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Original Article
Emerging Adulthood Features and
Adjustment: A Person-Centered Approach
Joe
¨lle Lanctot
1
and Franc¸ois Poulin
1
Abstract
A person-centered approach applied to the Inventory of Dimensions of Emerging Adulthood (IDEA) would provide a holistic
outlook on this developmental period. This study aimed to (1) determine the presence of distinct profiles based on the IDEA
scales and (2) compare these profiles with regard to sociodemographic indicators, internalizing problems, and problematic alcohol
use. Participants (N¼307; mean age ¼21) filled out the IDEA and questionnaires assessing internalizing problems and pro-
blematic alcohol use. Four profiles were identified: stalled transition (5%), moderate transition (43%), positive transition (35%), and
transitional time (17%). Individuals in the transitional time profile reported higher internalizing problems and higher problematic
alcohol use than youths assigned to the other profiles. These results suggest that applying a person-centered approach to the
IDEA allows for the identification of distinct profiles with regard to the features of emerging adulthood and reported adjustment
issues.
Keywords
emerging adulthood, internalizing problems, person-centered approach, alcohol use
Internalizing problems and problematic alcohol use are fre-
quently observed in emerging adulthood (Auerbach & Collins,
2006; Hunt & Eisenberg, 2010; Muthen & Muthen, 2000;
Rohde, Lewinsohn, Klein, Seeley, & Gau 2013). Such adjust-
ment problems may be related to the typical features (identity
issues) pertaining to this developmental period and
the concerns of emerging adults. Arnett (2004) identified the
key dimensions or features of emerging adulthood: identity
exploration,experimentation/possibilities,negativity/instability,
self-focus,andfeeling in-between. A sixth feature, other-focus,
was added later in contrast to the self-focus feature (Reifman,
Arnett & Colwell, 2007). Recent studies have reported asso-
ciations between some of these features and internalizing
problems and problematic alcohol use (e.g., Luyckx, De Witte
& Goossens, 2011; Smith, Bahar, Cleeland, & Davis, 2014).
However, a person-centered approach encompassing these six
features would provide a more comprehensive understanding
of how emerging adulthood is experienced and of the issues
that may be associated with this transition. The current study
subscribes to this approach and will attempt to identify profiles
of emerging adults with respect to these six features. These pro-
files will then be compared with regard to the sociodemographic
indicators typical of the transition to adulthood as well as to
internalizing problems and problematic alcohol use.
The Concept of Emerging Adulthood
Emerging adulthood is a developmental stage situated between
late adolescence and adulthood, spanning the approximate ages
of 18–29 (Arnett, 2000). It is considered a distinctive develop-
mental period stemming from demographic changes that have
recently taken place in industrialized countries, where the
sociocultural context has made such changes possible. For
instance, the opportunity to pursue higher education delays the
need to take on traditional responsibilities and social roles (i.e.,
residential independence, involvement in a committed roman-
tic relationship, parenthood, and employment stability). These
demographic, cultural, and economic changes postpone the
urgency to undertake decisions impacting the course of adult
life and offer a context fostering personal development (Arnett,
2007). Emerging adults thus face multiple options and potential
pathways, while enjoying a newly acquired freedom. While
some youths see this transition as an opportunity to try out new
options and focus on self-improvement, others experience this
newly acquired abundance of possibilities and the rather sud-
den absence of structure and stability as a source of uncertainty
and anxiety (Arnett, 2004, 2005; Reifman et al., 2007). Some
individuals are therefore more likely to experience adjustment
1
De
´partement de psychologie, Universite
´du Que
´bec a
`Montre
´al, Montre
´al,
Que
´bec, Canada
Corresponding Author:
Franc¸ois Poulin, PhD, De
´partement de psychologie, Universite
´du Que
´bec a
`
Montre
´al, Case postale 8888, Succursale Centre-Ville, Montre
´al, Que
´bec,
Canada H3C 3P8.
Email: poulin.francois@uqam.ca
Emerging Adulthood
1-13
ª2017 Society for the
Study of Emerging Adulthood
and SAGE Publishing
Reprints and permission:
sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/2167696817706024
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issues (i.e., confusion, feeling overwhelmed) when transition-
ing into adulthood.
Arnett (2004) identified the key features of emerging adult-
hood. Identity exploration refers to the exploration of potential
identities in different contexts (e.g., educational, work related,
interpersonal, and romantic). Individuals are engaged in a
search for their life path, trying out various roles, and eventu-
ally clarifying their goals. Experimentation/possibilities refers
to the idea that emerging adults typically consider life opportu-
nities optimistically. Given the absence of major romantic,
family, or work-related commitments, all potential options can
be considered and individuals go through this period with a
sense of confidence that they will somehow achieve their goals.
Emerging adulthood is also a time of feeling in-between stages.
Indeed, most emerging adults feel that they have grown beyond
adolescence without having truly reached adulthood. This can
be explained by the fact that emerging adults tend to define
adulthood in terms of a given set of criteria (e.g., taking full
responsibility for one’s actions, financial autonomy), which
they typically do not meet before reaching their late 20s. The
negativity/instability feature refers to the unstable context in
which emerging adults often find themselves. The changes
experienced in education, work, and romance can make this
period an exciting time for some, while representing a struggle
for others (Atwood & Scholtz, 2008; Robbins & Wilner, 2001).
Indeed, high levels of instability and unpredictability can make
the transition to adulthood more challenging and stressful. The
self-focus feature describes the typical orientation toward the
self during this period. Emerging adults are less influenced
by the authority figures in their lives, while not yet having to
take on the responsibilities and social roles pertaining to adult-
hood. They are free to make their own decisions without having
to take account of any third parties (e.g., romantic partner/
child). A sixth feature, called other-focus (in contrast to self-
focus), was subsequently added to this list (Reifman et al.,
2007). Emerging adults who identify with this feature are con-
sidered to be at a stage where they feel they have great respon-
sibility toward others.
To measure these features, Reifman, Arnett, and Colwell
(2007) developed the Inventory of Dimensions of Emerging
Adulthood (IDEA). Youths who score higher on some or all
of the six aforementioned features of emerging adulthood are
considered to be going through a transition period marked by
the typical features of emerging adulthood. The IDEA has
reportedly been used in over 50 studies worldwide (e.g., Arias
& Hernandez, 2007; Negru, 2012; Sirsch, Dreher, Mayr, &
Willinger, 2009). These studies share similar results regarding
the way youths experience the emerging adulthood stage, per-
haps cultural variation in the perception of emerging adulthood
is also reported (Crocetti et al., 2015).
Adjustment Issues in Emerging Adulthood
Some youths are less well equipped or less proficient at man-
aging the external stressors pertaining to emerging adulthood
and may be more likely to experience negative emotions,
discomfort, and chronic anxiety (Arnett, 2004). Indeed, psy-
chological health remains an important concern in emerging
adulthood (Blanco et al., 2008; Schulenberg, Bryant, &
O’Malley, 2004). In fact, psychiatric disorders are more com-
mon in the emerging adulthood population than in any other
adult group (Tanner, 2011). Many studies have shown that,
although most individuals manage to successfully navigate
the changes and challenges associated with the postadolescent
years, this is not an easy task for all, as some individuals
struggle to avoid risky pathways and to deal with the instabil-
ity that is typical of this period (Nelson & Padilla-Walker,
2013). Individuals who tend to flounder during the emerging
adulthood period report high levels of depressive symptoms
and anxiety as well as substance use disorders (Reinherz, Gia-
conia, Hauf, Wasserman, & Silverman, 1999; Rohde et al.,
2013; Schulenberg & Zarrett, 2006). According to previous
studies, internalizing problems in emerging adulthood tend
to gradually decrease during the late 20s (Galambos, Barker
& Krahn, 2006; Merikangas et al., 2003). Moreover, alcohol
use reaches an all-time peak in youths aged 18–25 years—
which makes this age-group the most at risk for developing
substance use disorders (Auerbach & Collins, 2006; Kong
& Bergman, 2010).
Recently, researchers began to examine the links between
such adjustment issues and the features of emerging adulthood
captured by the IDEA. For instance, identity exploration is
positively associated with life satisfaction (Negru, 2012),
quality of life (Huismann et al., 2012), and self-esteem (Skull-
borstad, Hayley & Hermann, 2016) and negatively associated
with substance use (Allem, Lisha, Soto, Baezconde-Garbanati,
& Unger, 2013). However, other studies have reported an asso-
ciation with low psychological well-being (Baggio, Studer,
Iglesias, Daeppen, & Gmel, 2016). Negativity/instability is
positively associated with depressive symptoms (Luyckx
et al, 2011) and substance use (Smith et al., 2014) and nega-
tively associated with life satisfaction (Reifman et al., 2007),
self-esteem (Luyckx et al., 2011; Skulborstad & Hermann,
2016), and psychological well-being (Baggio et al., 2016).
Experimentation/possibilities is positively associated with sub-
stance use (Hill, Lalji, van Rossum, van der Geest, & Blokland,
2015; Lisha et al., 2014; Little et al., 2013), binge drinking
(Allem et al., 2013), and sensation seeking (Hill et al., 2015).
However, people who see emerging adulthood as a time of
experimentation/possibilities also report higher psychological
and social well-being (Baggio et al., 2016), life satisfaction
(Hill et al., 2015), and self-esteem (Skullborstad et al., 2016).
Feeling in-between is positively associated with substance use
(Smith et al., 2014). Self-focus is positively associated with
locus of control (Hill et al., 2015), while other-focus appears
to be negatively related to marijuana use, binge drinking
(Allem et al., 2013), and psychopathy (Barlett, 2016). It also
appears that youths who strongly identify with the other-focus
feature tend to consider themselves as adults and have thus
moved further along in the transition to adulthood. In sum, sev-
eral studies documented that features of emerging adulthood
are associated with adjustment issues.
2Emerging Adulthood XX(X)
The studies reviewed above were based on a variable-
centered approach that provided a global picture of the rela-
tions between each IDEA feature and some adjustment issues
experienced by emerging adults. In contrast to the variable-
oriented approach, which investigates the normative paths in
a population group, the person-centered approach captures the
uniqueness of individuals’ experiences by creating distinct pro-
file groups (von Eye & Bogat, 2006). A person-centered
approach encompassing all the features of the IDEA could thus
help portray the diversity within an emerging adult population
by defining distinct subgroups of individuals. Using the person-
centered approach could thus provide a more comprehensive
understanding of how this transition period may be experienced
and the adjustment issues that may be associated with it.
Tagliabue, Crocetti, and Lanz (2016) recently conducted a
study involving 1,513 youths aged 19–30 in which a person-
centered approach was applied to the IDEA. The authors per-
formed a cluster analysis, submitting the scores obtained on the
original five features of the IDEA (the other-focus dimension
was not included). Six profiles emerged. These profiles cap-
tured distinct trends regarding the subjective experience of this
transition period. The negative feelings profile (12%of the
sample) consisted of youths characterized by higher levels of
instability. The positive transition profile (19%) comprised
individuals whose transition patterns were characterized by
weak instability levels. The self-focus profile (14%) included
emerging adults with the lowest level of identity exploration
as well as feeling in between, combined with high levels of
self-focus. People in the stall profile (15%) were characterized
by low levels in every dimension defined by Arnett (2004),
while people in the transitional time profile (24%) were char-
acterized by high levels in every dimensions, although the
self-focus dimension was at a medium rate. Finally, people in
the lack of possibilities profile (17%) had the lowest level of
possibilities, medium level of instability, and high levels in
every other dimensions.
These results highlight the heterogeneity of this population
with regard to the extent to which the emerging adulthood fea-
tures were deemed to describe their experience and confirm
that distinct subgroups of individuals can be identified using
the IDEA. However, this investigation of profiles of emerging
adults should be further pursued for at least three reasons. First,
these profiles should be replicated using a slightly different
methodology. For instance, a complete version of the IDEA
(i.e., including the other-focus dimension) should be used in
order to draw a more comprehensive picture of emerging
adults’ experiences. Also, restricting the assessment to emer-
ging adults of the same age would help isolate individual differ-
ences from an age effect. Moreover, interviewing emerging
adults in a different national context would support the general-
ization of these profiles. Second, it remains unknown whether
these profiles differ with regard to well-known demographic
markers of the transition to adulthood. According to Arnett
(2014), emerging adulthood is defined primarily by its demo-
graphic outline. Variations in socioeconomic status and life
events determine how a young individual may experience this
transition (Arnett, 2007). For example, being out of school and
having a family to care for with a low-paying job are circum-
stances that can curb the self-focus feature. Thus, an observed
delay in taking on the social roles and responsibilities pertain-
ing to adulthood is likely to be associated with the features of
emerging adulthood as measured by the IDEA. Third, and most
importantly, the potential associations between these profiles
and the adjustment issues characterizing this transition period
(e.g., internalizing problems and problematic alcohol use) also
remain unknown.
The Current Study
The current study had three aims. The first aim was to identify
distinct profiles of individuals with regard to the importance
assigned to the six features of emerging adulthood among a
sample of 21-year-old youths. We hypothesized that this study
would identify profiles that were quite analogous to those
found by Tagliabue et al. (2016), while some methodological
differences in this study (e.g., inclusion of the other-focus fea-
ture, participants exclusively aged 21, different national con-
text) were likely to bring out some contrasts. For example, it
was possible that the addition of the other-focus dimension
would allow for the identification of a profile in which individ-
uals had moved further along in the transition to adulthood,
being less focused on themselves, and bearing greater respon-
sibility for others. Also, because our sample was exclusively
composed of 21-year-old youths (middle of emerging adult-
hood), most participants were expected to identify with several
features of the IDEA.
The second aim of the study was to examine whether the
observed profiles could be differentiated with regard to a num-
ber of sociodemographic indicators pertaining to the transition
to adulthood (e.g., educational attainment, financial autonomy,
residential independence, involvement in a romantic relation-
ship, and parenthood). We hypothesized that the profiles dis-
playing high scores for the transitional features measured by
the IDEA would be more likely to include individuals who
found themselves in a life context marked by instability and/
or who had not yet taken on the typical roles of adulthood.
The third aim of this study was to investigate whether the
observed profiles could be differentiated with regard to interna-
lizing problems and problematic alcohol use. Of the types of
internalizing problems likely to affect emerging adults, three
were considered here, namely, depressive symptoms, anxiety
symptoms, and low self-esteem. Problematic alcohol use was
operationalized in terms of three dimensions: intoxication,
addiction, and adverse consequences of alcohol use. Based
on the literature on the relationship between adjustment issues
and the features of the IDEA reviewed earlier, we hypothesized
that youths in the profiles displaying high scores for the nega-
tivity/instability,experimentation/possibilities, and feeling in-
between features would be characterized by more internalizing
problems and more problematic alcohol use. Finally, we
hypothesized that youths in the profiles displaying high scores
Lanctot and Poulin 3
for the identity exploration feature would be characterized by
more internalizing problems but no problematic use of alcohol.
Method
Participants
Participants were drawn from a longitudinal study that had
been ongoing since 2001. This research project initially aggre-
gated 390 sixth-grade students (58%females) from eight dif-
ferent schools in a large school board in the Montreal area.
Most were Caucasian (90%), French-speaking, and from fam-
ilies with a gross family income of over Can$50,000 (68%)
in 2001. These participants then took part in a longitudinal
follow-up study. The data used for the purposes of the current
study were collected in 2010, when the participants were aged
21. Over the course of this longitudinal study, we lost track of
some participants who had moved away, while others decided
to withdraw from the study. At age 21, 330 participants were
contacted and solicited to be part of this data collection. Of
these, 307 agreed to participate (61%females) and filled out
the self-report questionnaires (80%of the initial sample).
Based on the sociodemographic data collected at age 12, the
retained participants (N¼307) were more likely to be female
(p< .05) and to come from intact families (p< .01) compared to
the rest of the sample (N¼83). The 307 participants’ sociode-
mographic variables at age 21 are reported in Table 1.
Procedure
Most questionnaires were administered at home by trained
research assistants, although approximately 10%of the ques-
tionnaires were mailed out. All the data were collected within
a period of approximately 5 weeks during the spring. Willing
participants received a Can$25 financial compensation for their
time.
Measures
Features of emerging adulthood. A French version of the 31-item
IDEA (Reifman et al., 2007), capturing the features of emer-
ging adulthood, was used. Participants were asked to think
about this time in their lives, roughly referring to a 5-year
period with the present time being right in the middle. They
then had to specify the extent to which the items described this
time in their lives on a 4-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1
(strongly disagree)to4(strongly agree). The IDEA includes
six scales: identity exploration (7 items; a¼.85; sample
item ¼“Is this period in your life a time of finding out who you
are?”), experimentation/possibilities (5 items; a¼.83; sample
item ¼“Is this period in your life a time of many possi-
bilities?”), feeling in-between (3 items; a¼.80; sample
item ¼“Is this period in your life a time of feeling adult in
some ways but not others?”), negativity/instability (7 items;
a¼.82; sample item ¼“Is this period in your life a time of
confusion?”), self-focus (6 items; a¼.70; sample item ¼“Is
this period in your life a time of personal freedom?”), and
other-focus (3 items; a¼.73; sample item ¼“Is this period
in your life a time of settling down?”). The back translation
method from English to French and back to English was used
(Vallerand, 1989). A global score for each feature was obtained
by computing the mean score for all the items belonging to
the particular feature. Higher scores for a given feature are
considered to indicate a stronger identification with this partic-
ular feature.
Depressive symptoms. Depressive symptoms were measured
using the French version of the Center for Epidemiologic Stud-
ies Depression Scale (Radloff, 1977) translated by Furher and
Rouillon (1989). Participants were asked to indicate how often
they had displayed specific behaviors, specific thoughts, or
experienced specific feelings over the previous week. This
instrument comprises 20 items. Sample items include “I felt
that everything I did was an effort,” “I was happy,” and “I felt
sad.” Responses were coded on a 4-point Likert-type scale
ranging from 0 (rarely or never, 0–1 day) to 3 (most of the time,
over the last 5–7 days). A global score was obtained by com-
puting the mean scores for each item. Higher scores indicate
higher levels of depressive symptoms. The internal consistency
was excellent (a¼.90).
Social anxiety. Participants filled out the Social Anxiety Scale
developed by La Greca and Lopez (1998) translated in French
for the purpose of this study using the method from English to
French and back to English (Vallerand, 1989). They were asked
to indicate how often they experienced each of the 18 items on
a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 0 (never)to5
(always). Sample items include “I only talk to people I know
really well,” “I worry about what others think of me,” and “I
Table 1. Participants’ (N¼307) Sociodemographic Variables at
Age 21.
Variables Percentage n
Gender Women 58.2 187
Men 41.8 120
Living in parents’
home
Yes 72.9 220
No 27.1 83
Having children Yes 4.9 15
No 95.1 289
Romantic
relationship
Yes 60.0 184
No 40.0 123
Annual income Can$5,999 or less 12.1 37
Can$6,000–$11,999 27.1 82
Can$12,000–$17,999 24.5 75
Can$18,000–$23,999 14.0 43
Can$24,000–$29,999 10.8 33
Can$30,000–$39,999 7.5 22
Over Can$40,000 4.0 9
Educational
attainment
No high school diploma 14.7 41
High school diploma 30.9 97
Current college attendance 20.3 63
College diploma 8.1 25
Current university
attendance
25.9 80
4Emerging Adulthood XX(X)
get nervous when I’m around certain people.” A global score
was obtained by averaging the scores for each item. Higher
scores reflect higher levels of social anxiety. The internal con-
sistency was excellent (a¼.91).
Self-esteem. Participants filled out the Rosenberg Self-Esteem
Scale (Rosenberg, 1965), French translation by Vallieres and
Vallerand (1990). They were asked to specify the extent to
which they agreed with each of the 10 items on a 4-point
Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree)to4
(strongly agree). Sample items include “I feel that I have a
number of good qualities,” “I feel I do not have much to be
proud of,” and “I certainly feel useless at times.” A global score
was obtained by averaging the scores for each item. The inter-
nal consistency for this sample was very good (a¼.86). This
instrument is considered to be valid for capturing individuals’
level of self-esteem ( Gotlib, Lewinsohn, Seeley, Rohde, &
Redner, 1993; Uys et al., 2009).
Problematic alcohol use. Poulin and Denault’s (2012) question-
naire was used to measure problematic alcohol use. Partici-
pants were asked to specify whether (yes/no) they had
experienced each of the 19 items in the questionnaire. Items
captured intoxication, addiction, and adverse consequences of
alcohol use. Sample items include “Have you ever been drunk
in a public place?” “Have you ever fainted following alcohol
use?” and “Have you ever unsuccessfully attempted to stop
drinking alcohol?” Positive (yes) responses were summed up
to obtain a global score (a¼.88). Higher scores reflect higher
problematic alcohol use.
Sociodemographic variables. Participants were asked to specify
both their gender and ethnicity. Educational attainment was cap-
tured using a scale ranging from no high school diploma to uni-
versity attendance. Gross income was measured on a scale
ranging from Can$2,000 or less to over Can$100,000. Financial
independence was measured by averaging 3 items (“To what
extent are you responsible for the following?: “Earning a living,”
“Paying the bills (other than rent),” and “Managing your
finances”; a¼.67) rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging
from 1 (not at all)to5(entirely). Finally, participants were asked
to specify whether (yes/no) they were still living in their parents’
home, whether (yes/no) they were involved in a romantic rela-
tionship, and whether (yes/no) they had children.
Data analysis strategy. Analyses were conducted in two steps.
First, the scores obtained on the six subscales of the IDEA were
submitted to a latent profile analysis, allowing us to identify
homogenous subgroups of individuals sharing a similar experi-
ence of the emerging adulthood period. The following statisti-
cal indices were used to choose the best fitting model with
regard to the number of profiles within the sample: the log like-
lihood (LL), the Bayesian information criterion (BIC), the
sample-size adjusted Bayesian information criterion (SSA-
BIC), the Akaike information criterion (AIC), the Lo–Men-
dell–Rubin likelihood ratio test (LMR-LRT), and the bootstrap
likelihood ratio test. Furthermore, the entropy was used to
assess the overall quality of the final classification. The closer
to 1, the better the classification. Second, the profiles were con-
trasted with regard to sociodemographic variables, internaliz-
ing problems, and problematic alcohol use by performing
Analysis of variances (ANOVAs) (with Tukey’s post hoc
tests), except for the categorical variables, with regard to which
the profiles were contrasted by conducting w
2
tests. Correla-
tions among the study variables and descriptive statistics are
presented in Table 2.
Results
Latent Profile Analyses
The fit indices for the estimated models involving two to six
profiles are displayed in Table 3. The LL values revealed that
the model fit tended to drop when assessing the two- and three-
profile models and to gradually rise when assessing the four- to
six-profile models. The BIC, SSA-BIC, and AIC values for the
four- to six-profile models were also lower, pointing to a better
fit for these models. Higher posterior probabilities of belonging
indicated a better categorization for the four-profile model. The
LMR-LRT was used to determine the fit between two models
that differed by one profile. In this test, significant pvalues
indicated that the models involving five and six profiles were
not significant. Furthermore, the four-profile model appeared
to be the most parsimonious; although the number of profiles
was lower, this model captured the same results as the six-
profile model and each profile included at least 5%of the sam-
ple. With regard to theoretical meaningfulness (Milligan &
Cooper, 1985), the four-profile model proved to be the most
accurate, while lending itself to extensive interpretation.
Lastly, the entropy for the four-profile model was adequate.
Overall, when balancing the fit indices, parsimony criterion,
and theoretical meaningfulness, the four-profile model
appeared to be the best model in terms of satisfactorily describ-
ing the data patterns while also generating qualitatively differ-
ent profiles.
The four profiles are described in Table 4 and presented in
Figure 1. Profile 1 comprises 5%(n¼15) of the sample and
includes participants with low scores for all the features of
emerging adulthood. When possible, we chose labels that were
similar to those used by Tagliabue et al. (2016). Given that a
similar profile was found in their study, the qualifier stalled
transition will be used to refer to this first profile. Profile 2
comprises 43%(n¼134) of the sample and includes partici-
pants with moderate scores for all the features of emerging
adulthood. Accordingly, this profile will be referred to as the
moderate transition profile. Profile 3 comprises 35%(n¼
107) of the sample and includes youths who obtained the high-
est scores for all the features of emerging adulthood. Since one
of the profiles obtained by Tagliabue et al. showed similar
characteristics, that is, a high score for almost all the features
(with the exception of the self-focus feature), we will refer to
this third profile as the transitional time profile. Finally, Profile
Lanctot and Poulin 5
Table 2. Descriptive Data and Correlations for the Study Variables.
Study Variables 1 2345678910111213141516
1. Identity exploration —
2. Experimentation/possibilities .46** —
3. Feeling in between .45** .20** —
4. Negativity/instability .54** .30** .31** —
5. Self-focus .43** .61** .27** .29** —
6. Other-focus .35** .41** .21** .23** .44** —
7. Depression .23** .04 .12* .37** .05 .07 —
8. Anxiety .21** .01 .16** .30** .02 .02 .46** —
9. Self-esteem .14* .12* .12* .29** .17** .10 .67** .49** —
10. Problematic alcohol use .07 .02 .07 .16** .02 .06 .30** .09 .24** —
11. Annual income .11 .10 .19** .12* .07 .09 .14* .15** .11* .09 —
12. Financial autonomy .07 .00 .11 .00 .05 .08 .12* .14* .06 .12* .36** —
13. Educational attainment .14* .16** .15* .09 .09 .01 .03 .17** .03 .14* .37** .29** —
14. Living in parent’s home .01 .01 .05 .03 .07 .15* .00 .06 .03 .11 .17** .18** .14* —
15. Romantic relationship .17** .04 .10 .13* .06 .12* .27** .10 .20** .03 .11 .14* .09 .14* —
16. Having children .03 .05 .03 .04 .12* .12* .02 .06 .03 .02 .09 .10 .23** .20** .06 —
17. Gender .16** .10 .06 .12* .01 .05 .08 .18** .07 .04 .14* .01 .09 .19** .13* .12*
M2.68 3.31 2.82 2.50 3.17 2.84 28,16 0.78 2.65 3.11 5.90 4.58 3.00 1.27 1.60 1.95
Standard deviation 0.64 0.58 0.76 0.68 0.52 0.73 8.45 0.62 0.45 3.39 2.99 0.63 1.42 0.45 0.49 0.22
Note.n¼307.
*p< .05. **p< .01.
6
4 comprises 17%(n¼53) of the sample and encompasses
youths who obtained high scores for the experimentation/pos-
sibilities,self-focus, and other-focus features; moderate scores
for the identity exploration feature; and lower scores for the
negativity/instability and feeling in-between features. As a sim-
ilar profile was also found by Tagliabue et al., the label positive
transition will be used to refer to this profile.
Comparing Profiles With Regard to Sociodemographic
Variables
All the profiles were contrasted with regard to sociodemo-
graphic variables. The descriptive data are reported in Table
5. A series of w
2
analyses (successively entering gender,
whether residential independency was achieved, whether par-
enthood was achieved, and whether involvement in a romantic
relationship was achieved as dependent variables) did not bring
out any significant differences between the profiles. Similarly,
a series of ANOVAs (successively entering educational attain-
ment, perceived financial autonomy, and annual income as
dependent variables) did not bring out any significant differ-
ences between the profiles.
Comparing Profiles With Regard to Internalizing
Problems and Problematic Alcohol Use
A series of ANOVAs aiming to contrast the profiles with regard
to psychosocial variables brought out significant differences.
Results are displayed in Table 6. Post hoc analyses revealed
that the participants assigned to the transitional time profile
exhibited significantly higher depressive symptoms than parti-
cipants assigned to the moderate transition and positive
transition profiles. Participants assigned to the transitional
time and moderate transition profiles exhibited higher social
anxiety than participants assigned to the positive transition and
stalled transition profiles. Moreover, participants assigned to
the positive transition profile displayed higher self-esteem than
participants assigned to the moderate and transitional time pro-
files. Finally, participants assigned to the transitional time pro-
file reported higher problematic alcohol use than participants
assigned to all the other profiles.
Discussion
The current study aimed to identify homogenous profiles of
individuals with regard to the extent to which the features of
emerging adulthood were deemed to describe their experience
and contrast these profiles regarding a series of transition-into-
adulthood indicators and adjustment issues. Latent profile anal-
yses generated four contrasting profiles of emerging adults.
These profiles differed with regard to internalizing problems
and problematic alcohol use but showed no differences with
regard to the transition-into-adulthood indicators. The implica-
tions of these results are further discussed below.
Profiles of Emerging Adults
In accordance with our hypothesis, the stalled transition profile
was the smallest (comprising only 5%of the sample) and
encompassed youths who displayed the lowest scores for all the
emerging adulthood features, suggesting that they did not see
these features as describing their experience. It is possible that
these individuals had already gone through this transitional
phase of their lives (Goodman, Henderson, Peterson-Badali,
Table 4. Means (and Standard Deviations) for Each Feature of the Inventory of Dimensions of Emerging Adulthood as a Function of the Profiles
and ANOVA Results.
Features
Stalled Transition
(n¼15)
Moderate Transition
(n¼137)
Transitional Time
(n¼106)
Positive Transition
(n¼50) F(3,304) p
Identity exploration 1.86 (0.61)
a
2.39 (0.44)
b
3.26 (0.43)
c
2.50 (0.52)
b
93.11 .000
Experimentation/possibilities 2.35 (0.55)
a
2.95 (0.44)
b
3.70 (0.31)
c
3.77 (0.28)
c
132.47 .000
Negativity/instability 1.69 (0.47)
a
2.29 (0.54)
b
3.10 (0.45)
c
1.99 (0.44)
a
92.02 .000
Self-focus 1.96 (0.37)
a
2.90 (0.33)
b
3.48 (0.35)
c
3.61 (0.25)
c
163.93 .000
Other-focus 1.44 (0.47)
a
2.66 (0.58)
b
3.16 (0.65)
c
3.11 (0.64)
c
42.85 .000
Feeling in between 2.09 (0.67)
a
2.65 (0.69)
b
3.25 (0.61)
c
2.61 (0.82)
a,b
24.12 .000
Note. Means with different subscripts within a row are significantly different from one another (p.001).
Table 3. Fit Indices for the Latent Profile Analyses.
Profiles LL AIC BIC SSA-BIC Entropy LMR-LRT BLRT
21,654.88 3,347.75 3,418.62 3,358.36 .74 304.23* 1,810.78
31,602.36 3,256.72 3,353.70 3,271.24 .82 102.48* 1,654.88
41,568.05 3,202.10 3,325.20 3,220.53 .80 66.95* 1,602.36
51,550.34 3,180.69 3,329.89 3,203.03 .80 34.56 1,568.05
61,531.27 3,156.54 3,331.85 3,182.79 .79 37.22 1,550.34
Note. LL ¼log likelihood; AIC ¼Akaike information criterion; BIC ¼Bayesian information criterion; SSA-BIC ¼sample-size adjusted BIC; LMR-LRT ¼Lo–Men-
dell–Rubin likelihood ratio test; BLRT ¼bootstrap likelihood ratio test.
Lanctot and Poulin 7
& Goldstein, 2015). The moderate transition profile was the
largest subgroup and was defined by moderate scores for all
the emerging adulthood features, suggesting that nearly half
thesamplesawthesefeaturesas moderately describing their
experience. It is possible that 21-year-olds find themselves
more or less in the middle of this transition and therefore
experience it in a moderate way. This corroborates studies
showing that emerging adults score higher on the IDEA scales
than both high school students and older young adults, with
the latter’s scores tending to decrease gradually over time
(Arnett, 2004; Luyckx et al., 2008; Sirsch et al., 2009). The
two remaining profiles, namely, the positive transition and
transitional time profiles, showed the highest scores for the
experimentation/possibilities,self-focus,andother-focus fea-
tures. Individuals assigned to the positive transition profile
exhibited low scores for both the negativity/instability and
feeling in-between features and moderate scores for the iden-
tity exploration feature. Individuals assigned to the transi-
tional time profile appeared to see all the emerging
adulthood features as strongly describing their experience.
Thus, the two distinct profiles encompassing youths who
identified most strongly with the features of emerging adult-
hood appeared to experience the instability inherent in this
transitional period quite differently.
Figure 1. Profiles based on the features of the Inventory of Dimensions of Emerging Adulthood.
Table 5. Descriptive Statistics for Each Sociodemographic Variable as a Function of the Profiles.
Sociodemographic Variable Stalled Transition Moderate Transition Transitional Time Positive Transition w
2
p
Gender (% women) 39.09 63.63 64.22 53.65 0.95 .28
Living in parents’ home (%) 58.63 78.02 66.08 70.89 1.25 .52
Having children (%) 13.03 5.30 5.58 0 5.77 .13
Romantic relationship (%) 58.63 68.18 49.33 65.15 7.14 .07
FpZ
p2
Educational attainment 2.33 (0.98) 2.92 (1.46) 3.18 (1.42) 3.12 (1.33) 1.96 .12 .019
Annual income 6.00 (3.16) 6.18 (2.93) 5.67 (3.00) 5.39 (2.96) 1.04 .38 .010
Financial autonomy 4.77 (0.64) 4.55 (0.65) 4.60 (0.63) 4.56 (0.59) 1.09 .66 .005
Note. Z
p2
¼eta squared.
Table 6. Means (and Standard Deviations) for Each Psychosocial Variable as a Function of the Profiles.
Psychosocial Variables Stalled Transition Moderate Transition Transitional Time Positive Transition F(df)pZ
p2
Depression 28.33 (7.06)
a,b
27.42 (7.85)
a
30.75 (9.71)
b
24.57 (5.51)
a
7.00 (3,304) .000 .065
Anxiety 0.34 (0.39)
a
0.81(0.63)
b,c
0.90 (0.63)
c
0.57 (0.50)
a,b
6.28 (3,302) .000 .059
Self-esteem 2.61 (0.57)
a,b
2.62 (0.47)
a
2.58 (0.47)
a
2.88 (0.19)
b
5.76 (3,303) .001 .054
Problematic alcohol use 2.33 (1.68)
a,b
3.24 (3.39)
a,b
3.58 (3.90)
a
1.98 (2.12)
b
2.90 (3,304) .035 .028
Note. Z
p2
¼eta squared; means with different subscripts within a row are significantly different from one another (p< .05).
8Emerging Adulthood XX(X)
Only one previous study (Tagliabue, Crocetti, & Lanz, 2016)
investigated profiles of emerging adulthood based on the fea-
tures of the IDEA. The results of that study show both similari-
ties and differences with our study. Some profiles identified in
the current study also emerged in Tagliabue et al.’s analysis,
which explains why we made use of some of their original pro-
file labels. The following profiles can be observed in both stud-
ies: (1) a profile displaying low scores for all the features of
emerging adulthood, (2) a profile exhibiting low scores for nega-
tivity/instability combined with high scores for experimentation/
possibilities and self-focus, and (3) a profile displaying high
scores for most of the features of emerging adulthood. The mod-
erate transition profile, comprising the highest number of parti-
cipants, was not identified in Tagliabue et al.’s study. This may
be due to the age difference of the participants in the two studies.
In the current study, all participants were 21 years old, which
means that several participants likely found themselves to be
halfway through the emerging adulthood period (typically occur-
ring between the ages of 18 and 29; Arnett, 2000) and thus saw
the features of the IDEA as describing their experience to a mod-
erate degree. In Tagliabue et al.’s (2016) study, the participants’
ages ranged from 19 to 30 years. Therefore, it is not surprising
that a similar profile was not identified in their study.
Three profiles that emerged in Tagliabue et al.’s (2016)
study were not found in this study: the negative feeling profile,
characterized by high scores for instability/negativity; the self-
focus profile, characterized by high scores for self-focus along
with the lowest scores for identity exploration and feeling in-
between; and the lack of possibility profile, characterized by
the lowest scores for exploration/possibilities combined with
the highest scores for self-focus and feeling in-between and
medium scores for negativity/instability. The larger sample
size (N¼1,530 vs. 307) as well as the variability in the parti-
cipants’ ages (19 to 30 vs. 21) could possibly explain the more
diverse patterns found in Tagliabue et al.’s study. Another dif-
ference is the inclusion of the other-focus feature in the current
study. However, contrary to our hypothesis, the addition of this
feature did not result in the identification of a group that was
further along in the transition to adulthood. Moreover, the dif-
ferences between the socioeconomic context in Canada and
Italy may explain why the lack of possibility profile was not
replicated in the current study. Indeed, young adults in Italy
face high rates of unemployment and precarious job conditions
(Crocetti & Tagliabue, 2016). In fact, 40%of 15- to 24-year-
olds in Italy were unemployed in 2013, and these rates have
continued to rise since then (Italian National Institute of Statis-
tics [ISTAT], 2014). Moreover, the economic crisis of 2008
made it difficult for Italian families to support young adults’
tuition fees, accounting for part of the decline in the number
of students completing tertiary education programs in recent
years (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Develop-
ment [OECD], 2014). Thus, differences in access to education
and employment between Canada and Italy may have influ-
enced our results, as the Italian participants were less likely
to feel that emerging adulthood represented a time of many
possibilities. On the other hand, the Canadian participants were
more likely to experience the typical transition described by
Arnett, with more young people exhibiting moderate scores for
all the features of the IDEA.
Contrasting Profiles With Regard to Sociodemographic
and Psychosocial Variables
The profiles were then contrasted with regard to sociodemo-
graphic indicators as well as internalizing problems and proble-
matic alcohol use. Contrary to our hypothesis, the profiles did
not statistically differ with regard to any of the sociodemo-
graphic variables. The descriptive data suggest that individuals
in the stalled transition profile were less likely to live in their
parents’ home (58%vs. 72%for the other three profiles) and
more likely to have children than individuals in the other three
profiles (13%vs. 4%). However, these differences were not
significant, possibly due to a lack of statistical power (since the
stalled transition group, comprising just 5%of the sample, was
too small). Other sociodemographic variables that were not
investigated in this study, such as Socio-economics status
(SES) or parents’ education, could help explain the differences
observed among individuals with regard to the extent to which
they identified with the features of emerging adulthood.
Several significant differences were observed between the
profiles regarding both internalizing problems and problematic
alcohol use. A number of these differences involved the two
subgroups that appeared to identify most strongly with the fea-
tures of emerging adulthood. Specifically, individuals assigned
to the transitional time profile reported higher depressive
symptoms, higher social anxiety, higher problematic alcohol
use, and lower self-esteem than individuals assigned to the pos-
itive transition profile. Contrary to our hypothesis, high scores
for identity exploration (e.g., in the transitional time profile)
appeared to be related to internalizing problems as well as pro-
blematic alcohol use. It is very interesting to observe that indi-
viduals assigned to both the positive transition and transitional
time profiles exhibited higher scores for the experimentation/
possibilities feature given that, in the current literature, this fea-
ture of emerging adulthood tends to be associated with higher
negativity as well as substance abuse (Hill et al., 2015) and
some variables related to well-being (Hill et al., 2015; Negru,
2012). The distinct psychosocial characteristics of these two
profiles confirm Arnett’s (2005) theory proposing that experi-
mentation can lead to substance use for two different reasons.
Indeed, emerging adults can try out new experiences such as
substance use with a recreational goal or substance use can
become a method of self-medication to avoid the anxiety
related to the instability of the transition. The well-being of
individuals who experiment with substance use as a way of try-
ing out new experiences would not necessarily be negatively
affected by this experience. Indeed, the experimentation/possi-
bilities feature may be given high ratings when individuals
have a hopeful outlook on the future and see themselves to
be exploring new opportunities. This could explain why the
positive transition profile shows high scores for the experimen-
tation/possibilities feature along with high self-esteem and low
Lanctot and Poulin 9
social anxiety. On the other hand, emerging adults who report
substance use as well as low well-being are more likely to use
substances for self-medication purposes. This could be the case
for the transitional time group.
Overall, the results of the current study further highlight the
heterogeneous nature of the emerging adulthood period—as
each profile depicts a unique combination of the features of the
IDEA—and thus provide a deeper understanding of this transi-
tional stage. The current study demonstrates that emerging adults
may weakly, moderately, or strongly identify with the features of
emerging adulthood. Among those who identify with these fea-
tures most strongly, some will struggle with adjustment issues
during this life transition while others will find a way to thrive.
The person-centered approach effectively brought out an overall
picture of emerging adulthood, while uncovering different per-
ceptions of the way this transition is experienced. Indeed, the
creation of profiles allows for a better understanding of emerging
adulthood by highlighting some of the typical patterns that may
represent how this transition can affect young adults. Moreover,
this approach provides a new outlook on internalizing problems
and problematic alcohol use in emerging adulthood by identify-
ing the most affected subgroups of emerging adults. Youths in
the profiles exhibiting higher scores for the negativity/instability,
experimentation/possibilities,andfeeling in-between features
were more likely to report internalizing problems and proble-
matic alcohol use, which concur with the results of previous
studies (Hill et al., 2015; Luyckx et al., 2011; Smith et al.,
2014). Yet, we also observed that, for some youths, higher scores
for the experimentation/possibilities feature were associated
with higher self-esteem and lower social anxiety.
To our knowledge, this is the very first study using a person-
centered approach to link profiles based on the features of the
IDEA with sociodemographic variables and indicators of interna-
lizing problems and problematic alcohol use. The current study
also stands out due to the sociodemographic diversity of its sam-
ple. In the current emerg ing adulthood literature, samples are often
exclusively composed of university students. In our case, the par-
ticipants were initially recruited at age 12 and took part in a long-
itudinal follow-up study until age 21 (with an 80%retention rate).
Differential life trajectories were undertaken by these youths after
high school and resulted in heterogeneous occupational statuses
among the sample (i.e., 13%having no high school diploma and
currently working, 32%having a high school diploma and cur-
rently working, 21%currently attending college, 8%having a col-
lege diploma and currently working, and 26%currently attending
university). Also, most studies using the IDEA have involved sam-
ples exhibiting rather wide age ranges (e.g., aged anywhere
between 18 and 25 years). In the current study, all the participants
were 21 years of age. Given our interest in investigating interindi-
vidual differences with regard to the features of the IDEA, we con-
trolled for the effect of age on these features.
Limitations and Future Directions
A first limitation concerns the size of the stalled transition pro-
file (n¼15; 5%of the sample). Indeed, 5%is often considered
to be the cutoff point in profile analyses. Although the four-
profile model appeared to be the most accurate in terms of the
statistical indices, entropy, and theoretical meaningfulness, the
small size of this group makes the interpretation of the results
difficult and limits the conclusions that can be drawn. The pro-
files observed in the current study need to be replicated with
larger samples as well as with culturally diverse samples to
ensure that similar profiles hold up in other sociocultural con-
texts. Second, while the fact that we exclusively investigated
emerging adults of the same age (21 years old) is a strength,
it can also limit our findings. Indeed, it is possible that the
results define a precise but limited reality that does not cover
the wide span of how emerging adulthood can be experienced.
Third, using a person-centered approach can sometimes lead to
an overly elaborate way of representing what is actually a
bivariate relation between two variables. Indeed, the instabil-
ity/negativity feature and depressive symptoms are closely cor-
related, which makes it difficult to identify what variable is
responsible for the differences observed between the profiles
transitional time and positive transition. Fourthly, the fact that
all the variables examined in this study were measured at a sin-
gle time point makes it impossible to investigate the direction-
ality of the reported links between adjustment problems and the
extent to which the youths assigned importance to the features
of the IDEA, as captured by the profiles identified. For
instance, are youths who already display depressive symp-
toms when they enter the period of emerging adulthood more
likely to identify strongly with the “negative” features of
emerging adulthood? Or is it the other way around, whereby
youths’ negative experience of emerging adulthood, as
reflected in the IDEA scores, leads to higher levels of depres-
sive symptoms? Longitudinal studies are needed to clarify
this question and would also make it possible to investigate
interindividual variations in the extent to which youths see the
features of the IDEA as describing their own experience over
time. Indeed, it would be relevant to study changes over time
in the composition of the profiles based the features of the
IDEA, as doing so would allow us to test Arnett’s (2007)
hypothesis that these features tend to describe the experience
of individuals in their early 20s, a phenomenon that subse-
quently decreases in the late 20s.
Conclusion
The main goal of the current study was to gain a deeper knowl-
edge of the relations between the extent to which youths felt
that the typical features of emerging adulthood (as captured
by the IDEA) described their experience and some adjustment
issues likely to occur during this transitional stage. The use of a
person-centered approach allowed for the identification of dis-
tinct subgroups of emerging adults with regard to their score
patterns relating to the features of the IDEA as well as to inter-
nalizing problems and problematic alcohol use. The current
study contributes to the emerging adulthood literature by unco-
vering contrasting profiles that consider the qualitative experi-
ence of emerging adulthood as captured by the features of this
10 Emerging Adulthood XX(X)
transition period proposed by Arnett (2007). These results sug-
gest that the person-centered approach provides a more global
perspective of the experience of emerging adulthood (gathered
by investigating the extent to which the youths identified with
the features of the IDEA) as well as a greater understanding of
the features that promote healthy and positive youth develop-
ment during the postadolescent years.
Authors’ Note
This research was conducted as part of J.L.’s undergraduate thesis.
This study have been approved by the appropriate institutional
research ethics committee. American Psychological Association
(APA) human subjects’ guidelines were followed in the collection
of data. Informed consent was obtained from all individual partici-
pants included in the study.
Authors’ Contribution
J.L. performed the statistical analysis, interpreted the data, and drafted
the manuscript. F.P. conceived of the study, its design, and its coordi-
nation; participated in the analysis and interpretation of the data; and
helped to draft the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final
manuscript.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to
the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the
research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This research
was supported by research grants from the Social Sciences and Huma-
nities Research Council of Canada and the Fonds Que´be´ cois pour la
Recherche sur la Socie´te´ et la Culture for the second author.
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Author Biographies
Joe
¨lle Lanctot is currently finishing her bachelor’s degree in
psychology from the Universite´ du Que´bec a` Montre´al. Her
research interests include social development of adolescents
and emerging adults.
Franc¸ois Poulin received his PhD in developmental
psychology from Universite´ Laval in Que´bec City. He con-
ducted postdoctoral research at the Oregon Social Learning
Center at the University of Oregon. He is currently a full
professor in the psychology department at Universite´du
Que´bec a`Montre´al. His research interests include peer
relations and adjustment, linkages between peer and family
contexts, participation in organized activities, and the pre-
vention of problem behaviors in childhood and
adolescence.
Lanctot and Poulin 13
