ArticlePublisher preview available

The seaweed hydrocolloid industry: 2016 updates, requirements, and outlook

Springer Nature
Journal of Applied Phycology
Authors:
Hans Porse
Hans Porse
Hans Porse
  • This person is not on ResearchGate, or hasn't claimed this research yet.
Brian Rudolph at CP Kelco, Lille Skensved, Denmark
Brian Rudolph
  • CP Kelco, Lille Skensved, Denmark
Read publisher preview
Download citation
To read the full-text of this research, you can request a copy directly from the authors.

Abstract and Figures

The seaweed hydrocolloid industry, comprising agar, alginate, and carrageenan extracts, continues to grow in the order of 2–3% per year with the Asia-Pacific region increasingly dominating the raw material and manufacturing aspects of the industry. Geographic overviews, also in a historical perspective, of seaweed raw material availability including prices and consumption, manufacturing capacities, and utilizations and sales of extracts is presented. Some current and future industry dynamics, requirements, and changing structures, e.g., Indonesia’s increasingly dominant role within farming of agar and carrageenan-bearing seaweed species, randomly imposing of seaweed harvest restrictions or ban on exports, creation of a global certification standard for seaweed, and supply-demand dynamics for seaweed versus future global population are presented. The industry is increasingly being commoditized and China has become an important and, in many cases, dominant factor within all types of seaweed hydrocolloids and some explanations to this and strategic response by the rest of the industry is also touched upon. Also presented are some areas where the seaweed industry needs help from the scientific community. The main challenge is the ongoing general seaweed deterioration experienced in cultivated species—how are the strains to be improved and revitalized and can cultivation techniques be improved further? There is a general trend towards sustainability and, although seaweed cultivation and harvest can be sustainable, there is interest in the development of greener processes.
Figures - available from: Journal of Applied Phycology
This content is subject to copyright. Terms and conditions apply.
A preview of this full-text is provided by Springer Nature.
Learn more
Content available from Journal of Applied Phycology 
This content is subject to copyright. Terms and conditions apply.
22ND INTERNATIONAL SEAWEED SYMPOSIUM, COPENHAGEN
The seaweed hydrocolloid industry: 2016 updates, requirements,
and outlook
Hans Porse
1
&Brian Rudolph
2
Received: 7 October 2016 /Revised and accepted: 4 April 2017 /Published online: 24 April 2017
#Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2017
Abstract The seaweed hydrocolloid industry, comprising
agar, alginate, and carrageenan extracts, continues to grow in
the order of 2–3% per year with the Asia-Pacific region in-
creasingly dominating the raw material and manufacturing
aspects of the industry. Geographic overviews, also in a his-
torical perspective, of seaweed raw material availability in-
cluding prices and consumption, manufacturing capacities,
and utilizations and sales of extracts is presented. Some cur-
rent and future industry dynamics, requirements, and chang-
ing structures, e.g., Indonesia’s increasingly dominant role
within farming of agar and carrageenan-bearing seaweed spe-
cies, randomly imposing of seaweed harvest restrictions or
ban on exports, creation of a global certification standard for
seaweed, and supply-demand dynamics for seaweed versus
future global population are presented. The industry is increas-
ingly being commoditized and China has become an impor-
tant and, in many cases, dominant factor within all types of
seaweed hydrocolloids and some explanations to this and stra-
tegic response by the rest of the industry is also touched upon.
Also presented are some areas where the seaweed industry
needs help from the scientific community. The main challenge
is the ongoing general seaweed deterioration experienced in
cultivated species—how are the strains to be improved and
revitalized and can cultivation techniques be improved fur-
ther? There is a general trend towards sustainability and, al-
though seaweed cultivation and harvest can be sustainable,
there is interest in the development of greener processes.
Keywords Hydrocolloids .Agar .Alginate .Carrageenan
Introduction
It has nearly become a triennial tradition that at the ISS repre-
sentatives of the commercial, seaweed processing industry
presents a review paper on historical and recent developments
within its activities and, in this context, some scientific devel-
opments as well. The industry still confines itself to sourcing,
extraction, and sales of relevant seaweed species for the man-
ufacture of agar, alginate, and carrageenan hydrocolloids.
Seaweed properties such as biologically active compounds
for plant, animal, and pharmaceutical purposes, human con-
sumption, and feedstock for biofuel production are currently
considered outside the scope of the hydrocolloid industry al-
though some will briefly be touched upon.
The industry under review is somewhat affected by a mod-
est or negative growth performance within the manufacturing
sector. Unfortunately, hardly any new product application
areas, except for agar, are currently being identified and de-
veloped in order to enhance and grow the industry. The indus-
try has been and is still undergoing structural changes largely
led by Indonesia which is now the world’s largest producer of
agar and carrageenan-bearing seaweeds. In addition, China is
now the world’s largest combined processor of seaweed hy-
drocolloids and is to a considerable extent reliant on imported
raw materials.
Within research and development, there have been some
achievements in aspects such as seaweed culture techniques,
processing, hydrocolloid chemistry, and product develop-
ment, whereas other activities within these areas tend to con-
tinue with the identification of problems and challenges rather
than actually trying to solve the issues.
*Hans Porse
navicello@yahoo.com
1
Intercolloids, Roedtjoernevej 37, 2720 Vanloese, Denmark
2
CP Kelco ApS, Ved Banen 16, 4623 Lille Skensved, Denmark
J Appl Phycol (2017) 29:2187–2200
DOI 10.1007/s10811-017-1144-0
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
... However, the excessive gel strength, high viscosity, poor solubility, and limited bioavailability of unprocessed agar restrict its broader applications . "Cut-throat competition" and agar prices, which have stagnated at approximately $20/ kg for more than two decades (Porse & Rudolph, 2017), have decreased the relative value of GA in the hydrocolloid market. In addition, living expenses and other costs have been steadily rising. ...
... In the past two decades, high value-added applications of agar, based on its bioactivities, have been limited by excessively high gel strength and viscosity, poor solubility, and bioavailability Porse & Rudolph, 2017). Proper control of the physical properties is important for utilizing GAP. ...
Subcritical Water Treatment of Gelidium amansii for the Integrated Utilization of Agar and Non-agar Components: Physicochemical and In Vitro Bioactive Properties
Article
Full-text available
  • May 2025
  • FOOD BIOPROCESS TECH
Seaweeds serve as a promising biomass feedstock for the integrated production of food, biomaterials, and chemicals within a biorefinery. Subcritical water (ScW) was applied at 5 different temperatures: 120 °C, 150 °C 180 °C, 210 °C, and 240 °C, to obtain Gelidium amansii products (GAP) which were coded as GAP-120, GAP-150, GAP-180, GAP-210, and GAP-240, respectively. The contents of reducing sugar, total protein, and total phenolics of GAP ranged from 18.86 ± 0.92 to 82.25 ± 1.58 mg glucose, 7.74 ± 0.04 to 51.79 ± 0.02 mg bovine serum albumin (BSA), and 16.54 ± 0.30 to 88.95 ± 0.69 mg phloroglucinol (PGE), per g⁻¹ of GAP, respectively. The contents increased with elevation in temperature. The gel strength and molecular weight decreased with increase in reaction temperature. Antioxidant activity reached the highest level from GAP-210 and GAP-240. Angiotensin-I-converting-enzyme inhibition activity was strongest at 82.64% ± 0.04% of GAP-240. α-Glucosidase inhibition activity peaked at 87.78% ± 3.23% of GAP-210, with no significant difference with 83.37% ± 6.23% of GAP-240. Antibacterial activity showed concentration-dependent effects in the GAP at 180–240 °C. Tyrosinase inhibition was detected at GAP over 180 °C, where peaking at GAP-210 (68.38% ± 4.35%). Conclusively, subcritical water treatment was an effective method to process Gelidium amansii (GA), modifying its physicochemical and biological properties. This approach facilitates the integrated utilization of both agar and non-agar parts for applications in functional foods and cosmetic products.
View
... Demikian pula dengan kadar air, kadar air merupakan salah satu sifat fisik dari bahan yang menunjukkan banyaknya air yang terkandung di dalam bahan. 7, 8,9 Kadar air akan berpengaruh terhadap viskositas dan keakuratan dimensi bahan cetak alginat. Semakin banyak air dalam bahan cetak maka bahan cetak tersebut akan mudah robek. ...
... Porositas merupakan proporsi ruang kosong yang terdapat dalam bahan yang dapat ditempati oleh air. 8 Perbedaan nilai kadar air dipengaruhi oleh perbedaan jenis rumput laut. Bahan cetak alginat merek Hygedent menggunakan natrium alginat dari rumput laut coklat yang diambil dari perairan Beijing-China. ...
Uji Densitas dan Kadar Air Bahan Cetak Alginat Ekstrak Rumput Laut Merah (Kappaphycus alvarezii)
Article
  • Oct 2024
Impression material are often used in the field of dentistry, because they have the ability to produce detailed jaw and tooth models, but the high need for alginate has not been met in Indonesia. Kappaphycus alvarezii is a red seaweed that is widely found in Indonesia, has sodium alginate content that can be processed into printing materials. The potential of Kappaphycus alvarezii as an alginate impression material needs to be researched in terms of its physical characteristics, including density and moisture content. The purpose of this study is to analyze the density and moisture content of alginate impression materials from Kappaphycus alvarezii extract. The method used was laboratory experiments with a post test with control group design with 2 research groups, namely the control group using Hygedent brand alginate impression material and the treatment group using Kappaphycus alvarezii extract alginate impression material. The results showed that the density of the control group was significantly different from the treatment group (0.015), as well as the moisture content test of the treatment group was significantly different from the control group (0.001). The regression test shows a relationship between the two which is marked by an R square value of 0.640. The conclusion obtained from this study is that the density and moisture content of the alginate impression material of Kappaphycus alvarezii extract (treatment group) showed better results than the control group, so this innovation has great potential to be developed.
View
... lemaneiformis spanned over 8000 hectares, yielding more than 300,000 tons of dry seaweed (Jiang et al., 2019). This extensive cultivation has made China the world's largest producer of agar (Porse & Rudolph, 2017). Although China has achieved notable success in the cultivation of Gracilariaceae species, there are still challenges that hinder further increases in their production. ...
Taxonomic identity of Gracilariaceae (Rhodophyta) species tolerant to hot summers: An integrative morphological and molecular assessment
Article
Full-text available
Gracilariaceae species are among the most economically important seaweeds, with a wide range of applications. Large‐scale cultivation of Gracilariopsis lemaneiformis has already been established along the eastern coast of China. However, as global demand for Gracilariaceae species rises, it is crucial for China to expand large‐scale cultivation of these species to other coastal regions. Although the South China Sea harbors rich macroalgal resources, including Gracilariaceae, large‐scale cultivation of these species has yet to be implemented in the region. To identify heat‐tolerant Gracilariaceae species suitable for large‐scale cultivation in the South China Sea, we conducted surveys between June and August from 2021 to 2024. Several heat‐tolerant species were identified. Taxonomic identity was confirmed through detailed morphological examination and molecular analysis of rbcL and cox1 gene sequences. We identified eight species of Gracilariaceae, including one Gracilariopsis (Gp.) species and seven Gracilaria (G.) species. Morphologically, the species were characterized as follows: Gp. heteroclada (long secondary branches with short or spiny tertiary branches), G. salicornia (club‐shaped segments), G. vermiculophylla and G. tenuistipitata (slender‐branched), G. edulis (broom‐like appearance with red‐tinged branch bases), G. firma (highly constricted branch bases), and two unclassified species, Gracilaria sp.1 and Gracilaria sp.2. This study contributes to the taxonomic knowledge of Gracilariaceae and provides valuable information for the development of heat‐tolerant species suited for large‐scale cultivation in the South China Sea.
View
... Instead, the focus of development is shifting towards enhancing the quality and efficiency of growth, striving to achieve a more robust, lasting, and balanced development trajectory while maintaining steady economic growth. The core of the sustainable development strategy emphasizes and advocates a dual approach of innovation-driven growth and industrial structure optimization to propel the economy towards higher quality, greater efficiency, increased fairness, and enhanced sustainability (32,33). Sustainable development represents not just a profound transformation within the economic sphere but also manifests across multiple key areas and dimensions, including economic, political, cultural, social, and ecological environments. ...
The mechanism of coupling and coordination between the rule of law and sustainable development from a system theory perspective: evidence from China
Article
Full-text available
  • May 2025
The rule of law and sustainable development are two core elements in addressing the challenges of national reform and transformation. To further clarify the roles and relationship between these two aspects, this paper innovatively proposes a coupling coordination mechanism for the rule of law and sustainable development. Using evidence from China, this study first constructs an indicator system for both elements from a systems theory perspective. Through empirical research, the entropy method and coupling coordination degree model are employed to measure the development levels and coupling coordination effects of the rule of law and sustainable development. Additionally, the grey relational model is utilized to quantify the factors influencing the interaction between the two during the coupling process, and practical pathways for promoting their coordinated development are proposed. The findings reveal a significant upward trend in the coupling coordination relationship between the rule of law and sustainable development over the past decade, evolving from severe imbalance to high-quality coordination. Notably, the rule of law environment and social rule of law have a significant impact on sustainable development, while economic, ecological, and political sustainability notably influence the rule of law. This study not only elucidates the coupling coordination relationship and mutual influences between the rule of law and sustainable development but also provides theoretical insights and practical guidance for advancing national modernization and addressing development challenges in other countries.
View
... Indonesia merupakan negara yang menjadi produsen rumput laut Kappaphycus alvarezii terbesar di dunia karena didukung oleh kondisi geografis yang beriklim tropis dan pesatnya aktivitas budidaya rumput laut yang dikelola masyarakatnya (Duarte et al. 2017). Rumput laut K.alvarezii merupakan salah satu agen blue carbon dan komoditas unggulan perikanan budidaya yang memiliki nilai ekonomi penting sebagai bahan baku utama berbagai produk alami (Porse & Rudolph, 2017;Simatupang et al. 2021). Rumput laut budidaya K.alvarezii merupakan sumber utama penghasil karagenan yang banyak digunakan dalam industri makanan dan farmasi (Hayashi & Reis, 2012). ...
PT. KAMIYA JAYA AQUATIC
Book
Full-text available
  • Feb 2025
View
... Although demand for agar and algae-derived products continues to increase (Santos and Melo 2018) along with growing interest in their applications for bioremediation, the sustainable supply of Gelidium biomass is still a major constraint (Meinita et al. 2023). This is largely because agar production from Gelidium depends on harvesting natural populations, which has led to a gradual decline in biomass availability (Porse and Rudolph 2017). In this context, understanding the morphophysiological responses of Gelidium to different environmental factors is essential for developing strategies aimed at optimizing its cultivation and ensuring a sustainable supply. ...
Cultivation of Gelidium floridanum in different nitrate concentrations: morphophysiological effects
Article
Full-text available
Gelidium floridanum is a seaweed of significant economic importance, rich in cell wall components utilized in biotechnology and widely distributed in coastal environments. However, many aquatic ecosystems have been polluted by anthropogenic activities. The use of seaweeds for mitigating pollution is an expanding field, particularly due to their potential in bioremediation and economic value. This study investigated the effect of varying nitrate (NO3⁻) concentrations on the morpho-physiology of G. floridanum. The seaweed was exposed to 0, 25, 50, and 100 mM of NO3⁻ for 7 days. The highest growth rate and cell viability were observed at 25 mM, while photosynthetic pigment levels were elevated at 50 and 100 mM. Protein and enzyme quantification showed no significant differences across treatments. Light microscopy with histochemistry methods revealed an increase in starch grains in cortical cells and a lack of organized cell walls at 0 mM NO3⁻. Transmission electron microscopy showed thickened cell walls and the presence of plastoglobules at 25, 50, and 100 mM NO3⁻. In conclusion, G. floridanum exhibited optimal growth and development at 25 mM NO3⁻, with higher concentrations inducing stress in the thalli.
View
... Most seaweed produced is directed to the food industry, including direct consumption, polysaccharide additives, and functional ingredients (Kim et al. 2017;Naylor et al. 2021). Hydrocolloids extracted from seaweed stand as the second most valuable category, while fertilizers and animal feed additives make up the remainder (Porse and Rudolph 2017;Barbier et al. 2019;Shannon and Abu-Ghannam 2019;Naylor et al. 2021;Song et al. 2022). A global shift towards holistic health and sustainable food sources has recently increased demand for seaweed biomass, positioning seaweed biomass as a staple in functional foods and feeds rich in essential nutrients (Shannon and Abu-Ghannam 2019;Yong et al. 2024). ...
Cost-effective nutrient supplementation strategies for land-based cultivation of Devaleraea mollis and Palmaria hecatensis
Article
Full-text available
Devaleraea mollis and Palmaria hecatensis have emerged as potential species for land-based cultivation of red seaweeds in the Pacific Northwest of the United States. Land-based cultivation has the advantage of customization of high-quality biomass production. However, the high material and preparation costs of traditionally used enrichment media are a limitation of land-based cultivation of D. mollis and P. hecatensis. This study explores ways to reduce operational and management costs associated with controlling the culturing conditions of D. mollis and P. hecatensis without compromising biomass growth and quality in land-based tank cultivation systems. Five experimental treatments, 1) ambient seawater (AS); 2) von Stosch enrichment medium (VSE); 3) Guillard's f/2 medium (f/2); 4) commercial fertilizer, Jack's Special (JS); 5) JS with vitamin (JSV), were used in the present study. Growth rates, pigment, and protein content of D. mollis and P. hecatensis were measured. D. mollis showed faster growth rates than P. hecatensis, indicating that the former is more economically suitable for land-based cultivation based on this parameter alone. Growth and protein content of D. mollis exposed to VSE decreased due to insufficient nitrogen in the tissue. However, the protein content of D. mollis exposed to JS and JSV significantly increased without a decrease in growth. Palmaria hecatensis showed similar growth, pigment, and protein content regardless of the treatment, except in AS. Therefore, the commercial fertilizer, Jack's Special (25-5-15), can replace the VSE for D. mollis and P. hecatensis, reducing operational and management costs linked to nutrient supplementation.
View
View
MECHANISMS OF MICROBIOTA-IMMUNE DYSREGULATION
Chapter
  • Apr 2025
The immune system acts to protect the body from harmful microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses and parasites. Microbiotaimmune regulations are bidirectional that controls microbiota development and functions ofimmune system. Immune tolerance is promoted by microbiota. Intestinal permeability and integrity are disturbed by immune dysbiosis. Pathogenic bacteria promotes pro-inflammatory cytokines that drives inflammation. Themicrobiota can influence development and function of immune cells such as, T cells, B cells and dendritic cells. Immune dysbiosis activates differentiation of immune cells and leads to imbalance between pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory responses for contributing immune dysregulation. Microbiota immune axis can develop a range of autoimmune diseases. Underlying mechanisms of immune dysregulation is important to restore immune homeostasis and promote health.Microbiota related immune dysregulation leads to severe chronic inflammation and health diseases. The underlying causes of immune dysregulation are multifaceted and involved with interactions between microbiota and intestinal barrier. Immune dysregulation referred as dysbiosis which effects on balancing composition and diversity of microbial communities. Microbial metabolites such as short chain fatty acid chains, lipopolysaccharides modulate immune responses. Disruption during critical immune system development,micobiota immune cross talk is hampered to affect immune related disorders. Identification of targeted immune specific pathways helpto treat immune mediated diseases. Dysregulation of gut microbial interactionsleads to immune dysfunction and controls a variety of diseases including inflammatory bowel diseases, rheumatoid arthritis, cardiometabolic diseases, chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases, neuronal disorders, cancer and other diseases of microbial origin.
View
Species composition and biochemical characteristics of macrophyte algae natural mixtures of the White Sea used to obtain food hydrocolloids
Article
  • Mar 2025
The study of the chemical and technological properties of algae is of great importance in their processing. These properties determine the quality of food hydrocolloids produced from them (agar, carrageenan, alginate).The article presents the results obtained during the work in the summer-autumn period from 2019 to 2023 in the coastal areas of the Onega Bay of the White Sea (Popov and Bolshoy Solovetsky Islands). It was found that the commercial species Ahnfeltia plicata, which lives in the coastal zone of Popov Island, had the highest number of epiphytes from July to August. The dominant species was the red alga Vertebrata fucoides, which lives in the coastal zone of Bolshoy Solovetsky Island. An insignificant number of epiphytes were noted in fucoids growing in the coastal zone of Popov Island. The synusia of epiphytes is well developed in two species of fucus (Fucus distichus, Fucus vesiculosus) growing in the coastal zone of Bolshoy Solovetsky Island. The greatest number of epiphytes was recorded in July, but their share in the total biomass of algae is insignificant. Based on the study of the chemical composition and technological characteristics of mixtures of A. plicata and V. fucoides algae, the necessity of their separation during joint procurement is shown. For the species of red algae Ptilota serrata, P. gunneri and their mixture, as well as the mixture of P. serrata with another species of Rhodophyta – Fimbrifolium dichotomum and brown alga Chaetopteris plumosa, it is established that there is no need for sorting by species for further processing in the production of thickeners for the food industry. The chemical composition of red algae and their natural mixtures collected near Bolshoy Solovetsky Island is presented.
View
The carrageenan controversy
Article
Full-text available
Except for Japanese nori, the production of seaweed hydrocolloids consumes the largest amount of macroalgae annually, and carrageenan is the largest consumer of this group. However, carrageenan has run into rough water with food processors and consumers, especially those who read ingredient labels. Carrageenan is being singled out on the Internet as being unsafe for human consumption, even though it is approved for food use by all major food regulatory agencies worldwide. Most recently, it has been approved for use in liquid infant formula, a particularly sensitive application when it comes to food safety. How did this negative attitude toward carrageenan evolve? It can be traced to a research group at the University of Illinois who claim that carrageenan upregulates inflammatory genes of the intestinal epithelium. There is no evidence that this in vitro model applies in vivo and a growing body of research is showing it does not. Nevertheless, it was picked up by various bloggers feeding on contradictory issues and quickly went viral. This paper describes the evolution of the “carrageenan controversy” and provides information for food producers and consumers on new more robust studies confirming that it is safe to consume foods containing carrageenan. This article also presents actions being taken by carrageenan producers and users, to reduce the noise in the public domain from the controversy.
View
Effects of carrageenan on cell permeability, cytotoxicity, and cytokine gene expression in human intestinal and hepatic cell lines
Article
Full-text available
  • Jul 2016
  • FOOD CHEM TOXICOL
Carrageenan (CGN) is a common food additive used for its gelling and thickening properties. The present study was done to evaluate intestinal permeability, cytotoxicity, and CGN-mediated induction of proinfammatory cytokines. A standard Caco-2 absorption model showed no CGN permeability or cytotoxicity at concentrations of 100, 500, and 1000 μg/mL. In two human intestinal cell lines (HT-29 and HCT-8) CGN (0.1, 1.0, and 10.0 μg/mL) did not induce IL-8, IL-6, or MCP-1 (CCL2) or produce cellular toxicity after 24 h. The TLR4 agonist LPS produced weak induction of IL-8 in HT-29 cells and no induction in HCT-8 cells. The effects of κ-CGN (0.1, 1.0, and 10 μg/mL) on cellular oxidative stress was assessed in HT-29 cells using CM-H2DCFDA as the probe. No effect on oxidative stress was observed after 24 h. In the human (HepG2) liver cell line, ʎ-CGN (0.1, 1.0, 10.0 and 100.0 μg/mL) had no effect on the expression of IL-8, IL-6, or MCP-1 (CCL2) after 24 h. In conclusion, CGN was not absorbed, and was not cytotoxic. It did not induce oxidative stress, and did not induce proinflammatory proteins.
View
Developments in production technology of Kappaphycus in the Philippines: more than four decades of farming
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2015
Kappaphycus is one of the most significant, economically valuable red seaweeds, cultivated in tropical and subtropical waters. This alga demands a relatively high market value globally, due to applications of the kappa carrageenan colloid that is industrially extracted from the biomass. Carrageenan is widely used in food, pharmaceuticals, and nutraceuticals and for aquaculture applications. The first successful commercial cultivation of Kappaphycus (previously called Eucheuma) was recorded from the southern Philippines in the late 1960s using the line and stake method. Dramatic production increases were achieved, with the Philippines being the leading producer of Kappaphycus for more than 30 years, until it was overtaken by Indonesia (in approximately 2008). By 1988, Kappaphycus farming became widespread in Indonesia, and efforts have been undertaken to spread Kappaphycus farming to more than 30 countries worldwide. Since 2008 Kappaphycus production steadily rose in Indonesia, but production from the Philippines has tended to decline since 2011. Research and development (R&D) initiatives focusing on Kappaphycus in the Philippines emphasized the means to increase productivity and solutions to issues causing declining production. R&D focusing on Kappaphycus cultivars in the Philippines was made through the National Seaweed R&D Program. Several institutions and research centers took major steps to achieve these objectives. There were significant and relevant results obtained in studies of molecular taxonomy, factors affecting sporulation, tissue culture and mutagenesis, protoplast isolation, strain selection, mitigation of ‘ice–ice’ malaise and Neosiphonia infestations. A recent development in Kappaphycus farming was the discovery that use of an extract from a brown seaweed acts as a biostimulant to improve tolerance of cultivars to abiotic stresses. Problems and challenges encountered in the production of Kappaphycus, even after more than 40 years of farming, but which needed to be overcome, are discussed.
View
Current status of global cultivated seaweed production and markets
Article
Full-text available
  • Jun 2014
The global seaweed processing industry is estimated to utilise some 10 - 12 million tonnes of seaweeds (frozen weight) annually, sourced from ‘wild harvest’ or cultivated in on-shore and off-shore farms. Bulk of the seaweed produced globally is from aquaculture, categorised as cultivated production (FAO, 2012; Figure 1). Wild harvest of seaweeds only accounted for about 4.5% of the total seaweed production in 2010. While the cultivated seaweed production has grown by about 50% in the last 10 years, seaweeds harvested from the wild have declined significantly from about 1.2 million tonnes in 2000 to about 0.9 million tonnes in 2010. Even with seaweed farming growing rapidly over the last 10 years, the global demand for seaweed based products has surpassed supply (Lee 2008). There is a large and diverse array of applications and uses of macroalgae products. The seaweed industry is estimated to have an annual value of some US6billionandthelargestshareofthisisforfoodproducts(McHugh2003).ItisestimatedthatUS6 billion and the largest share of this is for food products (McHugh 2003). It is estimated that US5 billion of this is used for human consumption. The other US$1 billion is largely based upon extracting seaweed products such as hydrocolloids for use in products such as animal feeds and fertilizers, bioactives, etc. (Table 1; Lee 2008). It is estimated that at least 221 species of seaweeds are utilised globally, with 145 species for food and 101species for phycocolloid production. These seaweed species included 32 Chlorophytes, 125 Rhodophytes and 64 Phaeophytes (Zemke-White and Ohno, 1999). Approximately 10 species are intensively cultivated, particularly the brown algae Laminaria japonica and Undaria pinnatifida and the red algae Porphyra spp., Porphyra tenera, Eucheuma spp., Kappaphycus alvarezii and Gracilaria spp., Gracilaria verrucosa (Wikfors and Ohno, 2001). Access to the limited statistics on seaweed production is largely dependent on the annual publications of the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) such as ‘The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture’. The latest report published in 2012 only comprises of production statistics in 2010 with market data from 2009. FAO has acknowledged the shortcomings as it is continually reliant on the respective countries for the provision of the data, with production statistics often revisited and revised (Buchholz et. al., 2012). The purpose of this article is to review the latest published literature on global seaweed production statistics and tease out the finer details of this unique resource.
View
Farming Eucheuma in Zanzibar, Tanzania
Chapter
  • Jun 1993
In anticipation against shortfall of Eucheuma seaweeds for the carrageenan industry, Eucheuma farming was initiated in Zanzibar in early 1989. Cultivation of E. cottonii failed but that of E. spinosum was encouraging. The result may later place Zanzibar on the map of world seaweed producers.
View
Lab staple agar hit by seaweed shortage
Article
  • Dec 2015
Dwindling algae harvest imperils reagent essential for culturing microbes.
View
View
Seaweeds Fisheries Management in France, Japan, Chile, Norway
Article
  • Oct 2011
  • CAH BIOL MAR
Coastal communities have long gathered seaweeds for their own consumption, for animal feed and for fertilizer. The development of industrial use and trade of seaweeds generated income to local communities. The intensification of the exploitation led local communities to implement rules to regulate harvesting. This paper analyses the evolution of seaweed management regimes in four countries: France, Japan, Chile and Norway. Social justice within the communities and equity among gatherers appear to be the basic principles to these rules. Conflict avoidance is their concern much more than resource conservation. This review highlights the role played by fishers' organisations and the processing industries in the management of seaweeds.
View
Comparison of different process strategies for bioethanol production from Eucheuma cottonii: An economic study
Article
  • Aug 2015
The aim of this work was to evaluate the efficacy of red macroalgae Eucheuma cottonii (EC) as feedstock for third-generation bioethanol production. Dowex (TM) Dr-G8 was explored as a potential solid catalyst to hydrolyzed carbohydrates from EC or macroalgae extract (ME) and pretreatment of macroalgae cellulosic residue (MCR), to fermentable sugars prior to fermentation process. The highest total sugars were produced at 98.7g/L when 16% of the ME was treated under the optimum conditions of solid acid hydrolysis (8% (w/v) Dowex (TM) Dr-G8, 120°C, 1h) and 2% pretreated MCR (P-MCR) treated by enzymatic hydrolysis (pH 4.8, 50°C, 30h). A two-stream process resulted in 11.6g/L of bioethanol from the fermentation of ME hydrolysates and 11.7g/L from prehydrolysis and simultaneous saccharification and fermentation of P-MCR. The fixed price of bioethanol obtained from the EC is competitive with that obtained from other feedstocks. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
View
Evaluation of growth rate and semi-refined carrageenan properties of tissue-cultured Kappaphycus alvarezii (Rhodophyta, Gigartinales)
Article
  • Oct 2014
  • PHYCOL RES
This study aimed to evaluate and compare the quality of κ-carrageenan obtained from tissue-cultured and field-cultured Kappaphycus alvarezii. Carrageenan properties including yield, viscosity, gel strength and sulfate content were studied. After 60 days of cultivation, tissue-cultured K. alvarezii showed a higher growth rate (6.3 ± 0.01% day−1) than field-cultured seedlings (3.4 ± 0.3% day−1). The obtained carrageenan yield from tissue-cultured (67.3 ± 16.4%) was higher than field-cultured K. alvarezii (51.5 ± 21.0%). Gel viscosity of carrageenans from tissue-cultured K. alvarezii (1280.0 ± 25.0 cP) was found significantly higher than field-cultured samples (87.8 ± 20.9 cP). The 1.5% gel solution of tissue-cultured and field-cultured K. alvarezii exhibited gel strengths of 703.5 ± 14.1 and 288.3 ± 19.3 g cm−2, respectively. The average sulfate content of carrageenans was found to be significantly different between tissue-cultured and field-cultured K. alvarezii with 34.2 ± 10.9 and 7.5 ± 6.7%, respectively. Tissue culture is recommended to produce high quality seedlings by providing optimized culture conditions to the seaweed. This approach can serve as an alternative way to solve the seedling shortage problems currently faced by the seaweed industry.
View