools for assessing racism-based traumatic stress symptoms (RBTSS) in youth. The current study sought to address this gap by developing and validating the first measure of RBTSS for ethnoracially minoritized adolescents.Method: The Youth Racism-Based Traumatic Stress Symptom Scale (YRaBTSSS) was developed by drawing on relevant literature. Following iterative refinement based on feedback obtained via focus groups with adolescents, it was tested in two U.S. samples of 12-17-year-old ethnoracially minoritized adolescents (Study 1: n = 401, 50.6% female; Study 2: n = 651; 48.08% female) recruited through CloudResearch. Participants completed a demographic survey, the YRaBTSSS, and measures of trauma, racial discrimination, and mental health.Results: An exploratory factor analysis in Study 1 indicated that the YRaBTSSS is comprised of a single factor representing RBTSS. The final RBTSS scale had excellent internal consistency (α=0.98) and significant factor loadings (0.72-0.87). The factor structure was replicated in Study 2. The YRaBTSSS demonstrated convergent validity through significant associations with related measures of PTSD symptoms (p < .001) and racial stress (p < .001). Finally, RBTSS were significantly associated with symptoms of anxiety (p < .01), depression (p < .01), and conduct problems (p < .05).Conclusions: Findings show preliminary evidence for the reliability and validity of the YRaBTSS. This measure presents new opportunities to investigate the effects of racism on ethnoracially minoritized youth from a traumatic stress perspective.
... 8 Children and adolescents may experience different and multiple forms of racism, and exposure to racism has a negative effect on health. [8][9][10][11] As such, there have been numerous calls to address racism in medicine, but there is little guidance on how to discuss racism with patients and families in the health care setting. 5,7,[12][13][14][15][16] The relationship between racism and adverse emotional, mental, and physical health has been well documented, including associations with higher rates of depression, increased preterm birth, and increased rates of obesity. ...
... 5,7,[12][13][14][15][16] The relationship between racism and adverse emotional, mental, and physical health has been well documented, including associations with higher rates of depression, increased preterm birth, and increased rates of obesity. 5,6,10,11,[17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28] In a review by Williams et al, internalized racism was described as a pathway linking racism to health. 17 Internalized racism refers to ways in which those from oppressed groups may believe negative stereotypes and beliefs about their racial group. ...
OBJECTIVE
To develop guidance for pediatric clinicians on how to discuss race and racism in pediatric clinical settings.
METHODS
We conducted a modified Delphi study from 2021 to 2022 with a panel of pediatric clinicians, psychologists, parents, and adolescents with expertise in racism and child health through scholarship or lived experience. Panelists responded to an initial survey with open-ended questions about how to talk to youth about race and racism. We coded the responses using qualitative methods and presented them back to the panelists. In iterative surveys, panelists reached a consensus on which themes were most important for the conversation.
RESULTS
A total of 29 of 33 panelists completed the surveys and a consensus was reached about the concepts pediatric clinicians should consider before, during, and after conversations about race and racism and impediments clinicians may face while having these discussions. Panelists agreed that it was within the pediatric clinician’s role to have these conversations. An overarching theme was the importance of having background knowledge about the systemic nature of racism. Panelists agreed that being active listeners, learning from patients, and addressing intersectionality were important for pediatric clinicians during conversations. Panelists also agreed that short- and long-term benefits may result from these conversations; however, harm could be done if pediatric clinicians do not have adequate training to conduct the conversations.
CONCLUSIONS
These principles can help guide conversations about race and racism in the pediatric clinical setting, equipping clinicians with tools to offer care that acknowledges and addresses the racism many of their patients face.
... Depictions of police brutality targeting Black Americans across newspapers, television, and social media have been the centerpieces of recent dialogue and activism surrounding racial justice. Yet despite sparking necessary social change, the consumption of these images also represents a form of vicarious trauma-a trauma experienced by those not directly linked with the people involved in these incidents (Harrell, 2000;Heard-Garris et al., 2018). In the current experiment, we draw upon theories of vicarious trauma and social identity to assess the impacts This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. ...
Objective: Images of police violence targeting Black Americans is widely broadcasted in the media. Drawing upon theoretical and historical perspectives on vicarious trauma and social identity, we assess whether exposure to images of racialized police violence affects Black and White Americans’ cardiovascular reactivity and concerns about being victimized by police brutality. Method: Black (N = 77) and White (N = 89) Americans were exposed to view either five images of police violence targeting Black Americans or five control images depicting car-accident-related harm affecting Black Americans. Participants prepared and delivered a speech about the depictions and answered self-reported measures while their cardiovascular activity was recorded. Results: Significant Condition × Timepoint interactions demonstrated that exposure to police brutality images (as compared to control images) increased sympathetic reactivity on the preejection period and heart rate during the speech delivery and heart rate during speech preparation. A significant Condition × Participant Race interaction indicated that exposure to police brutality images (as compared to control images) increased parasympathetic withdrawal (reduced respiratory sinus arrhythmia) among Black (but not White) participants. A significant Condition × Participant Race interaction revealed that police brutality images (as compared to control images) increased Black (but not White) participants’ concerns about personally being victimized by police brutality. Conclusions: Images of police violence activate stress responses for Black and White Americans, with potential disproportionate effects for Black Americans. Implications include well-being following exposure to vicarious racial trauma and consideration for how and when to share such images.
... Specifically, mothers' discriminatory experiences at both Wave 1 and Wave 2 were positively associated with fathers' depressive symptoms at Wave 2, suggesting mothers' psychological impact on fathers and/or fathers' sensitivity to mothers' experiences. As prior research suggested, personal discriminatory experiences in the external society can spillover and proliferate into family life (Heard-Garris et al., 2018). Exposure to family-level vicarious racism can lead to negative This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. ...
Racial–ethnic discrimination is a prevalent stressor for Mexican-origin individuals that potentiates health inequities in depressive symptoms. However, existing research has primarily focused on individual-level associations between discrimination and depressive symptoms, neglecting the interdependent nature within family systems. Little is known about how one family member’s discriminatory experiences relate to the depressive symptoms of others. Although ethnoracial socialization may disrupt the link from discrimination to depressive symptoms, how different ethnoracial socialization practices operate and influence parents themselves have not been examined. This study examines the associations among discriminatory experiences, depressive symptoms, and ethnoracial socialization among 604 Mexican-origin adolescents and their parents from low-income families. The findings revealed intraindividual and interindividual discrimination–depressive symptoms associations. Parental ethnoracial socialization’s role in the link varied over time, individuals, and practices. Mental health research and services should consider shared and nonshared experiences among family members and adopt personalized approaches to support different family members.
... tomas depressivos e de ansiedade(Heard-Garris et al., 2018). Apesar disso, segundo Sacco et al.(2016), o campo da Psicologia apresenta poucas pesquisas no contexto brasileiro sobre o preconceito racial na infância. ...
Esta investigación tuvo el objetivo de hacer una revisión sistemática de artículos empíricos que articulan el fenómeno del racismo a la primera infancia en Brasil. Fueron utilizados los descriptores “racism”, “racial prejudice” y “racial discrimination” combinados con el descriptor “early childhood”. La búsqueda fue realizada en las bases de datos Periódicos Capes, Web of Science, PubMed, Scielo, Lilacs, IndexPSI y Pepsic y siguió las recomendaciones metodológicas del Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyse (PRISMA). Fueron considerados artículos científicos revisados por pares, publicados en el período de 2009 a 2020. Fueron recuperadas 4.010 publicaciones, de las cuales apenas cinco atendieron a los criterios de elegibilidad. Los resultados revelaron que el fenómeno es poco estudiado en Brasil, lo que indica que el racismo en la primera infancia está marcado por una invisibilidad social y científica.
... vicarious ethnic-racial discrimination is less commonly studied yet has similarly harmful effects as direct ethnic-racial discrimination on adolescent well-being (Heard-Garris et al., 2018). When adolescents witness or learn about ethnic-racial discrimination directed at their classmates by educators, they may experience a negative spillover effect, leading to poorer classroom adjustment outcomes. ...
Ethnic–racial discrimination is a pernicious experience that affects discriminated adolescents’ healthy human development, but the spillover consequences of discrimination on the nondiscriminated adolescent population are less clear. Adolescents who vicariously witness their classmates experience ethnic–racial discrimination from educators may question their educators’ authority and classroom rules, and educators who perpetuate discrimination may engage in other practices that disadvantage the entire classroom. Thus, we posed three research questions: Did classmates’ ethnic–racial discrimination from teachers predict adolescents’ classroom adjustment outcomes (e.g., class grades, test scores, and engagement), did classroom climate mediate the link between classmates’ ethnic–racial discrimination and adolescents’ classroom adjustment outcomes, and did the results differ between early versus middle adolescents? To answer these research questions, the present study leveraged longitudinal data among 1,539 adolescents (Mage = 13.81, SDage = 1.49; 60% Black, 30% White, 9% other, 1% Asian; 49% female, 51% male) nested in 104 math classrooms, as math is a subject domain with pervasive ethnic–racial stereotypes about students’ abilities and opportunities to succeed in class. Results illustrated that direct and vicarious ethnic–racial discrimination from math educators in the fall semester predicted worse math course grades, state-administered standardized test scores, and classroom engagement across the fall and spring semesters. Math classroom climate perceptions mediated the longitudinal relations between ethnic–racial discrimination and their math adjustment outcomes, and the role of ethnic–racial discrimination varied across different developmental stages of adolescence. Implications for the measurement of ethnic–racial discrimination in the classroom context and the social contagion linked to ethnic–racial disadvantage are discussed.
... The term "vicarious racism" refers to the stress-inducing exposures to racial bias that happen among an individual's loved ones, as well as strangers, who are members of that individual's racial group (Harrell, 2000). Prior literature has largely focused on investigating the pathways through which children's well-being is shaped by their parents' experiences of racism (Anderson et al., 2015;Heard-Garris et al., 2018). Following a wave of highly-publicized racist acts over the past several years, other studies have shown significant links between the "spillover" well-being effects from the disproportionate number of unarmed Black Americans killed by law enforcement and poor mental health among nationally representative samples of Black adults in the USA (Bor et al., 2018;Thomeer et al., 2022). ...
The goal of this work was to examine the relationship between vicarious exposures to major discrimination through the adverse experiences of spouses and mental health among middle-aged and older Black adults. The present study used data from the Nashville Stress and Health Study to investigate the relationship between spousal discrimination and depressive and anxiety symptoms among a subsample of Black adults aged 50 years and older (n = 219). Findings revealed that vicarious exposures to major discrimination through spouses’ experiences were linked with increased levels of symptoms of both depression and anxiety, even after accounting for exposure to additional psychosocial stressors. Our findings suggest that vicarious, in addition to personal, exposures to discrimination over the life span shape the well-being and mental health of Black adults. This work provides novel insights for health equity research and extends the body of work on racism as a social determinant of health.
... The rise of anti-Asian xenophobia during the COVID-19 pandemic caused hate incidents to skyrocket (Yellow Horse et al., 2021). Both direct and vicarious experiences of racism have been associated with trauma symptoms such as hyperarousal (Anderson, 1989;Williams et al., 2021), anger reactions (Bor et al., 2018), anxiety, and depression (Berger & Sarnyai, 2015;Heard-Garris et al., 2018). ...
Introduction: Racial stress is a form of race-based stress triggered by real or perceived discriminatory racial encounters experienced directly or vicariously. Racial stress symptoms resemble post-traumatic stress disorder, which is linked to significant cognitive and emotional disturbances. Objectives: This study investigated the relationship between racial stress symptoms and executive functioning. It explored the moderating effects of potentially protective factors like racial socialization processes, ethnic identity, and proportion of time spent in Canada (PTSC). Methods: Seventy-three participants (M = 29.01 years, SD = 11.10 years; 42 women, 30 men, and one non-binary) were recruited through purposive and convenience sampling and subsequently completed online measures of racial stress, executive functioning (EF), ethnic identity, and racial socialization. Demographic data were also collected. Results: About 20% of participants reported clinically significant symptoms in at least one racial stress domain. Racial stress, executive functioning, and racial socialization were significantly associated. Ethnic identity and racial socialization were significantly associated. Ethnic identity and PTSC moderated the relationship between racial stress and EF in such a way that lower levels of ethnic identity and higher PTSC, respectively, predicted a worse effect of racial stress on two domains of EF. Conclusion: Racialized individuals experience high levels of racial socialization. Although there are differences in those levels across and within minoritized communities, these high levels of racial stress likely lead to executive dysfunction akin to traditional stress. Environmental variables like minority status and high rates of discrimination likely contribute to this association. Specific aspects of the psychological impact of racial discrimination on EF are moderated by PTSC and ethnic identity.
... Among youth refugees, the most commonly reported health outcomes of racism are mental health impacts (Priest et al. 2013;Heard-Garris et al. 2018) including anxiety, depression and loneliness (Coker et al. 2009;Priest et al. 2013;Correa-Velez et al. 2015), self-harm, withdrawal, aggression and coping via excess smoking and alcohol consumption (David et al. 2019;Trent 2019). When young people's sense of self-worth and 'social and adaptive functioning' is undermined by racism, behavioural problems can result (Priest et al. 2013: 119). ...
Racism and discrimination, family disjuncture and differential experiences depending on migration experiences influence resettlement in new environments and sense of belonging. This article focuses on a little-known group in Australia-Tibetan youth. This article centres the voices of Tibetan refugee youth in the state of New South Wales seeking to understand, from their frame of reference, how they establish networks and social relations in the context of racism and intergenerational differences. 'Refugee youth' can imply homogenised experiences, yet intersections such as ethnicity, culture, religion, gender and more shape diverse experiences. This article also shows the importance of responsive not-for-profit organisations in filling the welcome gap that is not apparent in the wider society. ARTICLE HISTORY
... For instance, boys racialized as Black who experienced parental incarceration displayed more behavioral problems than those who did not when discrimination was low. This finding may reflect vicarious racism whereby being exposed to racism experienced by others impacts children's outcomes (Heard-Garris et al., 2018). Thus, even when Black children experience lower levels of interpersonal discrimination, having a parent incarcerated reflects a traumatic experience, which, in turn, leads to children's socio-emotional and behavioral problems (Merhi et al., 2024;Poehlmann-Tynan & Turney, 2021). ...
Parental incarceration is an adverse childhood experience that inequitably burdens families of color and affects millions of U.S. children and adolescents. Although racialized disparities in exposure to parental incarceration are often acknowledged, researchers have yet to examine whether manifestations of racism may affect the link between parental incarceration and youth outcomes. This study provides a first look at how parental incarceration relates to health vulnerabilities in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study, an ongoing, population-based study of U.S. children born between 2006 and 2008. We start by describing exposure to parental incarceration and then examine how parental incarceration, state-level racial prejudice, and discrimination relate to health risks among 9191 White (66%), Black (19%), or Hispanic (15%) youth. Consistent with what we know about pervasive racialized disparities in the U.S. criminal legal system, we find that 19.3% of Black children in our sample have experienced parental incarceration, followed by 7.8% of Hispanic children, and 4.8% of White children. Results of multilevel mixed models further indicate that parental incarceration was associated with increased health risks among White children whereas family economic hardship and discrimination experiences were more robustly associated with health vulnerabilities among Black and Hispanic children. Additional analyses explored whether parental incarceration was associated with other outcomes among Black and Hispanic children, revealing increased risk for behavior problems contingent upon parental incarceration and discrimination for Black children and Hispanic boys. Among Hispanic girls, parental incarceration was associated with increased risk of behavior problems in states with higher levels of racism. Results suggest that parental incarceration contributes to risk among early adolescents across racialized groups, but that the specific toll it takes depends on outcomes assessed and the context in which it occurs.
... Vicarious racism is an increasingly relevant facet of racism. Vicarious racism occurs when hearing about or witnessing racism being committed against other members of one's ethnic or racial group through mediums such as social media, in the news, or from other people 8,9 . That is, anyone who identifies with the victim(s) may then experience this racism vicariously as well. ...
Racism is a pervasive threat to health with differential impact based on race and ethnicity. Considering the continued perpetration and visibility of racism online and in the news, vicarious racism, or “secondhand” racism when hearing about or witnessing racism being committed against members of one’s ethnic or racial group, is a particularly urgent threat in the context of such disparities and their subsequent health consequences. The current study examines if frequency of exposure to vicarious racism and the emotional impact of those experiences are linked to psychoactive substance use, and explores the role of ethnic identity in moderating these relationships. In a cross-sectional survey, 504 adult participants aged 18–78 (M age = 30.15, SD = 11.52, 52.6% female) identifying as Black/African American or Latine reported on their experiences with vicarious racism and alcohol, marijuana, and tobacco use over the past 30 days. Logistic regression was utilized to test hypotheses. Primary findings indicate that greater emotional impact of vicarious racism was associated with a 50% increase in odds of alcohol consumption and that ethnic identity moderated the association between vicarious racism and marijuana use. Greater emotional impact of vicarious racism was related to more marijuana use for those lower on ethnic identity, whereas there was no association for those higher on ethnic identity. Vicarious racism was not related to tobacco use. Results suggest that ethnic identity might be protective in the association of vicarious racism on substance use. Further research on this topic is needed as vicarious racism becomes an increasingly common experience among marginalized populations.
... A notable study of Mexican American adolescents and their parents finds that the frequency of parental encounters with racism prospectively predicts adolescent anxiety symptoms 1 year later (Espinoza et al., 2016). This observation is in line with theoretical models of indirectly experienced racism, positing that caregiver racism-related stress exposure can escalate mental health problems in their children (Heard-Garris et al., 2018). Importantly, most of this work was conducted in adolescents. ...
Objective: Cultural stress potently predicts mental health inequities, such as anxiety, among adult and adolescent immigrants in the United States. However, less work has focused on preadolescence, a period marked by neurodevelopmental and psychosocial changes that can exacerbate anxiety symptoms. Latina girls, who exhibit heightened levels of untreated anxiety, may be at elevated risk. The present study tests whether cultural stress predicts anxiety symptoms in Latina girls and their caregivers. Method: The primary caregivers of 161 predominantly Mexican-identifying Latina girls (Mage = 10.70, SD = 1.68) reported their exposure to racism, acculturative stress, and political hostility. They also reported their own and their daughter’s anxiety severity. Results: To index cultural stress, a principal component was extracted from composite scores of the racism, acculturative stress, and political hostility questionnaires. Hierarchical regression analyses then tested whether the multidetermined cultural stress component predicted caregiver and child anxiety, with child age, annual household income, and subjective socioeconomic status entered at the first step. Cultural stress positively predicted caregiver (ΔR² = .13, p < .001) and child (ΔR² = .15, p < .001) anxiety symptoms over and above the observed inverse effects of subjective socioeconomic status, such that higher levels of cultural stress were associated with elevated levels of caregiver (ß = .37, p < .001) and child (ß = .39, p < .001) anxiety symptoms. Conclusions: The results of this study highlight the role of racism, acculturative stress, and political hostility in escalating anxiety symptoms in Latinx families and identify cultural stress as a factor that likely contributes to the high rates of anxiety in Latina girls during a key developmental period.
... It is argued that anticipated future sex discrimination can prompt students to disengage from academics. Several studies indicate that people do not need to experience discrimination firsthand to feel the negative consequences (Gee et al., 2012;Heard-Garris et al., 2018;Herda, 2021). When college students expect unfair or negative treatment based on their biological sex, they perform worse academically and are more likely to drop out compared with those who have positive expectations. ...
Academic engagement is vital for college students, yet existing studies reveal inconsistencies in how gender influences academic engagement. Building upon the statistical discrimination theory and identity-based motivation theory, this study develops an integrated model to examine gender differences in college students’ academic engagement. Further, the role that gender-role orientation in influencing academic engagement was investigated. Using a sample of 524 college students (Mage = 21.11, SD = 1.98; 47.7% women) from a large university collected in two time periods, the findings indicate that in the Chinese context, women anticipate higher future sex discrimination than men. However, gender-role orientation restores parity between men and women through a moderated mediation: egalitarian gender-role orientation has a stronger effect on women’s anticipated future sex discrimination than on men’s, resulting in increased academic engagement of women. The findings highlight the need to consider female students’ egalitarian beliefs in gender-related academic research.
... For instance, over the last decade there have been several encounters between Black individuals and the police that have been recorded and have gained national and international attention (e.g, George Floyd, Eric Garner). These encounters that individuals witness may have a similar effect on a person as direct experiences with the police (Heard-Garris et al., 2018). Thus, it is important for future research to explore how vicarious encounters with the police may influence attitudes toward the police and their metaperceptions, especially given how widespread and frequently these violent interactions with the police are viewed by Black people via social media and other outlets. ...
Objective: Across two studies, we explored the relationship between Black civilians’ encounters with the police, their attitudes toward the police, perceptions of police legitimacy, and metadehumanization perceptions. We predicted the more negative Black individuals’ encounters with the police, the more unfavorable their views of police would be (attitudes and perceived legitimacy) and the more likely they would believe police believe Black people are less than human. We further hypothesized that the relationships between Black Americans negative counters with the police and their views of the police would be mediated by metadehumanization. Method: Black Americans (N = 522, Mage = 35.85) were either asked about the quality of their interactions with police (Study 1) or randomly assigned to write about a positive, negative, or neutral encounter with police (Study 2). They completed attitudes toward the police and police legitimacy and metadehumanization measures. Results: Study 1 found the more negative Black individuals’ encounters with the police were, the more negative their views were toward police and the more they believed police saw them as less than human. This relationship was partially mediated by metadehumanization. Study 2 demonstrated a causal relationship between negative police encounters and negative perceptions of the police; however, metadehumanization only partially mediated this relationship. Conclusion: Negative encounters with the police may have lasting negative implications on Black citizens’ perceptions of legitimacy but more research is necessary regarding the role of metadehumanization perceptions.
... More than two-thirds of Latinx adults and adolescents in the United States report experiencing discrimination in the last year (Zeiders et al., 2021). Whereas most research has focused on experiences of interpersonal discrimination, in which youth are directly mistreated based on their race and ethnicity, a growing body of research also now attends to vicarious discrimination, which refers to secondhand exposure to racial discrimination directed at another individual (Heard-Garris et al., 2018). Critically, vicarious discrimination is also negatively linked to youth well-being (see Heard-Garris et al., 2018, for review). ...
The current study evaluated cultural values and family processes that may moderate associations between daily racial-ethnic discrimination and distress among Mexican-origin youth. Integrating micro-time (daily diary) and macro-time (longitudinal survey) research design features, we examined familism, family cohesion, and ethnic-racial socialization from youth-, mother-, and father- reports as potential buffers of daily associations between youth racial-ethnic discrimination and youth distress (negative affect and anger). The analytic sample, drawn from the Seguimos Avanzando study, included 317 Mexican-origin adolescents (Mage = 13.5 years) and their parents, recruited from the Midwestern United States. Results indicated that youth-reported familism and family cohesion significantly buffered daily associations between youth racial-ethnic discrimination and youth distress. In contrast, parent-reported familism and family cohesion and some aspects of ethnic-racial socialization exacerbated the discrimination to distress link. The implications of these results are discussed to inform efforts supporting the healthy development of Mexican-origin youth and their families.
... For Black women, vicarious racial discrimination may occur when they observe racial discrimination or violence towards other members of the Black community [13]this includes family, friends, colleagues, neighbors, and/or individuals that are not personally known to the individual. Importantly, vicarious racial discrimination is typically reported more frequently compared to personal racial discrimination-particularly among women [14,15]. ...
Objective
Evidence suggests that racial discrimination causes stress among non-Hispanic Black women, and some Black women may cope with exposure to vicarious racial discrimination by engaging in maladaptive eating behaviors.
Methods
We examined eating behaviors among Black women ( N = 254) before and after Freddie Gray’s death while in police custody. Maladaptive eating behaviors were assessed using the three-factor eating questionnaire. Our independent variables included the following: (1) time period and (2) geographic proximity to the event. Three two-way analysis of covariance tests were conducted to assess potential effects of geographic proximity (close, distant), time period in relation to unrest (before, after unrest), and their interaction on emotional eating, uncontrolled eating, and cognitive restraint controlling for participant age.
Results
There was a statistically significant main effect of proximity to the unrest on emotional eating, F (1, 252) = 5.64, p = .018, and partial η2 = .022 such that women living in close geographic proximity to the unrest reported higher mean levels of emotional eating as compared to those living more distant to the unrest. There was also a borderline statistically significant interaction between geographic proximity and time period on cognitive restraint, F (1, 252) = 3.89, p = .050, and partial η2 = .015.
Conclusion
Our study found a relationship between vicarious racial discrimination and maladaptive eating behaviors among Black women. Future work should examine stress related to vicarious racial discrimination and maladaptive eating behaviors longitudinally.
... Clear evidence for this can be seen in health disparities for Black pregnant individuals, who are several times more likely to experience complications or death related to childbirth, and to lose their infants to death in the first year of life, compared to White individuals (Keating et al., 2020). Higher levels of race-based discrimination have also been repeatedly found to be associated with increased risk for low birth weight and short gestational length (see for a review Heard-Garris et al., 2018), key mediators of risk for developmental challenges later in life. Notably, however, prenatal programing constructs and biological processes are not often emphasized in work highlight intergenerational impacts of structural racism and trauma on mental health (e.g., Hankerson et al., 2022), suggesting opportunities to build bridges between realms of science. ...
In this article, I highlight core ideas, empirical findings, and advances in the study of how stress during pregnancy may prenatally program child neurodevelopmental, psychopathological, and health outcomes, emphasizing reviews, metanalyses, and recent contributions of conceptual and empirical work. The article offers a perspective on the history of this area of science, the underrecognized contributions of influential scholars from diverse fields of study, what we know from the evidence to date, the persistent challenges in sorting through what is left to learn, and suggestions for future research. I include sections focused on promoting resilience, pregnancy interventions that demonstrate positive effects across two generations, and the translational implications of the accruing data for practice and policy, highlighting opportunities for integrating across a range of fields and sectors. In the concluding sections, I discuss lessons learned from conducting this work and provide a closing summary of progress and future directions. The goal of this writing was to provide a viewpoint on some ways that emerging intergenerational transmission scholars might responsibly contribute to the future of the field of developmental psychopathology.
... Similarly, racism adversely impacts the infantcaregiver dyad and well-being of caregivers, leading to perturbations in the caregiver-infant attachment system, which can have lasting detrimental consequences for parenting practices (i.e., harsh and punitive), maternal mental health, and child outcomes (37,64). Finally, there are sex differences in these associations, with evidence of greater vulnerability of males in early childhood, including poorer behavior regulation and stress reactivity during infancy and toddlerhood (65,66), whereas girls are more susceptible to the negative effects of racial discrimination directed at caregivers at older ages (67). Thus, it is critical to support maternal mental health beginning in the prenatal period and to promote positive parenting practices across the first 5 years of life. ...
Introduction
Racism, a known social determinant of health, affects the mental health and well-being of pregnant and postpartum women and their children. Convincing evidence highlights the urgent need to better identify the mechanisms and the ways in which young children’s development and mental health are adversely impacted by their mothers’ experiences of racism. With the additional stressor of the COVID-19 pandemic, the criticality of improving knowledge of these domains has never been starker. The proposed project will address these questions and move the field forward to create targeted, culturally informed preventative interventions, thus achieving mental health equity for all children and families.
Methods
This prospective research is a cohort study that will longitudinally observe the outcomes of a cohort of mothers and their children recruited during the initial phase of the COVID-19 pandemic. Data will be parent/caregiver questionnaires assessing mental health, racism, support, and resilience at multiple time points with the first beginning at 24 months, clinical interviews with mothers, electronic medical records of mothers, and videotaped dyadic interactions at child age 24 and 48 months. A subset of Black participants will be asked to participate in qualitative interviews at child age 36 months.
Results
Analyze will be performed within and across Black and Non-Latino/a/e/x white (NLW) groups, and comparing mothers and fathers/secondary caregivers. Descriptive and multivariate analyzes will be run to better characterize how young children’s development and mental health may be adversely impacted by their caregiver’s experiences of racism.
Discussion
This prospective longitudinal mixed-methods study evaluates the simultaneous effects of the COVID-19 pandemic and racism on mothers and their developing children to characterize cross-racial differences, providing insight into risk and resilience factors in early development and the peripartum period.
The boundaries of psychology are expanding as growing numbers of psychological scientists, educators, and clinicians take a preventive approach to social and mental health challenges. Offering a broad introduction to prevention in psychology, this book provides readers with the tools, resources, and knowledge to develop and implement evidence-based prevention programs. Each chapter features key points, a list of helpful resources for creating successful intervention programs, and culturally informed case examples from across the lifespan, including childhood, school, college, family, adult, and community settings. An important resource for students, researchers, and practitioners in counseling, clinical, health, and educational psychology, social justice and diversity, social work, and public health.
Racism has long been established to be a significant determinant of racial inequalities in health among racially minoritized individuals. Most of this research, however, has been focused on individuals' direct perceived experiences of racism, and far less has been conducted on the relationship between indirect, vicarious experiences of racism and mental and physical health outcomes and behaviors. In this review, racism and vicarious racism are defined, and what is known about the relationship between vicarious experiences of racism and psychological and physical well‐being and health behaviors is documented. Like direct experiences of racism, research on vicarious experiences of racism suggests it is also adversely related to anxiety, depression, general psychological distress, and physiological health (e.g., allostatic load, cardiometabolic risk). Lastly, future directions for research and clinical practice are discussed. Understanding the intricate interplay between vicarious racism and overall mental and physical wellbeing is crucial for informing interventions aimed at mitigating the adverse mental health outcomes associated with experiences with racism.
This study offers one of the few investigations into the role of discrimination in the stress proliferation process. Using a community-based sample of adults and actor-partner interdepended models, our findings reveal an intra-personal spillover effect, wherein individuals experiencing direct discrimination also report heightened secondary stressors across various life domains (i.e., general life, romantic partnerships, employment, social and recreational activities, and the health of family/friends). We further demonstrate an inter-personal crossover effect, indicating that individuals whose close network members experience high levels of discrimination reported an increased number of secondary everyday stressors across various life domains. Notably, the stress proliferation stemming from vicarious discrimination is primarily confined to intimate partner ties and does not extend to kinship or non-family ties. This study extends the stress process research by advancing our understanding of discrimination's pivotal role in stress proliferation and illuminates the potential ripple effects of discriminatory experiences across social networks.
Objective
To determine whether Black women in Michigan communities outside of Flint were more likely than women in other racial and ethnic groups to report negative emotional reactions to the Flint Water Crisis, an ongoing public health disaster that has been widely attributed to anti-Black structural racism.
Methods
Data were from a 2020 survey of Michigan women aged 18-45 in communities outside of Flint (N=888). We used logistic regression models to examine racial and ethnic differences in the odds of negative emotional reactions to the Flint Water Crisis.
Results
Compared with Black women, White women had lower odds of feeling scared (odds ratio [OR]=0.58; 95% CI, 0.40-0.84), hopeless (OR=0.53; 95% CI, 0.38-0.74), tired (OR=0.45; 95% CI, 0.32-0.64), and numb (OR=0.52; 95% CI, 0.35-0.75) when thinking about the water crisis. There were no differences between Black and Hispanic women, whereas women of other races or ethnicities had lower odds than Black women of feeling numb (OR=0.32; 95% CI, 0.14-0.72).
Conclusions
The Flint Water Crisis was a racialized stressor, with potential implications for mental health inequities among Michigan women who were not directly affected by the crisis.
Objective:
Black American adolescents are beleaguered with the most frequent and severe experiences of racial discrimination (RD) among their peers. To protect Black adolescents' mental health and developmental outcomes from the pernicious impact of discrimination, parents and other proximal adults and peers often utilize racial socialization (RS), or communications and behaviors emphasizing the importance of race and the harms of racism. While several recent RS reviews have been conducted across ethnicity, a modern review investigating RS practices related to and predictive of Black adolescent psychosocial outcomes is needed.
Method:
To ground our critical systematic review of 45 articles, we first highlighted the ways RD impacts the lives of Black adolescents. Then, drawing from integrative models for Black youth development, we synthesized recent psychological, academic, and sociocultural literatures to describe the role of RS in Black adolescents' wellness.
Results:
The impact of various tenets of RS was seen most clearly as a protective factor against RD with respect to adolescents' mental health (e.g. depression), academic achievement (e.g. GPA), and sociocultural identity (e.g. public and private racial regard) development. Cultural socialization, a strategy related to extolling pride for one's race, was the most consistent RS protective factor, with novel RS constructs (e.g. parental competency) emerging as a method to buffer youth internalizing and externalizing problems.
Conclusions:
Recommendations are made for future research on understudied components of RS and multiple methods and reporters to capture a more holistic depiction of RS practices. We emphasize preventative and intervening approaches to reduce the impetus for RS and its impact, including burgeoning clinical and community-level programs and the importance for provider training to yield positive mental health outcomes for Black adolescents.
Prior research suggests that vicarious (i.e., indirect or second-hand) racism is harmful to psychological health; moreover, the psychological impacts of vicarious racism may be especially distressing for Black women. Nevertheless, because much of the vicarious racism and mental health literature has been quantitative, the broader contexts in which vicarious racism occurs are poorly understood. Although qualitative literature has explored vicarious racism, it has focused on Black mothers and their children’s experiences of racism. We build on both literatures to analyze vicarious racism accounts reported by Black women in early adulthood. Using data from 32 respondents, the study provides greater context for experiences of vicarious racism (e.g., who are the targets and perpetrators, settings in which vicarious racism occurred), reports what happens in the “aftermath” of vicarious racism, and documents psycho-emotional responses that expand beyond traditional mental health indicators (e.g., major depression). Implications of findings for vicarious racism research are discussed.
Project Adversity and Resiliency Interventions for Social Emotional Development in Early Childhood (Project ARISE) is a preservice personnel preparation program training Early Childhood Special Educators and Social Workers to serve young children with disabilities with high intensity needs social emotional needs, specifically children with early childhood mental health (ECMH) needs in inclusive learning environments. Project ARISE seeks to address the state and nationwide shortage of high-quality ECSE and SW personnel whose diversity and identities are reflective of the communities in which they serve. The chapter discusses issues related to the rationale for the interdisciplinary program, a roadmap for the program, reflections and lessons learned, and considerations for others interested in developing similar programs in their communities.
Racism-related experiences are a ubiquitous reality for youth of color, with research indicating that some youth may encounter as many as five incidents of racial discrimination daily.1 These experiences reinforce profound ethnoracial health disparities across the lifespan and have been linked to psychological symptoms including suicidal thoughts, depression, and anxiety.2 Further, racism exposure can trigger biological and psychological stress responses such as avoidance and hypervigilance, otherwise referred to as symptoms of racism-based traumatic stress (RBTS).3,4 Despite concerns regarding the impact of RBTS on development, RBTS has received limited recognition in clinical practice. We provide concrete recommendations for formally acknowledging the impact of RBTS on these populations, as failing to identify and address RBTS symptoms may compromise the quality of mental health services received by youth of color.
Current understandings of disability experience are centered around individuals who hold the disability identity and membership in the marginalized group. This perspective does not include the experiences of disability allies, such as parents, who act alongside their children to support their access and engagement in the education setting. This partial perspective is of concern because it does not reflect the depth and complexity of disability experience for those in allyship roles. This paper builds on current understandings of disability experience by introducing an emerging conceptual lens that defines and describes the nature of disability experience for those acting in allyship roles. Attention is focused on children with dyslexia and their parents to illustrate this conceptual lens. Extending on ecological models of interactions and understandings of subjective experience, the authors highlight how the proximity of the parental experience to the child’s dyslexic identity shapes parental allyship and present a lens of disability experience that includes primary, vicarious, and primary adjacent experience. The proposed conceptual lens offers researchers and educators an opportunity to view disability experience and allyship from an alternative perspective, and in doing so, consider a broader understanding of disability experience and allyship that would potentially provide insights into parent–school partnerships.
The present 21‐day daily diary study (conducted 2021–2022) tested anger and racism‐related vigilance as potential transdiagnostic mediators linking exposure to racial and ethnic discrimination (RED) to distress (negative affect and stress, respectively). The data analytic sample included N = 317 Mexican‐origin adolescents ( M age = 13.5 years; 50.8% male, 46.7% female; 2.5% non‐binary) from the Midwestern United States. Results from longitudinal mediation models revealed significant mediation effects through anger and racism‐related vigilance, respectively, in the association between daily RED and daily distress, both within and across adolescents. Implications for theory, research, and practice are discussed so that future work can leverage these novel findings toward promoting the well‐being of Mexican‐origin adolescents, especially those who live in contexts of ethnoracial adversity.
BACKGROUND
Discrimination, or unfair treatment based on individual characteristics such as gender, race, skin color, and or sexual orientation, is a pervasive social stressor that perpetuates health disparities by limiting social and economic opportunity and is associated with poor mental and physical health outcomes.
AIMS
The purpose of the present study is to (1) examine the association between maternal experiences of discrimination and paternal experiences of discrimination; (2) explore how discrimination relates to parental (maternal and paternal) stress and depressive symptoms; and (3) examine whether social support exerts protective effects.
METHODS
The sample was 2,510 mothers and 1,249 fathers from the Child Community Health Network study. Linear regression models were conducted to explore associations between maternal and paternal discrimination. In addition, mediation analyses were conducted to explore if social support functioned as a mediator between discrimination on parental stress and depressive symptoms.
RESULTS
Most mothers (40.3%) and fathers (50.7%) identified race as the predominant reason for discrimination. Experiencing discrimination was significantly related to stress and depressive symptoms for both parents, and all forms of social support mediated these relationships. Our findings suggest that social support can act as a protective factor against the negative association between discrimination and both stress and depressive symptoms.
CONCLUSIONS
These findings highlight the need to integrate social support into existing interventions and include fathers in mental health screenings in primary-care settings. Finally, we briefly describe the role of nurses and other allied health professionals in addressing discrimination in health care and health policy implications.
Journal Relational Child and Youth Care Practice
https://www.rcycp.com/
Children are primary service users in the context of child protection and have the right to share their views in all matters affecting them. In this qualitative study, we interviewed 11 children about their experiences with a trajectory in the Dutch child protection system (CPS). Our reflexive thematic analysis shows that such a trajectory strongly impacts children’s lives. During this trajectory, children want to be cared about, taken seriously and understood. According to them, professionals need to be really motivated and dedicated to help them, enabling them to go on with their (daily) life as much and as soon as possible. Furthermore, children need the opportunity to tell what they want to tell. They want clarity and honesty with professionals, and respect for (the bond with) their parents. Results could be validated against a robust, deductively developed counselling model. The paper concludes with implications for CPS workers.
Young children may experience trauma ranging from experiencing an accident to abuse and neglect. High rates of maltreatment have been associated with immediate and long-term impairments in mental and physical health. The deleterious impact of trauma on parents and their capacity to parent is recognized clinically, and inequities related to available support are evident. Research and clinical observations indicate the crucial need for caregiver support in families who have experienced trauma, which can improve parental mental health and capacity, leading to subsequent enhanced functioning in children.
Las experiencias de Eventos Estresantes de la Vida (SLEs, por sus siglas en inglés) durante la infancia se asocian con un mayor riesgo de psicopatología juvenil. Aunque los SLEs son reportados con mayor frecuencia por las familias latinas, las poblaciones latinas siguen estando ausentes ampliamente en la literatura sobre SLEs. Además, las poblaciones latinas enfrentan factores estresantes adicionales relacionados con el ambiente sociopolítico, la aculturación, y el racismo y la discriminación. El propósito de este estudio fue explorar la intersección entre los SLEs reportados por padres y los factores estresantes por aculturación (es decir, relacionados con el ambiente sociopolítico) para los jóvenes latinos. Se planteó la hipótesis de que una mayor frecuencia de SLEs reportados por cuidadores predice mayores síntomas depresivos en sus hijos 3 años después, y se planteó la hipótesis de que el estrés por aculturación amplifica estos efectos. La muestra de este estudio, reclutada por la comunidad, y de bajos ingresos, estuvo compuesta por 198 cuidadores latinos (98,5% madres, 77,3% nacidos en el extranjero) y sus hijos (Medad = 7,4 años; 47,5% mujeres). Las hipótesis del estudio se probaron utilizando MPlus. De acuerdo con la literatura anterior, se asoció un mayor número de SLEs reportados a los 7 años por los padres con un mayor número de síntomas depresivos reportados por niños a los 10 años, pero sólo entre los niños varones. Sin embargo, tanto para los niños como para las niñas, hubo una interacción considerable entre el estrés por aculturación y los SLEs de la familia. Específicamente, a medida que aumentaba la cantidad de estrés por aculturación reportada a la edad de 7 años, se aumentaba el impacto negativo de los SLEs de la familia en los síntomas depresivos reportados por niños a la edad de 10 años, independientemente del sexo. Sumándose a la literatura sobre SLEs en familias latinas, estos resultados indican que los factores estresantes por aculturación y por ambiente sociopolítico se deben tener en cuenta en las conversaciones sobre los efectos del estrés de la vida en los jóvenes latinos y sus familias.
Background: Race-related stress negatively impacts the mental health of Black Americans to a greater degree than other racialized groups. Additionally, trauma exposure is associated with more severe levels of posttraumatic stress disorder for individuals who also experience race-related stress. Therefore, an accurate assessment of race-related stress in a trauma-exposed sample of Black Americans is necessary to ensure the validity and reliability of empirical findings regarding race-related stress and intervention efficacy. The Index of Race-Related Stress (IRRS) is one of the most commonly used measures to assess race-related stress among Black Americans. Due to a lack of psychometric support for the abbreviated version of IRRS-brief (IRRS-B) on a trauma-exposed sample of Black Americans, our study aims to address this gap in literature. Method: We used item response theory (IRT) to assess item difficulty, discrimination, and factor structure in a sample of trauma-exposed Black Americans (n = 226). We employed a multidimensional graded response model with corresponding items loaded on to the three previously established factors of the IRRS. Results: The most discriminating items asked about observing harsh treatment of Black individuals, experiencing less courtesy in establishments, and being stared at as though you do not belong. The item with the lowest difficulty described negative media representation of Black individuals while the item with the highest difficulty described lack of positive media portrayals of Black Americans. Discussion: These results indicate that items varied considerably in the degree to which they adequately captured race-related stress. Future research should use IRT with newly worded questions to further improve the assessment of race-related stress in Black Americans.
G. S. Hall's (1904) view that adolescence is a period of heightened “storm and stress” is reconsidered in light of contemporary research. The author provides a brief history of the storm-and-stress view and examines 3 key aspects of this view: conflict with parents, mood disruptions, and risk behavior. In all 3 areas, evidence supports a modified storm-and-stress view that takes into account individual differences and cultural variations. Not all adolescents experience storm and stress, but storm and stress is more likely during adolescence than at other ages. Adolescent storm and stress tends to be lower in traditional cultures than in the West but may increase as globalization increases individualism. Similar issues apply to minority cultures in American society. Finally, although the general public is sometimes portrayed by scholars as having a stereotypical view of adolescent storm and stress, both scholars and the general public appear to support a modified storm-and-stress view.
This study examined whether Mexican-American parents' experiences with discrimination are related to adolescent psychological adjustment over time. The extent to which associations between parent discrimination and adolescent adjustment vary as a function of parents' ethnic socialization of their children was also examined. Participants included 344 high school students from Mexican or Mexican-American backgrounds (primarily second generation; ages 14-16 at Wave 1) and their primary caregivers who completed surveys in a 2-year longitudinal study. Results revealed that parent discrimination predicted internalizing symptoms and self-esteem among adolescents 1 year later. Additionally, adolescents were more likely to report low self-esteem in relation to parents' increased experiences of discrimination when parents conveyed ethnic socialization messages to them.
In this article, we attempt to distinguish between the properties of moderator and mediator variables at a number of levels. First, we seek to make theorists and researchers aware of the importance of not using the terms moderator and mediator interchangeably by carefully elaborating, both conceptually and strategically, the many ways in which moderators and mediators differ. We then go beyond this largely pedagogical function and delineate the conceptual and strategic implications of making use of such distinctions with regard to a wide range of phenomena, including control and stress, attitudes, and personality traits. We also provide a specific compendium of analytic procedures appropriate for making the most effective use of the moderator and mediator distinction, both separately and in terms of a broader causal system that includes both moderators and mediators. (46 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The association between experienced racial discrimination and poor health is now well documented, particularly among adult populations. However, longitudinal studies of the association between racism and child health are limited, and evidence on how racial discrimination experienced by members of children's immediate environment impact on child development, and the mechanisms by which this occurs, is scarce. We examined the longitudinal association between maternal, family, and area-level experiences of racial discrimination, and children's socioemotional development. We proposed that exposure to racial discrimination would be detrimental to children's socioemotional development via two mother-centred stress pathways: a worsening in maternal mental health, and an increase in harsh parenting practices. Data on ethnic minority mothers and their children were drawn from waves 3 to 5 (2006-2012) of the UK Millennium Cohort Study. Results of longitudinal path analyses show a strong association between maternal and family experiences of racial discrimination in wave 3, and a worsening in mother's mental health in wave 4. Maternal and family experiences of racial discrimination at wave 3 had an indirect effect on children's socioemotional development at wave 5. This occurred mainly via a worsening in mother's mental health, although some events of racial discrimination experienced by the mother and other family members also impacted negatively on children's socioemotional development via an increase in harsh parenting practices. We found a direct effect of maternal and family experiences of racial discrimination on children's socioemotional development. Our findings document the harm of growing up in a racist environment on the socioemotional development of children, and provide some evidence for the role of mother-centred stress mechanisms in linking vicarious exposure to racial discrimination to children's socioemotional development.
The relationship between racial discrimination, parental functioning, and child adjustment is not well understood. The goal of the present study was to assess parental reports of discrimination in relation to depression and parenting practices, as well as on subsequent child internalizing and externalizing problems in low-income Black families. Data include a subsample of the Early Steps project, a multisite longitudinal study of financial and behaviorally at-risk families. Structural equation modeling was used to analyze our hypothesized model. Excellent model fit was established after removing externalizing problems from the model. As predicted, indirect associations were found from discrimination to parental depression, parenting, and child internalizing problems; and direct associations were found from discrimination to child internalizing problems. The results are consistent with findings suggesting that discrimination is negatively associated with adult well-being; moreover, contribute to the sparse literature on the effects of discrimination beyond the direct recipient. Finally, that parent discrimination was directly associated with child emotional problems suggests the continued need to address and treat discriminatory practices more generally.
While studies investigating the health effects of racial discrimination for children and youth have examined a range of effect modifiers, to date, relationships between experiences of racial discrimination, student attitudes, and health outcomes remain unexplored. This study uniquely demonstrates the moderating effects of vicarious racism and motivated fairness on the association between direct experiences of racism and mental health outcomes, specifically depressive symptoms and loneliness, among primary and secondary school students. Across seven schools, 263 students (54.4 % female), ranging from 8 to 17 years old (M = 11.2, SD = 2.2) reported attitudes about other racial/ethnic groups and experiences of racism. Students from minority ethnic groups (determined by country of birth) reported higher levels of loneliness and more racist experiences relative to the majority group students. Students from the majority racial/ethnic group reported higher levels of loneliness and depressive symptoms if they had more friends from different racial/ethnic groups, whereas the number of friends from different groups had no effect on minority students' loneliness or depressive symptoms. Direct experiences of racism were robustly related to higher loneliness and depressive symptoms in multivariate regression models. However, the association with depressive symptoms was reduced to marginal significance when students reported low motivated fairness. Elaborating on the negative health effects of racism in primary and secondary school students provides an impetus for future research and the development of appropriate interventions.
Systematic reviews of healthcare interventions most often focus on randomized controlled trials (RCTs). However, certain circumstances warrant consideration of observational evidence, and such studies are increasingly being included as evidence in systematic reviews.
To illustrate the use of observational evidence, we present case examples of systematic reviews in which observational evidence was considered as well as case examples of individual observational studies, and how they demonstrate various strength of evidence domains in accordance with current Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) Evidence-based Practice Center (EPC) methods guidance.
In the presented examples, observational evidence is used when RCTs are infeasible or raise ethical concerns, lack generalizability, or provide insufficient data. Individual study case examples highlight how observational evidence may fulfill required strength of evidence domains, such as study limitations (reduced risk of selection, detection, performance, and attrition); directness; consistency; precision; and reporting bias (publication, selective outcome reporting, and selective analysis reporting), as well as additional domains of dose-response association, plausible confounding that would decrease the observed effect, and strength of association (magnitude of effect).
The cases highlighted in this paper demonstrate how observational studies may provide moderate to (rarely) high strength evidence in systematic reviews.
In this article, the authors develop a brief questionnaire that assesses racist discrimination in the lives ofAfricanAmericans, and conduct preliminary studies with it. The Schedule of Racist Events (SRE) is an 18-item self-report inventory that assesses the frequency of racist discrimination (specific, stressful racist events) in the past year (recent racist events) and in one's entire life (lifetime racist events), and measures the extent to which this discrimination was evaluated (appraised) as stressful (appraised racist events). Results revealed that the SRE has extremely high internal consistency and split-half reliability. Racist discrimination is rampant in the lives of African Americans and is strongly related to psychiatric symptoms and to cigarette smoking. These findings highlight the negative consequences of racismandprovide evidencefor the validity of the SRE as a measure of (culturally specific) stress.
Background
The Summit of Independent European Vaccination Experts (SIEVE) recommended in 2007 that efforts be made to improve healthcare workers’ knowledge and beliefs about vaccines, and their attitudes towards them, to increase vaccination coverage. The aim of the study was to compile and analyze the areas of disagreement in the existing evidence about the relationship between healthcare workers’ knowledge, beliefs and attitudes about vaccines and their intentions to vaccinate the populations they serve.
Methods
We conducted a systematic search in four electronic databases for studies published in any of seven different languages between February 1998 and June 2009. We included studies conducted in developed countries that used statistical methods to relate or associate the variables included in our research question. Two independent reviewers verified that the studies met the inclusion criteria, assessed the quality of the studies and extracted their relevant characteristics. The data were descriptively analyzed.
Results
Of the 2354 references identified in the initial search, 15 studies met the inclusion criteria. The diversity in the study designs and in the methods used to measure the variables made it impossible to integrate the results, and each study had to be assessed individually. All the studies found an association in the direction postulated by the SIEVE experts: among healthcare workers, higher awareness, beliefs that are more aligned with scientific evidence and more favorable attitudes toward vaccination were associated with greater intentions to vaccinate. All the studies included were cross-sectional; thus, no causal relationship between the variables was established.
Conclusion
The results suggest that interventions aimed at improving healthcare workers’ knowledge, beliefs and attitudes about vaccines should be encouraged, and their impact on vaccination coverage should be assessed.
Objective: Research suggests that exposure to racism partially explains why African American women are 2 to 3 times more likely to deliver low birth weight and preterm infants. However, the physiological pathways by which racism exerts these effects are unclear. This study examined how lifetime exposure to racism, in combination with maternal blood pressure changes during pregnancy, was associated with fetal growth. Methods: African American pregnant women (n = 39) reported exposure to childhood and adulthood racism in several life domains (e.g., at school, at work), which were experienced directly or indirectly, meaning vicariously experienced when someone close to them was treated unfairly. A research nurse measured maternal blood pressure at 18 to 20 and 30 to 32 weeks gestation. Standardized questionnaires and trained interviewers assessed maternal demographics. Neonatal length of gestation and birth weight data were collected from medical charts. Results: Childhood racism interacted with diastolic blood pressure to predict birth weight. Specifically, women with two or more domains of indirect exposure to racism in childhood and increases in diastolic blood pressure between 18 and 32 weeks had lower gestational age adjusted birth weight than the other women. A similar pattern was found for direct exposure to racism in childhood. Conclusions: Increases in diastolic blood pressure between the second and third trimesters predicted lower birth weight, but only when racism exposure in childhood (direct or indirect) was relatively high. Understanding pregnant African American women’s lifetime direct and indirect experiences with racism in combination with prenatal blood pressure may improve identification of highest risk subgroups within this population.
The present study examined the effect of caregivers' experiences of racial discrimination on their adolescent children's psychological functioning among a sample of 264 African American dyads. Potential relations between caregiver discrimination experiences and a number of indicators of adolescents' (aged 12-17) psychological functioning over time were examined. It was found that caregiver discrimination experiences were positively related to adolescents' symptoms of depression and negatively related to their psychological well-being. Additional analysis revealed interactions between the effects of caregiver discrimination experiences and family income on all 3 outcomes. Greater caregiver discrimination experiences and lower family income were risk factors for the youth in the sample. These findings underscore the deleterious consequence of caregivers' discrimination experiences on African American youth's psychological health.
Background
Racial/ethnic disparities in birth weight persist within the USA.
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to examine the association between maternal everyday discrimination and infant birth weight among young, urban women of color as well as mediators (depressive symptoms, pregnancy distress, and pregnancy symptoms) and moderators (age, race/ethnicity, and attributions of discrimination) of this association.
Methods
A total of 420 women participated (14–21 years old; 62 % Latina, 38 % Black), completing measures of everyday discrimination and moderators during their second trimester of pregnancy and mediators during their third trimester. Birth weight was primarily recorded from medical record review.
Results
Path analysis demonstrated that everyday discrimination was associated with lower birth weight. Depressive symptoms mediated this relationship, and no tested factors moderated this relationship.
Conclusions
Given the association between birth weight and health across the lifespan, it is critical to reduce discrimination directed at young, urban women of color so that all children can begin life with greater promise for health.
Recent studies show that racism may influence health inequities. As individuals grow from infancy into old age, they encounter social institutions that may create new exposures to racial bias. Yet, few studies have considered this idea fully. We suggest a framework that shows how racism and health inequities may be viewed from a life course perspective. It applies the ideas of age-patterned exposures, sensitive periods, linked lives, latency period, stress proliferation, historic period, and cohorts. It suggests an overarching idea that racism can structure one's time in asset-building contexts (e.g., education) or disadvantaged contexts (e.g., prison). This variation in time and exposure can contribute to racial inequities in life expectancy and other health outcomes across the life course and over generations.
Objective:
This study tested whether an immigrant mother's perception of ethnic and language-based discrimination affects the health of her child (indexed by the child's frequency of sick visits to the doctor, adjusting for well-visits), as a function of her ethnic-group attachment and length of U.S. residency.
Method:
A community-based sample of 98 immigrant Dominican and Mexican mothers of normally developing 14-month-old children were interviewed. Mothers reported their perceived ethnic and language-based discrimination, degree of ethnic-group attachment, length of time in the United States, and frequency of their child's doctor visits for both illness and routine (healthy) exams.
Results:
Among more recent immigrants, greater perceived ethnic and language-based discrimination were associated with more frequent sick-child visits, but only among those reporting low ethnic-group attachment. The associations between both forms of perceived discrimination and sick-child visits were not observed among mothers reporting high ethnic-group attachment. Among more established immigrants, perceived language-based discrimination was associated with more frequent sick-child visits regardless of ethnic-group attachment.
Conclusion:
These results suggest that a Latina mother's experience with ethnic and language-based discrimination is associated with her child's health, as indicated by doctor visits for illness, but that strong ethnic-group attachment may mitigate this association among recent immigrants.
Psychological science on pregnancy is advancing rapidly. A major focus concerns stress processes in pregnancy and effects on preterm birth and low birth weight. The current evidence points to pregnancy anxiety as a key risk factor in the etiology of preterm birth, and chronic stress and depression in the etiology of low birth weight. Key mediating processes to which these effects are attributed, that is neuroendocrine, inflammatory, and behavioral mechanisms, are examined briefly and research on coping with stress in pregnancy is examined. Evidence regarding social support and birth weight is also reviewed with attention to research gaps regarding mechanisms, partner relationships, and cultural influences. The neurodevelopmental consequences of prenatal stress are highlighted, and resilience resources among pregnant women are conceptualized. Finally, a multilevel theoretical approach for the study of pregnancy anxiety and preterm birth is presented to stimulate future research.
Although racism is increasingly acknowledged as a determinant of health, few studies have examined the relationship between racism, housing and child health outcomes.
Cross-sectional data from the Housing Improvement and Child Health study collected in ten remote indigenous communities in the Northern Territory, Australia were analysed using hierarchical logistic regression. Carer and householder self-reported racism was measured using a single item and child illness was measured using a carer report of common childhood illnesses. A range of confounders, moderators and mediators were considered, including socio-demographic and household composition, psychosocial measures for carers and householders, community environment, and health-related behaviour and hygienic state of environment.
Carer self-reported racism was significantly associated with child illness in this sample after adjusting for confounders (OR 1.65; 95% CI 1.09 to 2.48). Carer negative affect balance was identified as a significant mediator of this relationship. Householder self-reported racism was marginally significantly associated with child illness in this sample after adjusting for confounders (OR 1.43; 95% CI 0.94 to 2.18, p=0.09). Householder self-reported drug use was identified as a significant mediator of this relationship.
Consistent with evidence from adult populations and children from other ethnic minorities, this study found that vicarious racism is associated with poor health outcomes among an indigenous child population.
A child's sense of control over life and health outcomes as well as perceptions of the world as fair, equal, and just are significantly influenced by his or her social experiences and environment. Unfortunately, the social environment for many children of color includes personal and family experiences of racial discrimination that foster perceptions of powerlessness, inequality, and injustice. In turn, these perceptions may influence child health outcomes and disparities by affecting biological functioning (eg, cardiovascular and immune function) and the quality of the parent-child relationship and promoting psychological distress (eg, self-efficacy, depression, anger) that can be associated with risk-taking and unhealthy behaviors. In this article we review existing theoretical models and empirical studies of the impact of racial discrimination on the health and development of children of color in the United States. On the basis of this literature, a conceptual model of exposure to racial discrimination as a chronic stressor and a risk factor for poor health outcomes and child health disparities is presented.
Perceived discrimination has been studied with regard to its impact on several types of health effects. This meta-analysis provides a comprehensive account of the relationships between multiple forms of perceived discrimination and both mental and physical health outcomes. In addition, this meta-analysis examines potential mechanisms by which perceiving discrimination may affect health, including through psychological and physiological stress responses and health behaviors. Analysis of 134 samples suggests that when weighting each study's contribution by sample size, perceived discrimination has a significant negative effect on both mental and physical health. Perceived discrimination also produces significantly heightened stress responses and is related to participation in unhealthy and nonparticipation in healthy behaviors. These findings suggest potential pathways linking perceived discrimination to negative health outcomes.
The authors of this excellent text define social epidemiology as the epidemiologic study of the social distribution and social determinants of states of health, implying that the aim is to identify socio-environmental exposures which may be related to a broad range of physical and mental health outcomes. In the first systematic account of this field, they focus on methodological approaches but draw widely from related disciplines such as sociology, psychology, physiology, and medicine in the effort to develop and evaluate testable hypotheses about the pathways between social conditions and health. The persistent patterns of social inequalities in health make this a timely publication.
Measuring Stress is the definitive resource for health and social scientists interested in assessing stress in humans. With contributions from leading experts, this work provides for the first time a unified conceptual overview of the intricate relationship between stress and a variety of disorders. Its interdisciplinary approach to the selection of appropriate environmental, psychological, and biological measures includes comprehensive evaluations and practical advice regarding a wide range of measurement approaches. For environmental stress, techniques such as checklists and interviews that measure life event, daily event, and chronic stress are discussed. An analysis of psychological measurements includes methods for assessing stress appraisal and affective response. Neuroendocrine, cardiovascular, and immune measures are examined as important biological stress assessments. Contributors also uncover the conceptual underpinnings of each approach as well as the various costs and benefits of available assessment techniques. Reflecting the diversity of theoretical conceptions of stress, Measuring Stress masterfully provides integrative, incisive guidelines that will prove invaluable to students, clinicians, and researchers in health and social psychology, medicine, nursing, epidemiology, sociology, and psychiatry.
Filling a critical void in the literature, Race, Racism, and the Developing Child provides an important source of information for researchers, psychologists, and students on the recent advances in the unique developmental and social features of race and racism in children's lives. Thorough and accessible, this timely reference draws on an international collection of experts and scholars representing the breadth of perspectives, theoretical traditions, and empirical approaches in this field.
Stress, coping, and minority health: Biopsychosocial perspective on ethnic health disparities Current epidemiological evidence indicates a persistent disparity in health status, morbidity, and mortality among racial/ethnic minorities relative to Caucasians. Regardless of the health and social status criteria used, African Americans, Hispanics, Native Americans, and many South Pacific and Southeast Asian groups carry a disproportionate burden of morbidity and mortality and are overrepresented among those suffering from the greatest social disadvantage (Flack et al, 1995; National Center for Health Statistics [NCHS], 2000). The social imperative we face today is to identify those factors that contribute to or maintain these persistent health disparities and to design innovative interventions to close the gaps. Driven by the dual forces of immigration and a higher birth rate among racial/ethnic minorities, the U.S. population is projected to include a plurality of persons of color by the year 2025. If the current health trends continue unabated, ...
The synonymy of Blackness with criminality is not a new phenomenon in America. Documented historical accounts have shown how myths, stereotypes, and racist ideologies led to discriminatory policies and court rulings that fueled racial violence in the post-Reconstruction era and have culminated in the exponential increase of Black male incarceration today. Misconceptions and prejudices manufactured and disseminated through various channels such as the media included references to a “brute” image of Black males. In the 21st century, this negative imagery of Black males has frequently utilized the negative connotation of the terminology “thug.” In recent years, law enforcement agencies have unreasonably used deadly force on Black males allegedly considered to be “suspects” or “persons of interest.” The exploitation of these often-targeted victims’ criminal records, physical appearances, or misperceived attributes has been used to justify their unlawful deaths. Despite the connection between disproportionate criminality and Black masculinity, little research has been done on how unarmed Black male victims, particularly but not exclusively at the hands of law enforcement, have been posthumously criminalized. This article investigates the historical criminalization of Black males and its connection to contemporary unarmed victims of law enforcement. Action research methodology in the data collection process is utilized to interpret how Black male victims are portrayed by traditional mass media, particularly through the use of language, in ways that marginalize and devictimize these individuals. This study also aims to elucidate a contemporary understanding of race relations, racism, and the plight of the Black male in a 21-century “postracial” America.
In this article, the authors examine the role of vicarious racism in the experiences of doctoral students of color. The researchers conducted semi-structured individual interviews with 26 doctoral students who self-reported experiencing racism and racial trauma during their doctoral studies. The analysis generated four themes that detail the different ways in which doctoral students of color in the study experienced vicarious racism and the consequences of this secondhand racism. These themes are (a) observed racism, (b) trickledown racism, (c) normalization of racism, and (d) racial resistance. The article concludes with implications for future research and practice.
This study investigated Mexican immigrant parents' reports of perceived workplace discrimination and their children's behavior, parents' moods, and parent-child interactions. Parents of one hundred and thirty-eight 3- to 5-year-old children were asked to complete one survey daily for 2 weeks (N = 1,592 days). On days when fathers perceived discrimination, fathers and mothers reported more externalizing child behaviors, and mothers reported fewer positive child behaviors. When mothers perceived discrimination, they reported more externalizing child behaviors; fathers reported more internalizing child behaviors. Parents reported worse mood on days with perceived discrimination. Perceived discrimination was not strongly related to parent-child interactions. For fathers, but less so for mothers, those whose psychological acculturation indicated separation had more negative relations between daily perceived workplace discrimination and child and family outcomes.
© 2015 The Author. Child Development © 2015 Society for Research in Child Development, Inc.
In 1999, only 20 studies in the public health literature employed instruments to measure self-reported experiences of discrimination. Fifteen years later, the number of empirical investigations on discrimination and health easily exceeds 500, with these studies increasingly global in scope and focused on major types of discrimination variously involving race/ethnicity, indigenous status, immigrant status, gender, sexuality, disability, and age, separately and in combination. And yet, as I also document, even as the number of investigations has dramatically expanded, the scope remains narrow: studies remain focused primarily on interpersonal discrimination, and scant research investigates the health impacts of structural discrimination, a gap consonant with the limited epidemiologic research on political systems and population health. Accordingly, to help advance the state of the field, this updated review article: (a) briefly reviews definitions of discrimination, illustrated with examples from the United States; (b) discusses theoretical insights useful for conceptualizing how discrimination can become embodied and produce health inequities, including via distortion of scientific knowledge; (c) concisely summarizes extant evidence--both robust and inconsistent--linking discrimination and health; and (d) addresses several key methodological controversies and challenges, including the need for careful attention to domains, pathways, level, and spatiotemporal scale, in historical context.
To understand the way children develop, Bronfenbrenner believes that it is necessary to observe their behavior in natural settings, while they are interacting with familiar adults over prolonged periods of time. His book offers an important blueprint for constructing a new and ecologically valid psychology of development.
This study examined the interplay of parental racial-ethnic socialization and youth multidimensional cultural orientations to investigate how they indirectly and directly influence youth depressive symptoms and antisocial behaviors. Using data from the Korean American Families (KAF) Project (220 youths, 272 mothers, and 164 fathers, N = 656), this study tested the relationships concurrently, longitudinally, and accounting for earlier youth outcomes. The main findings include that racial-ethnic socialization is significantly associated with mainstream and ethnic cultural orientation among youth, which in turn influences depressive symptoms (but not antisocial behaviors). More specifically, parental racial-ethnic identity and pride discourage youth mainstream orientation, whereas cultural socialization in the family, as perceived by youth, increases ethnic orientation. These findings suggest a varying impact of racial-ethnic socialization on the multidimensional cultural orientations of youth. Korean language proficiency of youth was most notably predictive of a decrease in the number of depressive symptoms concurrently, longitudinally, and after controlling for previous levels of depressive symptoms. English language proficiency was also associated with a decrease in depressive symptoms, implying a benefit of bilingualism.
Among US racial/ethnic minority women, we examined associations between maternal experiences of racial discrimination and child growth in the first 3 years of life. We analyzed data from Project Viva, a pre-birth cohort study. We restricted analyses to 539 mother–infant pairs; 294 were Black, 127 Hispanic, 110 Asian and 8 from additional racial/ethnic groups. During pregnancy, mothers completed the Experiences of Discrimination survey that measured lifetime experiences of racial discrimination in diverse domains. We categorized responses as 0, 1–2 or ≥3 domains. Main outcomes were birth weight for gestational age z-score; weight for age (WFA) z-score at 6 months of age; and at 3 years of age, body mass index (BMI) z-score. In multivariable analyses, we adjusted for maternal race/ethnicity, nativity, education, age, pre-pregnancy BMI, household income and child sex and age. Among this cohort of mostly (58.2%) US-born and economically non-impoverished mothers, 33% reported 0 domains of discrimination, 33% reported discrimination in 1–2 domains and 35% reported discrimination in ≥3 domains. Compared with children whose mothers reported no discrimination, those whose mothers reported ≥3 domains had lower birth weight for gestational age z-score (β −0.25; 95% CI: −0.45, −0.04), lower 6 month WFA z-score (β −0.34; 95% CI: −0.65, −0.03) and lower 3-year BMI z-score (β −0.33; 95% CI: −0.66, 0.00). In conclusion, we found that among this cohort of US racial/ethnic minority women, mothers’ report of experiencing lifetime discrimination in ≥ 3 domains was associated with lower fetal growth, weight at 6 months and 3-year BMI among their offspring.
Research on the mental health correlates of discrimination traditionally has been intra-individual, focusing exclusively on the individual directly experiencing discrimination. A small number of studies have begun to consider the links between parental experiences of discrimination and child mental health, but little is known about potential underlying mechanisms. The present study tested the independent mediating effects of parent mental health and household socioeconomic status on the associations between parental experiences of discrimination (past-year perceived discrimination and perceptions of being unaccepted culturally) and child mental health (internalizing and externalizing symptoms) using a bootstrapping analytic approach. Data were drawn from racial/ethnic minority (n = 383) and White (n = 574) samples surveyed in an urban Midwestern county. For all measures of discrimination and child mental health, findings supported an association between parental experiences of discrimination and child mental health. Whereas parent mental health served as a significant mediator in all analyses, socioeconomic status did not. Mediation findings held for both the White and racial/ethnic minority samples. Results suggest that parental experiences of discrimination and mental health may contribute to child mental health concerns, thus highlighting the role of family contexts in shaping child development.
Racial discrimination is a chronic stressor in the lives of African Americans. Chronic stress can lead to individual mental and physical health problems, which subsequently can have deleterious effects on family life. The current study explored the effects of perceived discrimination on youth outcomes and examined the potential mediating role of maternal depression. Using data from 189 African American mothers with children aged 7–14 years, maternal perceived discrimination accounted for variance in reported child externalizing behaviors over and beyond that attributable to other stressful life events and socio-demographic variables. Also, maternal depressive symptoms mediated the effect of maternal perceived discrimination on child externalizing behaviors. These results are consistent with the view that mothers’ experience of greater discrimination leads to higher maternal depression which, in turn, leads to greater externalizing behavior among their children. The findings support the need for further exploration of macrosystemic effects that can influence African American youth externalizing behaviors. The results are discussed in terms of the need to include consideration of discrimination in preventive interventions aimed at increasing support systems available to African American mothers.