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Review Educ. Technol. Res., 39(1), 15-23, 2016
15
1. INTRODUCTION
Game-based learning and open education are
two areas of research that have attracted
attention in recent years in the research field of
educational technology, and are recognized as
important areas of research that will become
increasingly popular in the next few years (NMC
and Educause 2013).
Game-based learning includes the study of
educational uses for traditional games, the
development of games as educational materials,
simulation-based learning and gaming study, the
recent emergence of serious games, and the
gamification of education. Game-based learning is
not limited to those found in school education and
formal educational environments; important
secondary subjects in the research into
game-based learning include entertainment
education (Singhal et al 2004), incidental learning
induced during recreational activities, and informal
learning environments called “affinity spaces”
(Gee 2004) which are based on games and
entertainment. Game-based learning has been
increasingly recognized as one of the primary area
of research in educational technology in Japan, as
seen in the publication of an educational
technology anthology entitled “Games for
Education and Learning” (Fujimoto, Morita 2017)
released by the Japan Society for Educational
Technology.
Open education refers to any “practice” that
eliminates the various barriers to receiving
education and increases educational opportunities
by “opening up education to everybody.”
Practices associated with open education are
extensive, ranging from sharing educational
materials such as educational tools and video
lectures, to running open learning groups, to the
shared use of learning assessment tools (Brown et
al. 2008). Key practices include the development
of OER (Open Educational Resources) shared on
the Internet, the development of websites that
release open educational materials such as OCW
(OpenCourseWare), the establishment of a study
community using OER, and the introduction of
online education using OER such as MOOC
(Massive Open Online Course). Open education
must understand, on a theoretical and practical
level, the effect and significance of activities for
opening education, as exemplified in learning
assessment of open education, in connection with
society and higher education institutions. This
extends to the development of theories on the
significance and effect of educational openness,
regardless of academic fields and educational
targets.
2. STUDY OF TRENDS IN GAME-BASED LEARNING
Game-based learning includes not only digital
entertainment games, as is generally imagined, but
also learning that uses games in a wide variety of
The Research Trends in Game-Based Learning and Open
Education†
Tor u FUJIMOTO *1, Katsusuke SHIGETA*2 and Yuki FUKUYAMA *1
*The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-0033 Japan
*Hokkaido University, Kita 11 Nishi 5 Kita-ku, Sapporo-shi, Hokkaido, 060-0811 Japan
Received for publication, February 13, 2017
Game-based learning and open education are two areas of research that have attracted attention
in recent years within the global trend of educational technology research, recognized as important
subjects for study that will become increasingly popular in the next few years. This paper outlines
the research trends in both game-based learning and open education, and places them in the
perspective of multidisciplinary research, given the prospect of SIG’s “Game-based Learning and
Open Education” that was launched in 2014 by the Japan Society for Educational Technology.
Keywords: game-based learning, open education, gamification, OER, MOOC
T. F UJIMOTO, K. SHIGETA and Y. FUKUYAMA
16
ways. Many researchers offer a definition of a
game. For example, McGonigal (2011) points out
the four most fundamental elements of a game: (1)
goal, (2) rule, (3) feedback system, and (4)
voluntary participation.
Currently, research in this domain is not
sufficiently advanced in Japan. When considering
research trends overseas, however, it is clear that
this research domain has been steadily developing
over the past 10 years.
For example, when searching the ERIC (an
educational literature database) the number of
peer-reviewed papers concerning game-based
learning was approximately 5 times greater in 2012
than in 2002 (Fujimoto 2017). Advanced practices
in school education have also emerged, as
illustrated by the efforts of the school named
“Quest to Learn” to go beyond using games
merely as educational materials and to design the
entire educational curriculum applying game
design approach (Salen et al. 2009).
Fujimoto (2017) summarized the historical shifts
in education and learning that makes use of games
(Figure 1). The approach of using games in
education and learning has a long history, and
various efforts were established prior to the
diffusion of personal computers. These efforts are
seen in “gaming & simulation,” which focuses on
mimicry of games and rule-governed activities,
rather than the sense of entertainment that games
bring. They were also concerned with
“entertainment education,” which focuses on the
elements of fun involved in a game, developing
entertaining games for educational purposes or
using entertainment games in educational contexts.
The concept of “edutainment” that spread as
multi-media learning became popular comes under
this trend. In the 2000s, the concept of a “serious
game” was proposed as a generic term for
“development and use of a game to solve social
problems” including education (Fujimoto 2007).
This movement enabled to establish a common
research community by sharing common research
interests in the social use of games, primarily in
western countries.
2.1. Effects and challenges of game-based learning
The significance of applying game elements has
been investigated from various perspectives in
terms of educational methodology and the design
of learning environment, and from the perspective
of affinity with learning principles in particular. In
this vein, Steinkuehler & Squire (2014) discuss the
roles of a game in education and found 4 roles: (1)
providing content to learners, (2) assisting
learners to acquire useful cognitive skills and to
subconsciously prepare for the future learning, (3)
acting as a tool for learning assessment, and (4)
encouraging participation in activities.
The advantages and disadvantages of using
games as educational media and the barriers to its
adoption have also been studied by researchers
recently (Kropfer et al, 2008; Games and learning
org 2014, etc.). The advantages of games are as
follows: they inspire increased motivation for
learning; they make complicated problem solving
easier; they promote reflective learning; they
facilitate learning from trials and errors; and they
support learning while making mistakes in a safe
environment. The disadvantages, however, are as
follows: they tend to make learning unnecessarily
time-consuming; they make it hard for teachers to
take control of the class; and they are subject to
limitations in terms of available facilities (Table 1).
4 categories of barriers to game adoption in
educational environments have been suggested:
(1) “barriers at the time of adoption” refers to the
difficulty in conforming to the educational
curriculum, the presence of teachers and parents
who have negative impressions of games, and
limitations in course hours; (2) “barriers at the
time of design and development” refers to high
development costs, lack of experience in
developing games in collaboration with educational
‐1990s’
1990s’
2000s’
2010s’
Gamingand
Simulation
Entertainment
Education
Focusonmimic ryand
thesystemicaspect
Focusonelements
ofpleasure
Edutainment
SeriousGames
Gamification
Figure 1. Historical shift in game education and learnin
The Research Trends in Game-based Learning and Open Education 17
specialists, and the difficulty of practicing games
in educational environments; (3) “barriers against
sustenance” refers to users’ quickly changing
needs and the speed of technological progress; (4)
“barriers against innovation” refers to the
insufficient amount of available research data and
outdated educational philosophy.
2.2. Trends in game-based learning overseas
The main trends in game-based learning
overseas have been described in the SIG Reports
(Japan Society for Educational Technology SIG-05
2015, 2016) issued by the SIG “Game-Based
Learning and Open Education” in the Japan
Society for Educational Technology. According to
the reports, large-scale research projects were
conducted and research institutes for game-based
learning were established primarily in North
America and Europe. The research of game-based
learning contributes to policy decisions made by
education administrations. Furthermore, the
report describes on-going efforts to learn through
game development and to develop a school
curriculum applying game-based learning
(Fujimoto 2015).
Additionally, the reports suggest that the
following three advances have been made in recent
years: (1) progress in coordinated activities with
major companies, (2) progress in educational
assessment research, and (3) adoption of
gamification in ICT education (Fujimoto and
Shigeta 2016).
First, regarding “progress in coordinated
activities with major companies,” a growing
number of major game companies and educational
publishing companies have entered the
game-based learning industry and have conducted
activities in collaboration with university
researchers. Thus, it is argued that the current
situation goes against the prevailing belief that
major enterprises in the entertainment game
industry are not interested in developing learning
games (Prensky 2001).
For example, EA (one of the major game
company) has set up GlassLab (Glasslab, 2012) in
conjunction with such non-profit organizations as
Institute of Play and Educational Testing Service
(ETS). Microsoft has provided MineCraft for
educational purposes (Forey, 2016). There is a
growing tendency for major companies to enter
the game-based learning industry by offering
popular entertainment games in the educational
industry through industry-university cooperation.
Secondly, regarding “progress in educational
assessment research,” it is suggested that there is
a growing trend of applying educational
assessment into game-based learning (Fujimoto,
Yamada 2013). The “embedded assessment”
approach, incorporating the evidence-centered
design of the educational assessment method,
furthers the research by assessing learners’
actions during the game play, based on defined
educational assessment indices (Shute, 2011). It
has been considered that measuring efficacy of
game-based learning has allegedly been an issue
and where there has not been much progress; that
situation is now changing.
Lastly, regarding the “adoption of gamification
in ICT education,” the concept of
“gamification”—which refers to the application of
the game mechanics and game design methods to
development of products other than games—is
relevant to the mechanism of improving motivation
Table 1. Advantages and disadvantages of digital
game-based education
(Excerpts from Fujimoto 2017)
Advantage Disadvantage
Motivation ・Enhances
motivation in
learning
activities
・Easy for
students to
continue
efforts toward
mastery
・Reduces interest
in conventional
learning
・Tends to be
evaluated
against games
for
entertainment
Activity ・Prompts
understanding
of complex
concepts
・Encourages
reflective
learning
・Improves
learning via
feedback
・Easy to let
students focus
on important
subjects
・Winning in a
game can be
prioritized and
learning
neglected
・Makes it
difficult for
teachers to take
control of the
class
・Unnecessarily
time consuming
Environment ・Creates a
learning
environment
based on trial
and error
・Helps students
to learn in safe
environment
・Helps students
to practice
independently
・Subject to
limitations in
terms of
available
facilities
T. F UJIMOTO, K. SHIGETA and Y. FUKUYAMA
18
for learning and of providing continuous learning
support. This has widely popularized the approach
of incorporating gamification into the mechanism
of learning support in programming education.
Incorporating game elements is no longer seen as
innovative, and we can say that research has
moved on to the advanced phase in which the
individual learning support method has to be
established in order to improve the effect of the
game.
2.3. Research into game-based learning in the
Japan Society for Educational Technology
Nishiura (2017) surveyed 13 papers containing
the keyword “game” listed in the Journal of Japan
Society for Educational Technology between 2005
and 2013. The following section describes the
characteristics of these papers with reference to
Nishiura. In terms of paper format, the number of
short papers is higher with 9 such papers—most of
these are preliminary reports which mainly
describe game design in terms of learning
materials, such as card game development and
programming education, and which inform
outcomes of its educational usage.
The areas of research can be roughly classified
into three practical categories: (1) research into
card game development and its evaluation, (2)
research into programming education and its
assessment, (3) research into media utilization and
its assessment in course instruction.
There is a tendency to adopt relatively weak
controlled research programs based on quasi
experiment design and case study design, as the
kind of experimental design that reveals a causal
relation, by manipulating independent variables
and measuring dependent variables, which can be
presumed to give rise to situations far removed
from the ordinary learning environment.
Studies on analog games, such as card games,
tend to be accepted by education and practical
journals more often than studies on digital games.
For example, Ikejiri (2011) developed a
multi-player card game for education, which
utilizes historical causal relations as analogs of
problem solving, and measured its effect. It was
found that this educational material effectively
improved the ability to associate a historical event
with a contemporary event that has the same
properties as said historical event, and the ability
to analyze causal relations in contemporary
problems with reference to causal relations in
historical problems. Fukuyama and Nakahara
(2012) developed an educational game entitled
“Connect the World II,” which allows students to
experience social dilemmas and encourages
cooperative behavior. It was shown that the game,
by incorporating roles in a group, is more likely to
improve “trust” in social dilemma situations where
players cooperate to achieve a common goal,
compared to games that pursue only individual
goals.
With the progression of ICT technology in
recent years, an increasing number of games used
in educational environments can also be used for
high-level learning. Furthermore, the project of
deploying tablets in school classrooms has been
taken forward, and the environment for
game-based learning is currently being created.
Yet, there are currently only a few schools in
which educational games are used on a long-term
basis in Japan, and we cannot find evidence of any
practice that has become popular beyond the
aforementioned “adoption barriers.” Furthermore,
many researchers focus on programming education
or environment education in their research, and
research interests cannot be said to be as diverse
as overseas trends. We hope that diverse studies
on game-based learning will emerge, including
research into educational games and gamification
in education (which incorporates aspects of
educational games and elements of games), and
also that there will be increased opportunities for
taking advantage of knowledge offered by such
studies.
3. RESEARCH TRENDS IN OPEN EDUCATION
This chapter takes a brief look at research in
relation to open education and its trends both in
Japan and overseas. In addition, related studies in
open education, as listed in the SIG report, will be
introduced.
3.1. Research in open education
Overseas, multiple research groups and
companies have been vigorously studying the
utilization of OER (Open Educational Resources).
Babson Survey Research Group has continuously
surveyed the utilization of OER in higher
education. In 2014, a survey was conducted
regarding the level of awareness and utilization of
OER in the United States, and in 2015, a survey
was conducted concerning OER utilization in the
State University of North Dakota, which stressed
OER adoption (Allen and Seaman 2014 and
Spilovoy and SEeaman 2015). In these surveys,
approximately 35% of faculties were aware of the
The Research Trends in Game-based Learning and Open Education 19
existence of OER, and the greatest barrier for
adopting OER in lectures was reported to be the
time and energy spent to find and evaluate a
fit-for-purpose OER. It was also shown that
faculties evaluated the OER as not significantly
different in quality from the textbooks that had
hitherto been used.
In Japan, Ministry of Education, culture sports,
science and technology-Japan (MEXT) has
continually investigated the provision and
utilization of OER and MOOC (Massive Open
Online Course) in higher education institutions in
Japan (Kyoto University 2014).
3.2. Practical studies in open education
Practical studies related mainly to MOOC have
been actively pursued in Japan and overseas. One
such study is concerned with enhancing the rate of
MOOC completion. De Barba et al. (2016)
surveyed relationships between participation in
MOOC and motivation for participation, and
revealed that motivation for participation affects
actual participation, and that situational interests
play an important intermediary role in motivating
learning and participation, as shown in the
performance of participants. Evans et al. (2016)
analyzed factors that predict the continuation of
MOOC participation and course completion from
course data in Coursera. Malin (2015) reveals the
efficacy of using message boards for MOOC
participants in auto-ethnography. Due to the wide
variety of participants in MOOC, study assistance
that aligns with the characteristics and motivation
of participants is required. Studies for enhancing
learning outcomes of MOOC as an open
educational platform are considered to promote in
the future.
In addition, many studies have been
implemented that incorporate MOOC into blended
learning (Najafi et al. 2014, etc.). In Japan, studies
have been conducted into the educational effect
and reliability of mutual assessment on MOOC
platform (Watanabe et al. 2015, Ishii et al. 2016,
etc.).
3.3. Connection with higher education
Given the progress made in research into open
education, the outcomes of open education
activities such as OER and MOOC have been
incorporated into higher education, and an
increasing number of schools use it to reduce
educational costs and to improve student
outcomes.
With regard to OER, an increasing number of
schools have adopted open textbooks in the
United States. 38 community colleges in 13 states
collaborated and adopted open textbooks in order
to reduce educational costs (Achieving the dream
2016). Tidewater Community College uses open
textbooks called Z-degree to offer programs in
which students can take courses without paying
textbook fees (Tidewater Community College
2016). Cengage Learning predicts that the use of
OER as supplementary learning material will triple
over the next 5 years (Cengage Learning 2016). In
the future, OER will become increasingly
widespread in educational environments, in line
with the need to reduce costs and to open
opportunity of learning.
With regard to MOOC, an increasing number of
universities give credits using MOOC and
collaborate with other universities using MOOC.
The University of Leeds in England launched
course programs using Futurelearn (THE News
2016a) ．Delft University of Technology in the
Netherlands and universities in Australia and
Canada launched inter-university collaborative
academic programs using MOOC (THE News
2016b)．There are also cases in which MOOC is
used for pre-university education in Japan
(Docomo gacco, Osaka Sangyo University 2016)．
3.4. Connection with lifelong learning
Job placement using a certificate earned from
MOOC as evidence of students’ skills is also
popular. MOOC providers such as Udacity help
excellent students to find jobs in IT companies,
and deploy educational services such as Open
Education Alliance for training young workers, in
collaboration with IT companies. There is a
suggestion that tracking the history of online
learning and building a “blockchain,” which serves
as evidence of skills, allows us to visualize learning
outcomes (Komiyama 2016). Furthermore, open
education can contribute to not only helping
students find jobs, but also changing
methodologies of developing human resources and
creating learning communities suitable for
contemporary society (Shigeta 2016a). Open
education activities will henceforth continue to
bring changes in the domain of lifelong learning.
3.5. Utilization of learning data and its concerns
Because a huge amount of learning data can be
retrieved from MOOC, we anticipate the
development of research and educational services
to take advantage of this. MIT and Harvard
University anonymized learning data obtained from
T. F UJIMOTO, K. SHIGETA and Y. FUKUYAMA
20
edX, and then publicly released it (Dataverse
2014). A number of research groups emerged in
Japan and overseas that utilize learning data to
seek educational improvement. Although
utilization of learning data is expected to
contribute to educational research, ensuring
learners’ privacy is a huge challenge, for example
in terms of secure data protection and the risk of
combining data with other private information. We
hope that utilization of learning data will lead to
genuine educational improvement, without being
accused of being “education for research.”
3.6. Related studies published in the SIG report
The aforementioned SIG report (Japan Society
for Educational Technology SIG-05 2015, 2016),
in SIG’s “game-based learning and open
education” listed several existing survey studies
and discussions on the topic of open education,
which we will briefly look at here.
3.6.1. Analyzing the current adoption and purpose
of OER and MOOC in Japan
Shigeta (2016b) analyzed the current adoption
and purpose of offering OER and MOOC in higher
education, by comparing an exhaustive survey
conducted in higher education institutions across
the country in the 2015 tax year with the same
survey taken in the 2013 tax year. Results showed
that, although the degree of awareness of OER
had enhanced, less than 20% of institutions offered
OER, even among national universities and
technical colleges where the rate was highest. It
also showed that only approximately 10 % of
institutions were utilizing OER. MOOC offering
also increased from the previous survey. In terms
of the purpose of offering OER and MOOC, the
purpose of offering OER was to improve students’
learning environments and to extend their options,
while the purpose of MOOC was primarily related
to social contribution and PR.
Although awareness of OER has steadily
increased in Japan, the number of institutions that
offer OER and MOOC is limited. Moreover, an
analysis of survey outcomes showed that there is a
difference in the purpose of offering between OER
and MOOC: while OER is recognized as
contributing to improving learning environments
for self-instruction, MOOC is considered in the
realm of outreach activities, as evidenced by the
delivery of educational information and social
contribution.
3.6.2. Studies concerning OER research facilities in
foreign countries
Nagashima (2016) examined the principal
research facilities around the world that study
OER and its associated characteristics. In England,
there is a research base called “OER Hub” which
endeavors to verify the hypotheses regarding the
effect of OER. With the support of Open
University in England, it has carried out research
into various topics including OER, MOOC, open
textbooks, and open access, and also releases
research outcomes under an open license.
In the United States, there is a research base
called Open Education Group, which is driven by
researchers at Brigham Young University. They
conduct research using the COUP framework,
which places importance on four elements: Cost,
Outcomes, Usage, and Perceptions. Specifically,
they deploy OER, such as open textbooks in
university, and conduct a survey and an analysis,
focusing on the above four elements. The project
is partly funded by the Gates Foundation and the
Hewlett Foundation, and is one of the central
drivers for OER research in the United States.
As for studies on open education, the Babson
Survey Research Group founded in 2005 within
Babson College publishes the OER-related survey
report in the United States every 2 years. The
latest report published in 2016 surveys
perceptions of OER and its current adoption
across more than 3000 faculties and reports its
findings (Allen and Seaman, 2016).
3.6.3. Open education policy in EU
Shigeta and Watanabe (2015) revealed the
characteristics of open educational policy in EU in
comparison to those of United of States. The EU
committee released a policy entitled “Opening up
Education: Innovative teaching and learning for all
through new Technologies and Open Educational
Resources” in September 2013. This policy
focuses on the principal methods of open
education such as open educational resources
(OER), MOOC, open badges, etc. It also
announces its own unique direction, while bearing
in mind the efforts of the United States. Its three
main points are innovation, nurturing ICT skills,
and developing ICT environments.
Particular attention has been paid to improving
global competitiveness and alleviating
unemployment issues through the EU’s open
education policy, and it is thus strongly
characterized as an economic policy. Widening
access to education is often
The Research Trends in Game-based Learning and Open Education 21
positioned—particularly in the United States—as a
bold measure for reducing ever-increasing tuitions
and fees for course materials, and as a measure for
providing learning and education opportunities. In
the EU, attention is also paid to improving
equality in education, and they view the adoption
of ICT as a way to reduce educational costs and
contribute to equal opportunity. The EU
emphasizes bringing equal benefits of educational
sophistication to all people. In contrast to the
United States, in which a small number of
businesses as innovators transform education,
educational institutions within the EU regions
extensively seek the sophistication of education.
Its defining characteristic lies in situating open
education as a way of ensuring the sophistication
of learning and education, using ICT for that
purpose.
3.6.4. Elements of business model in MOOC
business
Kitamura (2015) considered the University of
Tokyo and Hokkaido University as case studies
for engaging in MOOC business: the two
institutions were compared according to a
framework of business model canvas, and the
author tried to extract and enumerate elements
considered a business model in order to discuss
business models in MOOC business.
The business model canvas—a framework
proposed by Osterwalder and others in 2010 to
represent business models—is used to discuss
business strategy and consultation, as well as to
develop entrepreneurs and management personnel.
The analysis showed that, although items in
client segment (CS) were common in both schools,
including potential clients, Hokkaido University
focused on faculties and students inside and
outside the university (collaborating with national
universities), while the University of Tokyo
focused on international students and overseas
students in general. This is because the benefit
sought in the MOOC business differs between
Hokkaido University and the University of Tokyo:
the former seeks local contribution through
collaboration of university education via distance
learning and flipped classrooms, while the latter
seeks to improve international brand power and to
acquire excellent international students. Thus, the
benefit sought is one that corresponds to their
unique value propositions. The approach of this
analysis will serve as the basis for discussing
MOOC business models.
4. THE PROSPECT OF SYNERGIZED RESEARCH
INTO GAME-BASED LEARNING AND OPEN
EDUCATION
Thus far, this paper has outlined research
trends in both game-based learning and open
education, examining what kind of research has
been carried out in these fields.
Both of these fields have advanced rapidly in
recent years overseas, while research in Japan has
not advanced to the same extent. The SIG of the
Japan Society for Educational Technology has
therefore taken the lead in encouraging
researchers in game-based learning and open
education to cooperate with each other, aiming to
develop a community that can report excellent
research outcomes domestically and
internationally.
SIG activities include distributing information on
research trends, as demonstrated in this article,
and examining novel multidisciplinary research
subjects. Interesting research subjects have been
discussed including the following: the development
of continuous learning support tools that
incorporate elements of a game in online learning
environment using OER; the application of
learning assessment methods developed in each
field; and the study of enhancing motivation for
learning, which incorporates the game design
approach in learning environments, such as
MOOC for a large number of participants. A
problem that may not be visible from the
perspective of a certain field can become apparent
when seen from the perspective of another field.
The former reveals the research significance and
research direction of the latter, which can lead to
a mutually beneficial study. In the future, we
would like to develop such multidisciplinary
studies and distribute many high quality findings.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We would like to express our gratitude to those
who participated in the activities of SIG-05
game-based learning and open education, and
especially to contributors to the SIG report.
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