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Education and Social Change in China: Inequality in a Market Economy
... The expansion of China's university system thus serves as a rapprochement between the state and population, as well as a compensation for the massive reductions of the state-owned enterprises in the late 1990s, when these were restructured and downsized (Hayhoe et al. 2012). Educational expansion thus serves as a mechanism for social integration in a wider sense, and in this sense as a key part of post-communist nation-building in China, enabling a modicum of social mobility and labour market security in an otherwise highly volatile socio-economic setting (Min 1997;Jain-Chandra et al. 2018;Postiglione 2015). This intricate balancing act, of course, is not without complications, as China's economic surge is still heavily dependent on its strengths in manufacturing and logistics, paired with a significant and vibrant entrepreneurialism with limited knowledge content (Nee and Opper 2012). ...
... China is not aiming to develop an academic system that resides outside the global trends; rather, it is those trends that define the goals and the measures of success; not only in outcomes but also in procedures. This international adaptation, however, resides in some unbalanced parallels with the domestic, heavily politicized goals, and the tension between international integration and domestic mobilization constitutes a major contradiction and antinomy in China's policies for academic research (Kirby 2020;Postiglione 2015). ...
... Consistent alignment with broader societal goals is key to the relative strength of political mobilization, as well as the focus on specific universities, environments and people, within an implementation process that so far has been stringently enforced. Universities have been profiled as combinations of ambitions and resources: national and local, dispersion and concentration, labour market alignment and international prestige, academic self-organization and political control (Postiglione 2015). In this sense, universities are clearly aligned with the state and nation-building processes of China; the remaining weakness is the often more discursive than real significance of industryacademy collaboration. ...
... The introduction of nine-year compulsory education in 1986 was an important step in this move toward equity. However, after 20 years of compulsory education implementation by the end of twentieth century, many households still could not afford to send their children to school, and rural Chinese countries continue to struggle over how to fund nine-year compulsory education (Postiglione, 2006); about 70% of China's illiterates or semi-illiterates were woman (World Bank, 2004;Postiglione, 2006); the rural children in China were particularly vulnerable to poverty, ill health, and educational barriers (Yu & Hannum, 2006); the rural poor and ethnic minorities have had the lowest school enrollments and the highest dropout rates when compared with other groups; and the urban middle class ranks highest on the major indicators of academic successschool enrollments, achievement levels, and graduation rates (Postiglione, 2006). ...
... The introduction of nine-year compulsory education in 1986 was an important step in this move toward equity. However, after 20 years of compulsory education implementation by the end of twentieth century, many households still could not afford to send their children to school, and rural Chinese countries continue to struggle over how to fund nine-year compulsory education (Postiglione, 2006); about 70% of China's illiterates or semi-illiterates were woman (World Bank, 2004;Postiglione, 2006); the rural children in China were particularly vulnerable to poverty, ill health, and educational barriers (Yu & Hannum, 2006); the rural poor and ethnic minorities have had the lowest school enrollments and the highest dropout rates when compared with other groups; and the urban middle class ranks highest on the major indicators of academic successschool enrollments, achievement levels, and graduation rates (Postiglione, 2006). ...
... The introduction of nine-year compulsory education in 1986 was an important step in this move toward equity. However, after 20 years of compulsory education implementation by the end of twentieth century, many households still could not afford to send their children to school, and rural Chinese countries continue to struggle over how to fund nine-year compulsory education (Postiglione, 2006); about 70% of China's illiterates or semi-illiterates were woman (World Bank, 2004;Postiglione, 2006); the rural children in China were particularly vulnerable to poverty, ill health, and educational barriers (Yu & Hannum, 2006); the rural poor and ethnic minorities have had the lowest school enrollments and the highest dropout rates when compared with other groups; and the urban middle class ranks highest on the major indicators of academic successschool enrollments, achievement levels, and graduation rates (Postiglione, 2006). ...
Two decades ago, educational inequality in the People’s Republic of China was criticized for creating social stratification. Ethnic minorities, who occupy 60% of China’s territory, were considered disadvantaged due to the lack of access to quality education. Rapid economic development since late twentieth century has helped the country move toward equity in education. The introduction of nine-year compulsory education in 1986 has been an important step in this move toward educational equity. Policies aimed at controlling the dropout rate and ensuring that all children remain enrolled in school for 9 years, called “kong chuo bao xue,” have helped achieve this goal. In 2021, the government announced that the dropout rate at the basic education level (primary and middle school levels) that was initially identified as caused by financial difficulties was zero. However, the implementation of the policy at local levels encountered numerous challenges that caused negative side effects on perceptions of school education, specifically on equity and quality education. This book chapter analyzes the government policies, reports, and scholarly publications related to equity and quality education to evidence issues of practical challenges, cultural differences, and unified “examination-oriented” education. Data specific to Yunnan, China’s most ethnically diverse province, are featured with the aim of identifying social impact in education. Despite improvements in gender equity, high school participation rates, and university placements, there are still challenges looking ahead. Monitoring progress in educational equity in China is ongoing, but disadvantages may extend well beyond schooling and education.
... Research by Wicaksono and Aliem (2022) also supports that investment in education in rural areas can significantly reduce economic disparities. Additionally, research by Glewwe and Muralidharan (2015), Walker et al. (2019), Liu et al. (2021), Postiglione (2015), Burde et al. (2015), Kromdyas (2017), and Shaeffer (2019) shows that investment in educational infrastructure can improve access to quality education, which in turn accelerates poverty reduction and social inequality. ...
This study explores the spatial distribution pattern of educational infrastructure development across districts and cities in North Sumatra, identifying significant disparities between urban and rural areas. The study aims to: (1) determine the distribution of educational development across districts and cities, (2) analyze global spatial autocorrelation, and (3) identify priority locations for educational development policies in North Sumatra Province. The methodology includes quantile analysis, Moran's Global Index, and Local Indicators of Spatial Autocorrelation (LISA) using GeoDa software to address spatial autocorrelation. The results indicate that there are nine areas with a low School Participation Rate Index (SPRI), eleven areas with a low School Facilities and Infrastructure Index (SFII), and eleven areas with a low Regional Education Index (REI). Spatial autocorrelation analysis reveals that SFII shows positive spatial autocorrelation, while SPRI and REI exhibit negative spatial autocorrelation, indicating a high level of inequality between regions. Labuhan Batu Selatan and Labuhan Batu are identified as priorities for the provincial government in overseeing educational development policies.
... Demikian pula pembaruan lembaga-lembaga sosial dan pengintegrasiannya ke dalam kegiatan pembangunan serta peranan masyarakat di dalamnya. Peningkatan partisipasi rakyat dalam proses pengambilan keputusan yang menyangkut diri dan masyarakatnya merupakan unsur yang sungat penting (Postiglione, 2015). Dengan dasar pemikiran ini, maka pemberdayaan ekonomi kerakyatan amat erat kaitannya dengan pemantapan kekuatan ekonomi, pembudayaan nilai-nilai budaya modern, dan pengamalan demokrasi ekonomi (Núñez et al., 2020). ...
The conservative paradigm prevalent in society perceives the role of women as suboptimal both in domestic life and in the public sphere. Therefore, this research aims to thoroughly examine the contributions of women in household and societal contexts. The research is conducted in the form of a literature review. Data is gathered from 40 research journals using keywords such as gender, public policy, household, and Islamic values. The data is then processed using data reduction to generate a comparative analytical model. The research findings indicate that the contributions of women in domestic life can be observed through the formation of character values in children. Character values are categorized into terminal and instrumental values. On the other hand, in the public sphere, when facilitated by the government or supported by the family, women are able to contribute to economic strengthening and other social movements. The indication towards these categories of women's values is based on Islamic ethics, which states that women have equal value and position as men. The findings also determine the "oughtness" or obligation from both categories of values. The research results show that generally, both adolescents and parents exhibit good instrumental and terminal values. Abstrak Paradigma konservatif yang berkembang di masyarakat menganggap peran perempuan kurang optimal baik di dalam kehidupan rumah tangga maupun ranah publik. Oleh sebab itu penelitian bertujuan mengkaji secara mendalam kontribusi perempuan di dalam rumah tangga dan masyarakat. Penelitian berjenis studi pustaka. Data diambil dari 40 jurnal penelitian menggunakan kata kunci gender, kebijakan publik, rumah tangga, dan nilai KeIslaman. Data kemudian diolah menggunakan reduksi data sehingga mampu menghasilkan konstruk model yang dianalisis secara komparatif. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan kontribusi perempuan di dalam kehidupan rumah tangga dapat diamati melalui pembentukan nilai-nilai karakter anak. Nilai karakter dikategorikan menjadi nilai terminal dan instrumental. Sedangkan di dalam ranah publik apabila difasilitasi oleh pemerintah maupun dukungan keluarga perempuan mampu berkontribusi dalam hal penguatan ekonomi dan gerakan sosial lainnya. Indikasi terhadap kategori nilai perempuan ini didasarkan dengan etika Islam bahwa peran dan kedudukan wanita dengan laki-laki sama secara nilai. Hasil juga menentukan 'oughtness' atau 'kewajiban' dari kedua kategori nilai tersebut. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa secara umum, baik remaja maupun orang tua memiliki nilai instrumental dan terminal yang baik.
... For instance, China's developmental resources are clustered in advanced urban areas rather than rural areas due to the imbalanced regional development of the economy (Rozelle & Hell, 2020). This unbalanced regional development includes the unequal distribution of educational resources in the state, directly leading to the educational chasm and inequality between urban and rural areas (Postiglione, 2015). For example, rural elementary pupils are more than two grade levels behind urban pupils in math, and this gap widens every year students are in school (Rozelle & Hell, 2020). ...
Abstract
Although education is a fundamental human right for global citizens, educational inequality still exists within and among countries. Still today, many students struggle to access and receive quality education. Therefore, the value of using immersive technology to increase social competence and perceived social support for children who live in remote areas of the world, reduce inequality, and improve the quality of education requires much attention to address the lacuna between urban and rural education systems. Based on three representative pedagogies (Pedagogy of Technology, Play-based Learning, and Traditional Pedagogy), we designed three social competence educational approaches – virtual reality (VR) assisted social competence education, Lego social competence education, and traditional classroom learning – and applied them to interventions in two rural schools in Southwest China. Our results showed that VR and Lego social competence education prompted children's social competence and perceived social support with elementary school children (Study 1). Furthermore, VR social competence education resulted in substantially greater social competencies and subjective sense of social support than traditional classroom learning with middle school children (Study 2). The results suggest that VR-assisted social competence education (Pedagogy of Technology) could be a potential tool to reduce educational inequalities in underdeveloped countries and regions.
This paper presents a systematic literature review that offers a comparative analysis of the educational policies of China and Pakistan. The review delves into the historical context, policy formulation, implementation strategies, and outcomes of educational reforms in both countries. To ensure a comprehensive and current analysis, studies published between 2000 and 2023 were included. Data were meticulously extracted from peer-reviewed journal articles, government reports, and policy documents. The selected studies were thoroughly analyzed to identify key themes and patterns, employing a comparative framework to synthesize the data focusing on policy formulation, implementation, and outcomes. This detailed comparative analysis highlights significant differences and similarities between the two nations' educational systems, providing valuable insights into how each country addresses its unique educational challenges and opportunities. By examining these aspects, the review offers a comprehensive understanding of the educational landscapes of China and Pakistan, shedding light on the successes and shortcomings of their respective educational policies. The findings suggest that both countries can learn valuable lessons from each other's experiences, thereby enhancing their educational frameworks. This study contributes to the broader discourse on global educational development, emphasizing the importance of tailored policy responses to meet diverse educational needs.
This research aims to analyze the role of institutional mechanisms in supporting the advancement of women in rural areas. The focus of this study is to strengthen institutions that empower women and promote gender equality, as well as improve the well-being of women in rural areas. The research methods used include literature analysis and case studies. The findings of the research indicate that strong institutional mechanisms facilitate rural women's access to resources, education, and economic opportunities. A comprehensive approach that includes skills enhancement, organizational management support, and fair division of labor contributes to the empowerment of women in rural areas. The implementation of these solutions is expected to enhance women's empowerment, promote inclusive rural development, improve family welfare, and achieve better gender equality. This research has policy implications for strengthening institutional mechanisms to enhance the role of women in rural development. AbstrakPenelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis peran kelembagaan dalam mendukung kemajuan perempuan di daerah pedesaan. Fokus dari penelitian ini adalah untuk memperkuat kelembagaan yang memberdayakan perempuan dan mendorong kesetaraan gender, serta meningkatkan kesejahteraan perempuan di perdesaan. Metode penelitian yang digunakan meliputi analisis literatur dan studi kasus. Temuan penelitian menunjukkan bahwa mekanisme kelembagaan yang kuat dapat memfasilitasi akses perempuan pedesaan terhadap sumber daya, pendidikan, dan peluang ekonomi. Pendekatan komprehensif yang mencakup peningkatan keterampilan, dukungan manajemen organisasi, dan pembagian kerja yang adil berkontribusi pada pemberdayaan perempuan di daerah pedesaan. Penerapan solusi-solusi ini diharapkan dapat meningkatkan pemberdayaan perempuan, mendorong pembangunan perdesaan yang inklusif, meningkatkan kesejahteraan keluarga, dan mencapai kesetaraan gender yang lebih baik. Penelitian ini memiliki implikasi kebijakan untuk memperkuat mekanisme kelembagaan guna meningkatkan peran perempuan dalam pembangunan perdesaan.
In this article, ethnic minority students describe teachers who helped them succeed in school. Data are drawn from interviews conducted in 1997 with successful students enrolled in a pre-service education program at Yunnan Normal University. Many of the interviewees are now mid-career teachers in schools throughout Yunnan Province. Plans (postponed due to the pandemic) have been made to interview these individuals again, hopefully later in 2022. The focus here is on one characteristic of effective teachers that was mentioned frequently by the students, and that is teachers’ ability to bring about change. A tentative theoretical model was developed to explain teacher change agency. Using the model, we find that change brought about by teachers is manifested in students, schools, and society.
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