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Abstract

Marine microscopic plastic (microplastic) debris is a modern societal issue, illustrating the challenge of balancing the convenience of plastic in daily life with the prospect of causing ecological harm by careless disposal. Here we develop the concept of microplastic as a complex, dynamic mixture of polymers and additives, to which organic material and contaminants can successively bind to form an ‘ecocorona’, increasing the density and surface charge of particles and changing their bioavailability and toxicity. Chronic exposure to microplastic is rarely lethal, but can adversely affect individual animals, reducing feeding and depleting energy stores, with knock-on effects for fecundity and growth. We explore the extent to which ecological processes could be impacted, including altered behaviours, bioturbation and impacts on carbon flux to the deep ocean. We discuss how microplastic compares with other anthropogenic pollutants in terms of ecological risk, and consider the role of science and society in tackling this global issue in the future.

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... Although waste microplastics initially lack functional groups or charges when they first appear through weathering process, they tend to acquire functional groups or charges over time as they interact with the environment [9][10][11]. Due to their diverse chemical structures and physicochemical surface properties, the modified forms of microplastics also vary widely in size, shape, chemical composition, surface charge, and reactivity [12][13][14]. Previous studies have confirmed that weathered plastic fragments typically exhibit a range of particle sizes and surface functional groups [15]. ...
... Microplastics pose significant threats to both ecosystems and human health. Due to their small size, microplastics can infiltrate various habitats, ranging from wilderness areas to densely populated urban areas, raising concerns about potential ecological impact [14]. Moreover, the pervasive use of microplastics and their ongoing environmental presence have heightened concerns about their potential risks to ecology and human health [19]. ...
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Microplastics, particularly those in the micrometer scale, have been shown to enter the human body through ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact. Recent research indicates that microplastics can potentially impact the central nervous system (CNS) by crossing the blood-brain barrier (BBB). However, the exact mechanisms of their transport, uptake, and subsequent toxicity at BBB remain unclear. In this study, we evaluated the size-dependent uptake and cytotoxicity of polystyrene microparticles using an engineered BBB model. Our findings demonstrate that 0.2 μm polystyrene microparticles exhibit significantly higher uptake and transendothelial transport compared to 1.0 μm polystyrene microparticles, leading to increased permeability and cellular damage. After 24 h of exposure, permeability increased by 15.6-fold for the 0.2 μm particles and 2-fold for the 1.0 μm particles compared to the control. After 72 h of exposure, permeability further increased by 27.3-fold for the 0.2 μm particles and a 4.5-fold for the 1.0 μm particles compared to the control. Notably, microplastics administration following TNF-α treatment resulted in enhanced absorption and greater BBB damage compared to non-stimulated conditions. Additionally, the size-dependent toxicity observed differently between 2D cultured cells and 3D BBB models, highlighting the importance of testing models in evaluating environmental toxicity. Graphical Abstract
... Thus, changes in soil hydrological characteristics caused by microplastics may have an impact on the development of soil microorganisms. When adsorbed compounds on microplastic were linked to intra-or interspecies interaction processes in the marine environment, trophic implications as well as other ecological effects were observed [39]. The tissue distribution rate of growth, biological enzyme activity, reproduction, and oxidative damage are among the factors that are affected by MNP toxicity. ...
Article
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Plastics are used across the world. Microplastics of size less than 5 mm and nanoplastics of size less than 0.1 μm are the result of huge plastic waste fragmentation or straight environmental emissions. Microplastics are present into personal hygiene items like facial makeup and cleansers and nanoplastics are present in paints, adhesives, electronics, and 3D printing. Microplastics are produced from various industries such as the flocking, plastics, and textile industries. Micro and nano plastics (MNPs) have a poor rate of degradation, great affinity for other pollutants, and high toxicity in water. MNPs pollution is a global problem that poses risks to human health and the environment including plants and animals. It also disturbs the operation of water and wastewater treatment plants. For the removal of MNPs from aqueous solution, the development of nanotechnology and the incorporation of nanomaterials in adsorption, photocatalysis and the membrane filtration realizes a conceptual technique to exceed the limitations of the conventional methods. Adsorbents based on nanomaterials, like layered double hydroxides, bio and carbon-based, metal-organic frameworks, are utilized for the removal of MNPs from water. The magnetic nano-Fe3O4 can efficiently remove microplastics from water via surface absorption. The electrospun nanofiber membranes can remove MNPs from wastewater with 90% of removal efficiency. Recently, bionanomaterials are prevalent for the green remediation of microplastics because of their biocompatibility, biodegradability, non-toxicity, and minimal environmental impact. Microplastics are removed from water via bionanomaterials like chitosan-coated magnetic nanoparticles, silk, and lignin. This review is focused on various nanotechnologies especially bionanomaterials used for the removal of MNPs from aqueous environment. Further research is required in the direction of removal of nanoplastics through different bionanomaterials because of their mobility, small size, toxicity, and accumulation tendency.
... Several researchers have reported that microplastics are capable of adsorbing and transporting toxic substances, such as heavy metals and organic pollutants, thereby amplifying their toxic effects on plants. Additionally, microplastics may contain or release substances that disrupt physiological processes in plants [12][13][14][15][16]. ...
Article
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Microplastic pollution poses a significant threat to environmental and human health. This study investigated the toxicological and genotoxic effects of various microplastic types (polystyrene (PS), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polypropylene (PP), and polyethylene (PE)) on plant and animal models. Aqueous extracts of microplastics in different size fractions (0.175 mm, 0.3 mm, 1 mm, 2 mm, and 3 mm) were evaluated for their impact on barley seed germination and cell division. Results indicated that smaller microplastic fractions exhibited higher toxicity, particularly for PP and PE. Significant reductions in germination rates and root growth were observed, along with increased chromosomal aberrations in barley cells. Furthermore, the migration of formaldehyde, a known toxicant, from microplastics exceeded permissible limits. These findings highlight the potential risks associated with microplastic pollution, particularly in drinking water sources. Future research should focus on the long-term health impacts of microplastic exposure, including carcinogenic potential, and explore the synergistic effects with other pollutants. Stricter regulations on microplastic pollution and advancements in water treatment technologies are urgently needed to mitigate these risks.
... Microplastics was defined as plastic particles <5 mm, it can be divided in to "primary MPs" (intentionally produced small plastic particles) and "secondary MPs" (formed from breakdown of larger plastic material) according to sources. Microplastics have become an exemplary indication of man-made waste and driver of environmental pollution [4]. Primary MPs are derived from a wide range of sources, including synthetic fibers from clothing, polymer manufacturing and processing industries, and personal care products [5], while secondary MPs originate from the breakdown of plastic debris [6]. ...
Article
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Microplastics (MPs), plastic particles smaller than 5 mm, have emerged as a significant environmental concern, particularly as contaminants originating from landfills. Landfills can serve as a major source of MPs, potentially releasing them into surface water through leachate. This study aims to investigate the contamination of MPs in leachate and surface water, as well as to evaluate the efficiency of landfill wastewater treatment in removing these particles. The research was conducted at the Waste Management Center of the Nonthaburi Provincial Administrative Organization, Thailand, with samples collected in June 2023. Sampling included two leachate sources, influent and effluent from the treatment system and surface water. The abundance and characteristics of MPs in each sample were analyzed. Results indicated a significant presence of MPs in leachate, with an average concentration of 173.98 pieces/L, while concentrations in influent, effluent and surface water were 38.40 pieces/L, 10.80 pieces/L and 11.33 pieces/L, respectively. MPs in all samples were predominantly in the size range of 16-100 µm, corresponding to 71.28-93.75% of the total particles. Polypropylene was the dominant polymer in leachate (69.66%) and effluent (48.94%), whereas acrylate copolymer (96.53%) and polytetrafluoroethylene (44.12%) were the major types found in influent and surface water, respectively. The wastewater treatment system of the landfill demonstrated an overall removal efficiency of 71.88% for MPs in leachate. These findings highlight the extent of MP contamination in landfill environments and the importance of improving treatment processes to mitigate their release into surrounding ecosystems.
... Large molecules and microorganisms colonize the surface of MPs to form an eco-corona (Galloway et al., 2017). For example, certain foodborne pathogens settle on the surface of the MPs and then begin to proliferate (Tavelli et al., 2022). ...
Article
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Microplastics (MPs) refer to tiny plastic particles, typically smaller than 5 mm in size. Due to increased mask usage during COVID‐19, improper disposal has led to masks entering the environment and releasing MPs into the surroundings. MPs can absorb environmental hazards and transfer them to humans and animals via the food chain, yet their impacts on food safety and human health are largely neglected. This review summarizes the release process of MPs from face masks, influencing factors, and impacts on food safety. Highlights are given to the prevalence of MPs and their combined toxicities with other environmental hazards. Control strategies are also explored. The release of MPs from face masks is affected by environmental factors like pH, UV light, temperature, ionic strength, and weathering. Due to the chemical active surface and large surface area, MPs can act as vectors for heavy metals, toxins, pesticides, antibiotics and antibiotic resistance genes, and foodborne pathogens through different mechanisms, such as electrostatic interaction, precipitation, and bioaccumulation. After being adsorbed by MPs, the toxicity of these environmental hazards, such as oxidative stress, cell apoptosis, and disruption of metabolic energy levels, can be magnified. However, there is a lack of comprehensive research on both the combined toxicities of MPs and environmental hazards, as well as their corresponding control strategies. Future research should prioritize understanding the interaction of MPs with other hazards in the food chain, their combined toxicity, and integrating MPs detection and degradation methods with other hazards.
... Impacts on Earth system processes: Complex cascades Plastics are penetrating deeply into Earth's biophysical systems through multiple pathways (Figure 2). A macroscale perspective on health and toxicity effects of plastics pollution is now emerging, scaling up from subcellular and population 99 to ecosystem level, 100 giving a basis for a control variable based on exposures of species and organisms to plastics pollution as a measure of effects on biosphere integrity. We also propose a control variable based on effects on the other processes in the planetary boundaries framework, where multiple Earth system interactions are affected in essentially irreversible ways by plastics, bringing a precautionary approach and long time scale into the frame. ...
... The marine ecosystem is one of the largest ecosystems on Earth, providing a large number of resources and services that maintain global climate stability and biodiversity. However, with the increase in human activities and the intensification of climate change, marine ecosystems are subject to more and more ecological risks [1][2][3][4]. Therefore, ecological risk assessment and early warning of marine ecosystems are very necessary. ...
Article
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With the rapid economic development, the increase of human activities in coastal areas, the continuous discharge of pollutants from land-based sources into the sea, and the increase in the protection of offshore by the sea-related management departments, the judgment of early warning level of marine ecosystems is therefore of great significance. The article is based on the survey and monitoring data of Ocean A in 2022-2023 and utilizes MNDWI and Otsu to extract marine multimodal remote sensing data. Then, the environmental status of A ocean is analyzed. By constructing the early warning indicator system of A marine ecosystem based on the P-R-S model and exploring the integrated analysis method of BP ANN in the marine ecosystem, the condition of A marine ecosystem was warned, and the results were analyzed. The results show that from 2020 to 2023, the degree of sustainable development of A marine ecosystem will be in the state of “light warning”-a strong degree of sustainable development.
... This research will help to answer key knowledge gaps regarding the effect of microplastics on recruitment, species populations, and, ultimately, broader economic consequences, such as impacts on shell and finfish stocks. Understanding the potential effects of microplastics across all biological levels is the key to developing effective risk assessments (Galloway et al. 2017). Research on this topic within the BLP has begun to appear in the scientific literature, focusing on filter feeder megafauna (Galli et al. 2023); however, studies on organisms at the lowest trophic levels, such as zooplankton, are still scarce. ...
Article
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The Bay of La Paz (BLP) is located in the southwestern portion of the Gulf of California (GC), the largest and deepest coastal environment along the gulf. The BLP is recognized for its high biological diversity and is a place of refuge, growth, and feeding for several emblematic species, some of which are critically endangered. However, what makes the BLP productive? This paper presents a synthesis and review of the physical processes and mechanisms related to planktonic production, which are directly linked to productivity at higher trophic levels, including top predators. This review reveals that the BLP has a high richness and abundance of plankton species. Several hydrodynamic processes at different scales exert a marked influence on these organisms, including internal waves, hydraulic jumps, thermohaline fronts, the presence of a dipole eddy, and a quasi-permanent cyclonic eddy that is confined to the bay, which induces Ekman pumping that determines the availability of nutrients in the euphotic zone. This eddy induces a differential phytoplankton distribution, with a predominance of dinoflagellates in its center and the dominance of diatoms in its periphery. This arrangement is closely linked to that of zooplankton. Herbivorous zooplankton are highly abundant in the periphery of the eddy, while omnivorous zooplankton are dominant in the center. In contrast, carnivorous zooplankton are dominant in the GC. Although significant progress has been made in understanding the dynamics of the BLP over the last two decades, gaps remain unaddressed. This review highlights the areas of opportunity to continue advancing this endeavor, achieve a better scientific understanding of the region, and propose better management and conservation plans for this highly diverse area.
... Many of these plastics do not truly degrade and instead produce monomer "clumps" of various sizes, thus maintaining a risk of lingering contamination [9][10][11][12]. In all cases of plastic disposal, micro/nanoplastics (MNP) present an immediate concern to the environment and aquatic species [13]. MNPs are now detected around the world from degrading plastic waste, with various reports and research articles demonstrating the presence of these many forms [14][15][16][17][18]. ...
Article
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The presence of sub-micron-sized plastics in the environment has been increasing, with the possible risks of these particles remaining relatively unknown. In order to assess the toxicity of these particles, 100 nm diameter green fluorescent nano-polystyrene spheres (NPS) (20–60 mg/L) were exposed to zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha) to investigate the mortality, clearance rate and stress-related biomarker responses. D. polymorpha were collected and analysed with standard OECD toxicological tests and biomarker analysis to detect both physical and biochemical responses after exposure to NPS. The toxicity of the NPS to D. polymorpha was low, with 60 mg/L NPS causing a mortality rate of 11.1% at 96 h which was statistically significant compared to the 4.2% control. No statistical change could be found for the condition factor (kc) of D. polymorpha after NPS exposure. Clearance rates in D. polymorpha using R. subcapitata algae showed NPS-exposed mussels had a reduction of filtering efficiency of up to 30.5%. Bioassay testing shows a mixed but undeniably negative response from the D. polymorpha to the NPS, notably a significant rise in DNA Strand Breaks (DSB) and Metallothionein (MT) responses for high NPS concentrations. Additionally, Lipid Peroxidation (LPO) and Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP) assay tests showed a significant increase in response from the higher (>40 mg/L) concentrations of NPS exposure. Although Glutathione S-Transferase (GST) assay showed no statistical change from the control for all NPS-exposed samples, an increase of 20% had occurred for 60 mg/L NPS. Overall, a minimal toxic response from D. polymorpha to the NPS exposure below 40 mg/L was seen. After 40 mg/L NPS, mussels presented more acute toxicity in terms of mortality, along with reduced algal clearance rates and anincrease in biomarker response. This study revealed a clear induction of oxidative stress and DSB in the digestive gland of zebra mussels following exposure to nano-polystyrene. While these findings provide valuable insights into the potential harmful effects of nanoplastics in freshwater bivalves, further studies are necessary to help understand the level of threat plastic pollution may pose to the health of freshwater ecosystems.
... The size and shape of microplastic fragments are diverse and vary along continuous scales (Kooi and Koelmans, 2019). Microplastics comprise polymers and chemical additives at various states of weathering, and environmental conditions can enhance their complexity, for example through absorption of chemical contaminants and biofilm formation (Galloway et al., 2017;Burns and Boxall, 2018). Our results showed that FM treatment was associated with high levels of film-shaped Greek lowercase letters indicate significant differences (P < 0.05) between treatments in NM and FM, respectively. ...
Article
Film mulching decreased soil organic C content in soil aggregates with 0.053–0.25 mm diameter. Fiber-shaped microplastics readily combined with the soil aggregates of 0.053–0.25 mm in diameter. Film- and granule-shaped microplastics were dominant in 0.25–2 mm soil aggregates. Natural and human activities changed the shape and size distribution of particle in soil. Microplastic distribution is non-homogeneous in agricultural soil following plastic film degradation. However, the distribution of microplastics by shape and particle size in different soil aggregates remains unknown. To elucidate the distribution of microplastic shapes and particle sizes in soil aggregates with increasing years of film mulching, four paired fields with film mulching (FM) and no mulching (NM) were examined at 1, 5, 10, and 20 years after continuous mulching. An increase in soil aggregates of 0.053–0.25 mm diameter was observed; however, soil organic carbon content decreased after long-term FM. Microplastics primarily combined with 0.053–2 mm soil aggregates. Specifically, long-term FM was associated with dominance of film- and fiber-shaped microplastics in soil aggregates of 0.25–2 mm and 0.053–0.25 mm diameter, respectively. Fiber- and granule-shaped microplastics of 0.25–1 mm diameter primarily combined with 0.053–0.25 and 0.25–2 mm soil aggregates, respectively. Film-shaped microplastics of diameter > 1 mm and diameter 0.05–0.25 mm primarily combined with 0.25–2 mm soil aggregates. Therefore, distribution of microplastics in soil aggregates can be used to monitor soil health and quality, greatly enhancing our understanding of the risk posed by microplastics to the environment.
... There is a wealth of published information on the detrimental effects of MPs in the marine environment (Choi et al. 2020;Paul-Pont et al. 2016;Besseling et al. 2015;Simmonds 2012;Galgani et al. 2023), but no studies, so far have looked into, the impacts of MP on marine trace metal biogeochemistry. ...
Article
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Microplastics (MP) pollution is a pressing concern in today’s marine environments. MPs can significantly affect marine ecosystems by altering nutrient and pollutant dynamics. This review analyses the existing literature to investigate interactions between MPs and micronutrients/pollutants, specifically trace and toxic metals in marine environments. It explores the adsorption of metals onto MP surfaces, emphasizing kinetics, isotherms, and underlying mechanisms of the process. The review highlights the potential consequences of MPs on the biogeochemical cycles of trace and toxic metals, emphasizing disruptions that could result in metal toxicity, metal limitations, reduced bioavailability, and adverse effects on primary productivity in marine ecosystems. It further underscores the need for future research to unravel the wide-ranging implications of MPs on trace and toxic metal cycling in marine ecosystems and their broader environmental impacts.
... Furthermore, it is crucial to establish uniform procedures for collecting sediment samples and conducting microplastic analysis. This methodology guarantees the dependability and consistency of data, making it easier to conduct thorough evaluations of the occurrence and patterns of microplastics over a period of time (Galloway, 2017). Ultimately, it is crucial to evaluate the e cacy of existing MPA rules and management strategies in reducing the impact of microplastic pollution and its buildup. ...
Preprint
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Global marine ecosystems are seriously threatened by microplastic contamination, which has prompted extensive research to determine its distribution and effects. This study uses glider operating data to analyze microplastic concentrations in the Al Hoceima Marine Protected Area (MPA). Our goal is to pinpoint spatial patterns that indicate hotspots for pollution and provide information for focused conservation initiatives. We seek to identify areas with higher microplastic concentrations by closely examining Microplastic Level graphs; we pay particular attention to temporal fluctuations. The findings show some interesting trends, like larger densities in the vicinity of fishing harbors and metropolitan centers, which may be related to human activity. Furthermore, we note fluctuations in pollution levels during various glider operation cycles, highlighting the significance of comprehending the spatiotemporal dynamics of microplastic dispersion. The marine protected area zones that have lower microplastic concentrations demonstrate how effective marine protected areas are at mitigating the consequences of pollution, highlighting the importance of conservation initiatives in preserving biodiversity and ecosystem resilience. In the end, our study broadens our knowledge of the stresses that humans place on marine environments and emphasizes the need of preventative conservation efforts to protect marine ecosystems from the dangers of microplastic pollution.
... Despite this growing interest, there have been few studies investigating NPs in aquatic organisms, mainly due to limitations in extraction and detection methods (Al-Thawadi, 2020; Benson et al., 2022). The potential for trophic transfer and biomagnification of MPs in aquatic food webs is a critical issue that needs to be addressed to assess the ecological risks of MP pollution (Galloway et al., 2017). However, the mechanisms and factors that influence the trophic transfer and biomagnification of MPs are still poorly understood, and more research is needed to quantify the extent of these processes and their implications for aquatic ecosystems. ...
Article
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The ecological threats of microplastics (MPs) have sparked research worldwide. However, changes in the topics of MP research over time and space have not been evaluated quantitatively, making it difficult to identify the next frontiers. Here, we apply topic modeling to assess global spatiotemporal dynamics of MP research. We identified nine leading topics in current MP research. Over time, MP research topics have switched from aquatic to terrestrial ecosystems, from distribution to fate, from ingestion to toxicology, and from physiological toxicity to cytotoxicity and genotoxicity. In most of the nine leading topics, a disproportionate amount of independent and collaborative research activity was conducted in and between a few developed countries which is detrimental to understanding the environmental fates of MPs in a global context. This review recognizes the urgent need for more attention to emerging topics in MP research, particularly in regions that are heavily impacted but currently overlooked. Graphical abstract
... At the time of writing in 2022, over 4028 marine species have been reportedly exposed to lethal and sublethal impacts of marine debris, including entanglement, drowning, starvation, laceration of internal tissues, deprivation of oxygen and light, toxicological harm, and physiological stress (Tekman et al., 2022). The accumulation of plastic pollution in food webs can influence the entire ecosystem, with chronic exposure altering global carbon cycling through its impact on primary production and plankton in aquatic systems, ultimately leading to animal and human health risks (Galloway et al., 2017;United Nations Environment Programme, 2021a). ...
Chapter
Marine plastic pollution has increased exponentially despite global recognition of its impact on the environment. This chapter examines the extent of the problem and then explores the governance and socio-ecological aspects of marine plastics pollution in coastal and marine environments. We argue that well designed and implemented governance arrangements can bridge the gap between science and policy. Holistic, integrated approaches that include key stakeholders such as governments, industry, civil society, and communities are integral to successful future governance. We offer suggestions for ways forward on how to reduce plastic production and consumption to save our marine and coastal environments.
... Selain itu, mikroplastik yang tersebar di lingkungan juga dapat mengganggu rantai makanan, dengan potensi efek jangka panjang yang merusak pada ekosistem laut. Upaya untuk mengatasi pencemaran plastik melibatkan berbagai langkah, termasuk pengurangan penggunaan plastik sekali pakai, peningkatan daur ulang plastik, investasi dalam infrastruktur pengelolaan limbah yang lebih baik, serta kampanye kesadaran masyarakat tentang bahaya pencemaran plastik (Galloway et al., 2017). ...
... PET was also found in both sediment and water in the studied areas due to its vast usages in various industries, including plastic bottles, food packaging, textiles, packing containers, jars, thermoformed trays, and medical devices and equipment due to its beneficial properties (Andrady et al., 2011;Andrady, 2015;Geyer et al., 2017). SSP included cellulose, cotton, and rayon, a substance created from a combination of natural polymers and synthetic additives that can contaminate water systems due to industrial discharges, incorrect waste disposal, and runoff (Galloway et al., 2017). Semisynthetic materials can undergo degradation, releasing MPs, and contributing to their presence in water and sediment (Geyer et al., 2017). ...
Article
Microplastics (MPs) have recently emerged as a significant environmental problem with devastating consequences for organisms. Understanding MPs pollution in the Bay of Bengal is crucial for assessing its ecological impact on marine biodiversity and human health. This study examined the occurrence, spatial distribution, physical and chemical properties, ecological risks, and probable sources of MPs in estuarine and coastal marine environments in the northeastern Bay of Bengal. The average concentration of MPs in surface water of the Karnaphuli estuary, the Meghna estuary, and the southeastern coastal region were 916.7±462.6 items/m3, 462.9±324.5 items/m3, and 350.0±190.5 items/m3 respectively, varying from 105.0±324.5 items/m3 to 1 640.0±462.6 items/m3. In the sediments of the Karnaphuli estuary, the Meghna estuary, and the southeast coast of Bangladesh, the average amount of MPs were 94.3±33.1 items/kg, 157.6±89.0 items/kg, and 134.3±38.7 items/kg, with a range of 60± 33.1 items/kg to 334.3±89.0 items/kg. Most observed MPs were fibers (60.0% in the water; 56.0% in the sediments), followed by fragments and lines. Detected MPs were dominated by polypropylene (20.7%) in the water, and acrylic (15.4%) in the sediment, black colored (76.2% in the water, 72.7% in the sediments), and 200–500 µm sized (48% in the water, 37% in the sediments). Pollution Risk Index (PRI) indicated significant pollution levels (from medium to very high) in estuarine and coastal areas. Multi-statistical analysis indicated land-based inputs (tourists, local waste, agriculture, and industry) dominated the studied regions. The study emphasized the potential impact of MPs pollution on aquatic ecosystems, emphasizing the need for effective management, mitigation methods, continuous surveillance, and thorough evaluation.
... More than 1,400 marine vertebrate species have been reported to interact with or be affected by plastic debris worldwide (Gall and Thompson, 2015;Claro et al., 2019). Plastic pollution poses a threat to marine megafauna, causing both lethal and sub-lethal effects, such as entanglement and ingestion, which can impair an individual's ability to acquire resources, maintain health, and reproduce successfully (Laist, 1997;Li et al., 2016;Galloway et al., 2017;Senko et al., 2020). Carr (1987) was the first to report the ingestion of plastic in wild sea turtles, providing evidence that the pelagic-phase of these animals, during which immature turtles are passive migrants, is increasingly invaded by plastic marine debris. ...
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Marine vertebrates, particularly green sea turtles, are especially vulnerable to plastic pollution through ingestion or entanglement. This study investigated wild juvenile green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas) from two Ecuadorian national parks (Galápagos and Machallilla) to assess the prevalence of plastic pollution in their feces and its potential impact on various health metrics. We analyzed fecal samples from 46 juvenile green sea turtles using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) to quantify microplastics (MPs). A complementary methodology using pressurized liquid extraction with double-shot pyrolysis-mass spectrometry gas chromatography (Pyr-GC/MS) was also employed to quantify synthetic polymer mass concentrations. The results from these analyses were compared with blood analytes. FT-IR analysis revealed a mean of 4.4±5.2 MPs/g in fecal samples, with the highest quantities found in the Galápagos Marine Reserve (GMR). The most common MPs shape identified were fibers (x̄= 3.8±4.5 MPs/g), and the predominant synthetic polymers were polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH) and polyacrylates (PMMA). The daily intake of MPs by the sampled turtles ranged from a minimum of 312±409 MPs/day to a maximum of 430±563 MPs/day. Pyr-GC/MS analysis detected polyethylene (PE) with a mean of 367±1158 µg/g and polypropylene (PP) with a mean of 155±434 µg/g in fecal samples, with the highest pollution levels observed in the GMR. Both FT-IR and Pyr-GC/MS techniques detected plastic pollution in 98% of the sampled population. Although both FT-IR and Pyr-GC/MS are reliable methods, they produced slightly different results due to methodological variations. However, both supported the finding that turtles in the GMR were exposed to higher rates of plastic ingestion. Despite the turtles appearing clinically healthy based on blood analysis, significant differences in eleven health metrics were observed between turtles classified as less at risk and those most at risk for plastic pollution. Further research is necessary to understand the potential health implications of these findings.
... They primarily consist of various plastic materials, such as polystyrene (PS), polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) [9,10]. MNPs can also be defined by their sizes; plastic particles smaller than 5 mm are referred to as microplastics, and further degraded microplastics smaller than 0.1 µm are specifically referred to as nanoplastics [11,12]. ...
Article
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Pollution by microplastics and nanoplastics (MNPs) raises concerns, not only regarding their environmental effects, but also their potential impact on human health by internalization via the small intestine. However, the detailed pathways of MNP internalization and their toxicities to the human intestine have not sufficiently been understood, thus, further investigations are required. This work aimed to understand the behavior of MNPs, using in vitro human intestine models, tri-culture models composed of enterocyte Caco-2 cells, goblet-like HT29-MTX-E12 cells, and microfold cells (M cells) induced by the lymphoblast cell line Raji B. Three sizes (50, 100, and 500 nm) of polystyrene (PS) particles were exposed as MNPs on the culture model, and size-dependent translocation of the MNPs and the contributions of each cell were clarified, emphasizing the significance of the tri-culture model. In addition, potential concerns of MNPs were suggested when they invaded the circulatory system of the human body.
... 14−18 Microplastic particles are rarely directly responsible for the death of living organisms. 19 However, they may have an impact on cellular and subcellular levels. 20,21 For instance, they may trigger oxidative stress, membrane damage, an immunological response, or tissue inflammation that results in cellular toxicity. ...
Article
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Around the world, microplastic pollution is pervasive and is regarded as the biggest threat to all ecosystems. We conducted the present study to determine the prevalence of microplastics MPs, their polymer hazard risk PHI, and any potential sources of these particles in the estuary of Muttukadu Backwater, Southeast Coast of India. Microplastics were extricated from surface water and sediment by the wet peroxide method, identified by a stereo zoom microscope SM, and characterized by ATR-FTIR and SEM-EDS analysis. The average microplastic abundance in sediment and surface water was 815±158 particles Kg−1 and 195±38 particles m−3, respectively. The most common microplastics based on shapes were fibers and fragments in both sediment and surface water, with blue and green-colored microplastics being the most frequently observed colors. Type II polymer particles 1.00 to <3.00 mm are dominant particles in sediment 36%, and type I 3.00 mm – 5.00 mm particles dominate in surface water samples 49%. Energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer EDS results showed that the following chemical elements, such as O, C, Cl, Fe, Na, Al, K, Ca, and Si, as well as the order of the trace metal Pb > Cr > Ni > Co > As > Cu > Cd > Zn, are observed by microplastics of all sediment sampling location. The pollution load index PI, polymer hazard index PHI, and potential ecological risk PER index models revealed varying level of risk. The polymer hazard index PHI reveals that both water and sediments are moderate to highly MP contamination. The hazards of polymers such as polyethylene, polystyrene, polyester, and polyamide significantly contributed to hazard level IV. Inadequate plastic waste management, human habitation and tourism, rapid industrialization, and coastal construction are the main sources of microplastic contamination in the study area. The proper guidelines, potential policies, and technological interventions are much needed to reduce the microplastic contamination along Southeast Coast of India.
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Background There has been an exponential increase in the number of studies reporting on the toxicological effects associated with exposure to nano and microplastic particles (NMPs). The majority of these studies, however, have used monodispersed polystyrene microspheres (PSMs) as ‘model’ particles. Here we review the differences between the manufacture and resulting physicochemical properties of polystyrene used in commerce and the PSMs most commonly used in toxicity studies. Main body In general, we demonstrate that significant complexity exists as to the properties of polystyrene particles. Differences in chemical composition, size, shape, surface functionalities and other aspects raise doubt as to whether PSMs are fit-for-purpose for the study of potential adverse effects of naturally occurring NMPs. A realistic assessment of potential health implications of the exposure to environmental NMPs requires better characterisation of the particles, a robust mechanistic understanding of their interactions and effects in biological systems as well as standardised protocols to generate relevant model particles. It is proposed that multidisciplinary engagement is necessary for the development of a timely and effective strategy towards this end. We suggest a holistic framework, which must be supported by a multidisciplinary group of experts to work towards either providing access to a suite of environmentally relevant NMPs and/or developing guidance with respect to best practices that can be adopted by research groups to generate and reliably use NMPs. It is emphasized that there is a need for this group to agree to a consensus regarding what might best represent a model NMP that is consistent with environmental exposure for human health, and which can be used to support a variety of ongoing research needs, including those associated with exposure and hazard assessment, mechanistic toxicity studies, toxicokinetics and guidance regarding the prioritization of plastic and NMPs that likely represent the greatest risk to human health. It is important to acknowledge, however, that establishing a multidisciplinary group, or an expert community of practice, represents a non-trivial recommendation, and will require significant resources in terms of expertise and funding. Conclusion There is currently an opportunity to bring together a multidisciplinary group of experts, including polymer chemists, material scientists, mechanical engineers, exposure and life-cycle assessment scientists, toxicologists, microbiologists and analytical chemists, to provide leadership and guidance regarding a consensus on defining what best represents environmentally relevant NMPs. We suggest that given the various complex issues surrounding the environmental and human health implications that exposure to NMPs represents, that a multidisciplinary group of experts are thus critical towards helping to progress the harmonization and standardization of methods.
Chapter
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Perfluorinated constitute a class of non-polluting antifouling materials. The perfluorinated surfactants have been studied and used in our laboratory for biological tests. The results have shown that they have an effect that is all the faster the higher their concentration. When they are combined with coumarins, their duration of action increases, become specific and exhibit extraordinary physicochemical properties namely, flexibility, elasticity, chemical inertia ....Field tests in the port of the city of Oran (Algeria) have confirmed that soluble matrix paints formulated with this hybrid (perfluorinated coumarins) as antifouling agents have succeeded in preventing the attachment of soiling organisms. With this in mind, our objective is to study in a comparative way the properties of this new material with those of the commercial Micron Extra EU. The composition of this surfactant used is determined by nuclear magnetic resonance (1H NMR), the aggregation characteristics and the glass transition temperature of the surfactant are evaluated by Differential Enthalpy Analysis (DSC).
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Plastic debris is ingested by hundreds of species of organisms, from zooplankton to baleen whales, but how such a diversity of consumers can mistake plastic for their natural prey is largely unknown. The sensory mechanisms underlying plastic detection and consumption have rarely been examined within the context of sensory signals driving marine food web dynamics. We demonstrate experimentally that marine-seasoned microplastics produce a dimethyl sulfide (DMS) signature that is also a keystone odorant for natural trophic interactions. We further demonstrate a positive relationship between DMS responsiveness and plastic ingestion frequency using procellariiform seabirds as a model taxonomic group. Together, these results suggest that plastic debris emits the scent of a marine infochemical, creating an olfactory trap for susceptible marine wildlife.
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An important issue in assessing microplastics is whether this newly emerging type of pollution affects freshwater invertebrates. This study was designed to examine the interactions between the amphipod Gammarus fossarum and two types of microplastics. To determine the ingestion and egestion of polyamide (PA) fibres (500 × 20 μm), amphipods were exposed to four concentrations (100, 540, 2680, 13,380 PA fibres cm⁻² base area of glass beakers) and four exposure times (0.5, 2, 8, 32 h) as well as four post-exposure times (1, 2, 4, 16 h). We demonstrate a positive correlation between concentration and ingestion of PA fibres. Fibres were found in the gut after 0.5 h of exposure. Egestion was rapid and the digestive tract was empty 16 h after exposure ended. To investigate whether polystyrene (PS) beads (1.6 μm) can be taken up in the epithelial cells of the gut and the midgut glands, four concentrations (500, 2500, 12,500, 60,000 PS beads mL⁻¹) were tested. Cryosections exhibited fluorescent PS beads only within the gut lumen. In a 28-day feeding experiment with both, fibres and beads, we studied the amphipod’s feeding rate, assimilation efficiency and wet weight change. The exposure to PA fibres (2680 PA fibres cm⁻² base area of glass beakers) significantly reduced the assimilation efficiency of the animals. While both tested polymer types are ingested and egested, PA fibres can impair the health and ecological functions of freshwater amphipods under continuous exposure.
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Microplastics are ubiquitous in the marine environment worldwide, and may cause a physical and chemical risk to marine organisms. Their small size makes them bioavailable to a range of organisms with evidence of ingestion at all levels of the marine ecosystem. Despite an increasing body of research into microplastics, few studies have explored how consumption changes complex behaviours such as predator avoidance and social interactions. Pollutant exposure can result in alterations in behaviour that not only leads to sub optimal conditions for individual organisms but may also serve as a warning sign for wider effects on a system. This research assessed the impacts of microplastics on the ecology of coastal biota using beachhoppers (Platorchestia smithi) as model organisms. We exposed beachhoppers to marine-contaminated microplastics to understand effects on survival and behaviour. Beachhoppers readily ingested microplastics, and there was evidence for accumulation of microplastics within the organisms. Exposure tests showed that microplastic consumption can affect beachhopper survival. Individuals also displayed reduced jump height and an increase in weight, however, there was no significant difference in time taken to relocate shelter post disturbance. Overall, these results show that short-term ingestion of microplastics have an impact on survival and behaviour of P. smithi. A reduction in the capacity for beachhoppers to survive and function may have flow on effects to their local environment and higher trophic levels.
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In this study, we evaluated accumulation and adverse effects on ingestion of microplastic in the monogonont rotifer (Brachionus koreanus). The dependence of microplastic toxicity on particle size was investigated by measuring several in vivo endpoints and studying the ingestion and egestion using 0.05, 0.5, and 6 µm non-functionalized polystyrene microbeads. To identify the defense mechanisms activated in response to microplastic exposure, the activities of several antioxidant-related enzymes and the phosphorylation status of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) were determined. Exposure to polystyrene microbeads of all sizes led to significant size-dependent effects, including reduced growth rate, reduced fecundity, decreased lifespan and longer reproduction time. Rotifers exposed to 6 µm fluorescently-labeled microbeads did not exhibit almost any fluorescence after 24 h, while rotifers exposed to 0.05 and 0.5 µm fluorescently labeled microbeads displayed fluorescence until 48 h, suggesting that 6 µm microbeads are more effectively egested from B. koreanus than 0.05 or 0.5 µm microbeads. This observation provides a potential explanation for our findings that microbead toxicity was size-dependent and smaller microbeads were more toxic. In vitro tests revealed that antioxidant-related enzymes and MAPK signaling pathways were significantly activated in response to microplastic exposure in a size-dependent manner.
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Concerns are being raised that microplastic pollution can have detrimental effects on the feeding of aquatic invertebrates, including zooplankton. Both small plastic fragments (microplastics, MPs) produced by degradation of larger plastic waste (secondary MPs; SMPs) and microscopic plastic spheres used in cosmetic products and industry (primary MPs; PMPs) are ubiquitously present in the environment. However, despite the fact that most environmental MPs consist of weathered plastic debris with irregular shape and broad size distribution, experimental studies of organism responses to MP exposure have largely used uniformly sized spherical PMPs. Therefore, effects observed for PMPs in such experiments may not be representative for MP-effects in situ. Moreover, invertebrate filter-feeders are generally well adapted to the presence of refractory material in seston, which questions the potential of MPs at environmentally relevant concentrations to measurably affect digestion in these organisms. Here, we compared responses to MPs (PMPs and SMPs) and naturally occurring particles (kaolin clay) using the cladoceran Daphnia magna as a model organism. We manipulated food levels (0.4 and 9 μg C mL-1) and MP or kaolin contribution to the feeding suspension (
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The hypothesis that 'microplastic will transfer hazardous hydrophobic organic chemicals (HOC) to marine animals' has been central to the perceived hazard and risk of plastic in the marine environment. The hypothesis is often cited and has gained momentum, turning it into paradigm status. We provide a critical evaluation of the scientific literature regarding this hypothesis. Using new calculations based on published studies, we explain the sometimes contrasting views and unify them in one interpretive framework. One explanation for the contrasting views among studies is that they test different hypotheses. When reframed in the context of the above hypothesis, the available data become consistent. We show that HOC microplastic-water partitioning can be assumed to be at equilibrium for most microplastic residing in the oceans. We calculate the fraction of total HOC sorbed by plastics to be small compared to that sorbed by other media in the ocean. We further demonstrate consistency among (a) measured HOC transfer from microplastic to organisms in the laboratory, (b) measured HOC desorption rates for polymers in artificial gut fluids (c) simulations by plastic-inclusive bioaccumulation models and (d) HOC desorption rates for polymers inferred from first principles. We conclude that overall the flux of HOCs bioaccumulated from natural prey overwhelms the flux from ingested microplastic for most habitats, which implies that microplastic ingestion is not likely to increase the exposure to and thus risks of HOCs in the marine environment.
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Human activity is leaving a pervasive and persistent signature on Earth. Vigorous debate continues about whether this warrants recognition as a new geologic time unit known as the Anthropocene. We review anthropogenic markers of functional changes in the Earth system through the stratigraphic record. The appearance of manufactured materials in sediments, including aluminum, plastics, and concrete, coincides with global spikes in fallout radionuclides and particulates from fossil fuel combustion. Carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycles have been substantially modified over the past century. Rates of sea-level rise and the extent of human perturbation of the climate system exceed Late Holocene changes. Biotic changes include species invasions worldwide and accelerating rates of extinction. These combined signals render the Anthropocene stratigraphically distinct from the Holocene and earlier epochs. Copyright
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The increasing global production and use of plastics has led to an accumulation of enormous amounts of plastic litter in the world’s oceans. Characteristics such as low density, good mechanical properties and low cost allow for successful use of plastics in industries and everyday life but the high durability leads to persistence of the synthetic polymers in the marine environment where they cause harm to a great variety of organisms. In the diverse marine habitats, including beaches, the sea surface, the water column, and the seafloor, plastics are exposed to different environmental conditions that either accelerate or decelerate the physical, chemical and biological degradation of plastics. Degradation of plastics occurs primarily through solar UV-radiation induced photo oxidation reactions and is, thus, most intensive in photic environments such as the sea surface and on beaches. The rate of degradation is temperature-dependent resulting in considerable deceleration of the processes in seawater, which is a good heat sink. Below the photic zone in the water column, plastics degrade very slowly resulting in high persistence of plastic litter especially at the seafloor. Biological decomposition of plastics by microorganisms is negligible in the marine environment because the kinetics of biodegradation at sea is particularly slow and oxygen supply for these processes limited. Degradation of larger plastic items leads to the formation of abundant small microplastics. The transport of small particles to the seafloor and their deposition in the benthic environment is facilitated by the colonization of the material by fouling organisms, which increase the density of the particles and force them to sink. © 2015, Springer International Publishing. All Rights Reserved.
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The presence of pollutants on plastic debris is an emerging environmental hot topic. Understanding the surface alteration of plastics while in the marine environment increases our understanding of the pollutanteplastic debris interaction. Plastic pellets are widely distributed throughout the world oceans. Eroded and virgin polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP) pellets were studied for their surface properties to better understand the interaction between plastic and compounds in marine environment. Surface properties such as point of zero charge, surface area and pore volume, surface topography, functional groups and acidebase behavior are important factors which affect sorption. Virgin plastic pellets had homogeneous smooth surfaces that do not have any acidebase behavior. Eroded PE demonstrates an altered surface that at seawater pH acquires a negative charge due to ketone groups. The uneven surface and possible functional groups could have been formed from the erosion processes while floating at the sea surface and might explain the interaction of eroded plastics with microbes and metals.
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Biological significance: Daphnia magna are an important environmental indicator species who may be especially sensitive to nanoparticles (NPs) as a result of being filter-feeders. This paper demonstrates for the first time that proteins released by Daphnia magna create an eco-corona around polystyrene NPs which causes heightened uptake of the NPs and consequently increases toxicity. The secreted protein eco-corona also causes the NPs to be less efficiently removed from the gut of D. magna and NPs remaining in the gut of D. magna affected the rate of subsequent feeding. Thus, fate of NPs in the environment should be evaluated and monitored under more realistic exposure scenarios.
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Plastics are highly versatile materials that have brought huge societal benefits. They can be manufactured at low cost and their lightweight and adaptable nature has a myriad of applications in all aspects of everyday life, including food packaging, consumer products, medical devices and construction. By 2050, however, it is anticipated that an extra 33 billion tonnes of plastic will be added to the planet. Given that most currently used plastic polymers are highly resistant to degradation, this influx of persistent, complex materials is a risk to human and environmental health. Continuous daily interaction with plastic items allows oral, dermal and inhalation exposure to chemical components, leading to the widespread presence in the human body of chemicals associated with plastics. Indiscriminate disposal places a huge burden on waste management systems, allowing plastic wastes to infiltrate ecosystems, with the potential to contaminate the food chain. Of particular concern has been the reported presence of microscopic plastic debris, or microplastics (debris ≤1 mm in size), in aquatic, terrestrial and marine habitats. Yet, the potential for microplastics and nanoplastics of environmental origin to cause harm to human health remains understudied. In this article, some of the most widely encountered plastics in everyday use are identified and their potential hazards listed. Different routes of exposure to human populations , both of plastic additives, microplastics and nanoplastics from food items and from discarded debris are discussed. Risks associated with plastics and additives considered to be of most concern for human health are identified. Finally, some recent developments in delivering a new generation of safer, more sustainable polymers are considered.
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Each year vast amounts of plastic are produced worldwide. When released to the environment, plastics accumulate, and plastic debris in the world´s oceans is of particular environmental concern. More than 60% of all floating debris in the oceans is plastic and amounts are increasing each year. Plastic polymers in the marine environment are exposed to sunlight, oxidants and physical stress, and over time they weather and degrade. The degradation processes and products must be understood to detect and evaluate potential environmental hazards. Some attention has been drawn to additives and persistent organic pollutants that sorb to the plastic surface, but so far the chemicals generated by degradation of the plastic polymers themselves have not been well studied from an environmental perspective. In this paper we review available information about the degradation pathways and chemicals that are formed by degradation of the six plastic types that are most widely used in the Europe. We extrapolate that information to likely pathways and possible degradation products under environmental conditions found on the oceans’ surface. The potential degradation pathways and products depend on the polymer type. UV-radiation and oxygen are the most important factors that initiate degradation of polymers with a carbon-carbon backbone, leading to chain scission. Smaller polymer fragments formed by chain scission are more susceptible to biodegradation and therefore abiotic degradation is expected to precede biodegradation. When heteroatoms are present in the main chain of a polymer, degradation proceeds by photo-oxidation, hydrolysis, and biodegradation. Degradation of plastic polymers can lead to low molecular weight polymer fragments, like monomers and oligomers, and formation of new end groups, especially carboxylic acids.
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This study aimed to determine whether the uptake and localization of Ag in zebrafish was affected by the presence of polyethylene microplastic beads (PE MPBs). Zebrafish were exposed to 1 μg Ag L(-1) (radiolabelled with (110m)Ag) for 4 and 24 h in the presence or absence of PE MPBs (10, 100 or 1000 MPBs mL(-1)), and one treatment in which MPBs (1000 MPBs mL(-1)) were incubated with Ag to promote adsorption. The presence of MPBs, at any of the tested doses, had no effect on the uptake or localization of Ag. However, exposure to the Ag-incubated MPBs (∽75% of the Ag bound to MPBs) significantly reduced Ag uptake at both time points and also significantly increased the proportion of intestinal Ag. This study demonstrates that microplastics can alter the bioavailability and uptake route of a metal contaminant in a model fish species. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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A growing body of literature reports on the abundance and effects of plastic debris, with an increasing focus on microplastic particles smaller than 5 mm. It has often been suggested that plastic particles in the <100 nm size range as defined earlier for nanomaterials (here referred to as 'nanoplastics'), may be emitted to or formed in the aquatic environment. Nanoplastics is probably the least known area of marine litter but potentially also the most hazardous. This paper provides the first review on sources, effects and hazards of nanoplastics. Detection methods are in an early stage of development and to date no nanoplastics have actually been detected in natural aquatic systems. Various sources of nanoplastics have been suggested such as release from products or nanofragmentation of larger particles. Nanoplastic fate studies for rivers show an important role for sedimen-tation of heteroaggregates, similar to that for non-polymer nanomaterials. Some prognostic effect studies have been performed but effect thresholds seem higher than nanoplastic concentrations expected in the environment. The high surface area of nanoplastics may imply that toxic chemicals are retained by nanoplastics, possibly increasing overall hazard. Release of non-polymer nanomaterial additives from small product fragments may add to the hazard of nanoplastics. Because
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Humans have brought about unprecedented changes to environments worldwide. For many species, behavioral adjustments represent the first response to altered conditions. In this review, we consider the pivotal role that behavior plays in determining the fate of species under human-induced environmental change and highlight key research priorities. In particular, we discuss the importance of behavioral plasticity and whether adaptive plastic responses are sufficient in keeping pace with changing conditions. We then examine the interplay between individual behavioral responses and population processes and consider the many ways in which changes in behavior can affect ecosystem function and stability. Lastly, we turn to the evolutionary consequences of anthropogenic change and consider the impact of altered behaviors on the evolutionary process and whether behavior can facilitate or hinder adaptation to environmental change.
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Archaea are widespread in marine sediments, but their occurrence and relationship with natural salinity gradients in estuarine sediments is not well understood. This study investigated the abundance and diversity of Archaea in sediments at three sites [Brightlingsea (BR), Alresford (AR) and Hythe (HY)] along the Colne Estuary, using quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) of 16S rRNA genes, DNA hybridization, Archaea 16S rRNA and mcrA gene phylogenetic analyses. Total archaeal 16S rRNA abundance in sediments were higher in the low-salinity brackish sediments from HY (2-8 × 10(7) 16S rRNA gene copies cm(-3)) than the high-salinity marine sites from BR and AR (2 × 10(4)-2 × 10(7) and 4 × 10(6)-2 × 10(7) 16S rRNA gene copies cm(-3), respectively), although as a proportion of the total prokaryotes Archaea were higher at BR than at AR or HY. Phylogenetic analysis showed that members of the 'Bathyarchaeota' (MCG), Thaumarchaeota and methanogenic Euryarchaeota were the dominant groups of Archaea. The composition of Thaumarchaeota varied with salinity, as only 'marine' group I.1a was present in marine sediments (BR). Methanogen 16S rRNA genes from low-salinity sediments at HY were dominated by acetotrophic Methanosaeta and putatively hydrogentrophic Methanomicrobiales, whereas the marine site (BR) was dominated by mcrA genes belonging to methylotrophic Methanococcoides, versatile Methanosarcina and methanotrophic ANME-2a. Overall, the results indicate that salinity and associated factors play a role in controlling diversity and distribution of Archaea in estuarine sediments. © The Author 2014. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Federation of European Microbiological Society.
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Marine snow is a continuous shower of organic and inorganic detritus, and plays a crucial role in transporting materials from the sea surface to the deep ocean. The aims of the current study were to identify N-acyl homoserine lactone (AHL)-based quorum sensing (QS) signaling molecules directly from marine snow particles and to investigate the possible regulatory link between QS signals and extracellular hydrolytic enzymes produced by marine snow bacteria. The marine snow samples were collected from the surface water of China marginal seas. Two AHLs, i.e. 3OC6-HSL and C8-HSL, were identified directly from marine snow particles, while six different AHL signals, i.e. C4-HSL, 3OC6-HSL, C6-HSL, C10-HSL, C12-HSL and C14-HSL were produced by Pantoea ananatis B9 inhabiting natural marine snow particles. Of the extracellular hydrolytic enzymes produced by P. ananatis B9, alkaline phosphatase activity was highly enhanced in growth medium supplemented with exogenous AHL (C10-HSL), while quorum quenching enzyme (AiiA) drastically reduced the enzyme activity. To our knowledge, this is the first report revealing six different AHL signals produced by P. ananatis B9 and AHL-based QS system enhanced the extracellular hydrolytic enzyme in P. ananatis B9. Furthermore, this study first time revealing 3OC6-HSL production by Paracoccus carotinifaciens affiliated with Alphaproteobacteria. © FEMS 2014. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.
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Microplastics are an emerging marine pollutant. It is important to understand their distribution in the marine environment and their implications on marine habitats and marine biota. Microplastics have been found in almost every marine habitat around the world, with plastic composition and environmental conditions significantly affecting their distribution. Marine biota interact with microplastics including birds, fish, turtles, mammals and invertebrates. The biological repercussions depend on to the size of microplastics encountered, with smaller sizes having greater effects on organisms at the cellular level. In the micrometre range plastics are readily ingested and egested, whereas nanometre-sized plastics can pass through cell membranes. Despite concerns raised by ingestion, the effects of microplastic ingestion in natural populations and the implications for food webs are not understood. Without knowledge of retention and egestion rates of field populations, it is difficult to deduce ecological consequences. There is evidence to suggest that microplastics enter food chains and there is trophic transfer between predators and prey. What is clear is that further research on a variety of marine organisms is required to understand the environmental implications of microplastics in more detail and to establish effects in natural populations.
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Due to sampling difficulties, little is known about microbial communities associated with sinking marine snow in the twilight zone. A drifting sediment trap was equipped with a viscous cryo gel and collected intact marine snow from 100 and 400 m off Cape Blanc (Mauretania). Marine snow aggregates were fixed and washed in situ to prevent changes in microbial community composition and to enable subsequent analysis using catalyzed reporter deposition fluorescence in situ hybridization (CARD-FISH). The attached microbial communities collected at 100 m were similar to the free-living community at the depth of fluorescence maximum (20 m), but different from those from other depths (150, 400, 550, and 700 m). Therefore, the attached microbial community seemed to be "inherited" from that of the fluorescence maximum. The attached microbial community structure at 400 m differed both from that attached at 100 m as well as any free-living community at the tested depths. The differences between the particle-associated communities at 400 m and 100 m appeared to be due to internal changes in the attached microbial community rather than de novo colonization, detachment, or grazing during the sinking of marine snow. The new sampling method presented here will facilitate future investigations into the mechanisms that shape the bacterial community within sinking marine snow, leading to better understanding of the mechanisms which regulate biogeochemical cycling of settling organic matter. Copyright © 2014, American Society for Microbiology. All Rights Reserved.
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Plastic pollution is ubiquitous throughout the marine environment, yet estimates of the global abundance and weight of floating plastics have lacked data, particularly from the Southern Hemisphere and remote regions. Here we report an estimate of the total number of plastic particles and their weight floating in the world’s oceans from 24 expeditions (2007–2013) across all five sub-tropical gyres, costal Australia, Bay of Bengal and the Mediterranean Sea conducting surface net tows (N5680) and visual survey transects of large plastic debris (N5891). Using an oceanographic model of floating debris dispersal calibrated by our data, and correcting for wind-driven vertical mixing, we estimate a minimum of 5.25 trillion particles weighing 268,940 tons. When comparing between four size classes, two microplastic ,4.75 mm and meso- and macroplastic .4.75 mm, a tremendous loss of microplastics is observed from the sea surface compared to expected rates of fragmentation, suggesting there are mechanisms at play that remove ,4.75 mm plastic particles from the ocean surface.
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Significance High concentrations of floating plastic debris have been reported in remote areas of the ocean, increasing concern about the accumulation of plastic litter on the ocean surface. Since the introduction of plastic materials in the 1950s, the global production of plastic has increased rapidly and will continue in the coming decades. However, the abundance and the distribution of plastic debris in the open ocean are still unknown, despite evidence of affects on organisms ranging from small invertebrates to whales. In this work, we synthetize data collected across the world to provide a global map and a first-order approximation of the magnitude of the plastic pollution in surface waters of the open ocean.
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Microplastics collected at sea harbour a high diversity of microorganisms including some Vibrio genus members, raising questions about the role of microplastics as a novel ecological niche for potentially pathogenic microorganisms. In the present study we investigated the adhesion dynamics of Vibrio crassostreae on polystyrene microparticles (micro-PS) using electronic and fluorescence microscopy techniques. Micro-PS were incubated with bacteria in different media (Zobell culture medium and artificial seawater) with or without natural marine aggregates. The highest percentage of colonised particles (38-100%) was observed in Zobell culture medium, which may be related to nutrient availability for production of pili and exopolysaccharide adhesion structures. A longer bacterial attachment (6 days) was observed on irregular micro-PS compared to smooth particles (<10h) but complete decolonisation of all particles eventually occurred. The presence of natural marine agreggates around micro-PS led to substantial and perennial colonisation featuring monospecific biofilms at the surface of the aggregates. These exploratory results suggest that V. crassostreae may be a secondary coloniser of micro-PS, requiring a multi-species community to form a durable adhesion phenotype. Temporal assessment of microbial colonisation on microplastics at sea using imaging and omics approaches are further indicated to better understand the microplastics colonisation dynamics and species assemblages.
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Marine bivalves are known to ingest microplastics, but information on the consequences for their physiological performance is limited. To investigate a potential exposure pathway that has not yet been addressed, we mimicked the resuspension of microplastics from the sediment in a laboratory exposure experiment. For this, we exposed the Asian green mussel Perna viridis to 4 concentrations (0mg/l, 21.6mg/l, 216mg/l, 2160mg/l) of suspended polyvinylchloride (PVC) particles (1-50μm) for two 2-hour-time-periods per day. After 44days, mussel filtration and respiration rates as well as byssus production were found to be a negative function of particle concentration. Furthermore, within 91days of exposure, mussel survival declined with increasing PVC abundance. These negative effects presumably go back to prolonged periods of valve closure as a reaction to particle presence. We suggest that microplastics constitute a new seston component that exerts a stress comparable to natural suspended solids.
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Microscopic plastic (microplastic) debris is a marine pollutant that threatens aquatic biota and ecosystems. Microplastics have been detected throughout the world's oceans; however, the relative importance of different processes that control the spatial distribution and long-term fate of microplastics in the marine environment remains largely unknown. Results from laboratory and field studies indicate that interactions between microplastic debris and marine organisms may play an important role in redistributing plastic in the oceans. We provide an overview of the various mechanisms through which marine life and microplastics can interact. By considering coupled physical–biological processes, we also identify regions where these interactions are most likely to occur, and outline a new research agenda that aims to determine their prevalence in the marine environment. We hypothesize that biological interactions are key to understanding the movement, impact, and fate of microplastics in the oceans.
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The effects of polystyrene microbeads (micro-PS; mix of 2 and 6 μm; final concentration: 32 μg L−1) alone or in combination with fluoranthene (30 μg L−1) on marine mussels Mytilus spp. were investigated after 7 days of exposure and 7 days of depuration under controlled laboratory conditions. Overall, fluoranthene was mostly associated to algae Chaetoceros muelleri (partition coefficient Log Kp = 4.8) used as a food source for mussels during the experiment. When micro-PS were added in the system, a fraction of FLU transferred from the algae to the microbeads as suggested by the higher partition coefficient of micro-PS (Log Kp = 6.6), which confirmed a high affinity of fluoranthene for polystyrene microparticles. However, this did not lead to a modification of fluoranthene bioaccumulation in exposed individuals, suggesting that micro-PS had a minor role in transferring fluoranthene to mussels tissues in comparison with waterborne and foodborne exposures. After depuration, a higher fluoranthene concentration was detected in mussels exposed to micro-PS and fluoranthene, as compared to mussels exposed to fluoranthene alone. This may be related to direct effect of micro-PS on detoxification mechanisms, as suggested by a down regulation of a P-glycoprotein involved in pollutant excretion, but other factors such as an impairment of the filtration activity or presence of remaining beads in the gut cannot be excluded. Micro-PS alone led to an increase in hemocyte mortality and triggered substantial modulation of cellular oxidative balance: increase in reactive oxygen species production in hemocytes and enhancement of anti-oxidant and glutathione-related enzymes in mussel tissues. Highest histopathological damages and levels of anti-oxidant markers were observed in mussels exposed to micro-PS together with fluoranthene. Overall these results suggest that under the experimental conditions of our study micro-PS led to direct toxic effects at tissue, cellular and molecular levels, and modulated fluoranthene kinetics and toxicity in marine mussels.
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Over the past twenty years microplastic pollution has been recorded in all major marine habitats, and is now considered to be of high environmental concern. Correspondingly, the number of reports of microplastic ingestion by marine species is increasing. Despite this, there are still relatively few studies which address the uptake and retention of microplastic in wild populations. Langoustine, Nephrops norvegicus, sampled from the Clyde Sea Area, have previously been seen to contain large aggregations of microplastic fibres. The large proportion of contaminated individuals and size of the microplastic aggregations observed suggests that Nephrops are at high risk of microplastic ingestion. In this study the levels of ingested microplastic in populations of N. norvegicus from the Clyde Sea Area, North Minch and North Sea are examined. Animals in the near-shore, Clyde Sea population showed both a higher percentage of microplastic containing individuals and much greater weights of microplastic retained in the gut. N. norvegicus revealed that only a small percentage of individuals from the North Sea and Minch contained microplastic, predominantly single strands. An expanded sample from the Clyde Sea Area was examined to identify the factors influencing microplastic retention. This revealed that males, larger individuals, and animals that had recently moulted contained lower levels of microplastic. The presence of identified food items in the gut was not seen to correlate with microplastic loads. Observations of microplastic in the shed stomach lining of recently moulted individuals and the lack of aggregations in wild-caught individuals suggests that ecdysis is the primary route of microplastic loss by N. norvegicus. Therefore the large aggregations observed in wild-caught animals are believed to build up over extended periods as a result of the complex gut structure of N. norvegicus.
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Recent studies revealed that freshwaters are not only polluted by chemicals, but also by persistent synthetic material like microplastics (plastic particles <1 mm). Microplastics include a diverse range of characteristics, e.g. polymer type, size or shape, but also their tendency to sorb pollutants or release additives. Although there is rising concern about the pollution of freshwaters by microplastics, knowledge about their potential effects on organisms is limited. For a better understanding of their risks, it is crucial to unravel which characteristics influence their effects on organisms. Analysing effects by the mere particles is the first step before including more complex interactions e.g. with associated chemicals. The aim of this study was to analyse potential physical effects of microplastics on one representative organism for limnic zooplankton (Daphnia magna). We investigated whether microplastics can be ingested and whether their presence causes adverse effects after short-term exposure. Daphnids were exposed for up to 96 h to 1-μm and 100-μm polyethylene particles at concentrations between 12.5 and 400 mg L(-1). Ingestion of 1-μm particles led to immobilisation increasing with dose and time with an EC50 of 57.43 mg L(-1) after 96 h. 100-μm particles that could not be ingested by the daphnids had no observable effects. These results underline that, considering high concentrations, microplastic particles can already induce adverse effects in limnic zooplankton. Although it needs to be clarified if these concentrations can be found in the environment these results are a basis for future impact analysis, especially in combination with associated chemicals.
Article
In this work, we present for the first time undeniable evidence of nano-plastic occurrence due to solar light degradation of marine micro-plastics under controlled and environmentally representative conditions. As observed during our recent expedition (Expedition 7th Continent), plastic pollution will be one of the most challenging ecological threats for the next generation. Up to now, all studies have focused on the environmental and the economic impact of millimeter scale plastics. These plastics can be visualized, collected and studied. We are not aware of any studies reporting the possibilities of nano-plastics in marine water. Here, we developed for the first time a new solar reactor equipped with a nanoparticle detector to investigate the possibility of the formation of nano-plastics from millimeter scale plastics. With this system, correlated with electronic microscopy observations, we identified for the first time the presence of plastics at the nano-scale in water due to UV degradation. Based on our observations large fractal nano-plastic particles (i.e., >100 nm) are produced by UV light after the initial formation of the smallest nano-plastic particles (i.e., <100 nm). These unprecedented results show the new and unprecedented potential hazards of plastic waste at the nanoscale, which had not been taken into account previously.
Article
Plastic debris is a widespread contaminant, prevalent in aquatic ecosystems across the globe. Zooplankton readily ingest microscopic plastic (microplastic, < 1 mm), which are later egested within their faecal pellets. These pellets are a source of food for marine organisms, and contribute to the oceanic vertical flux of particulate organic matter as part of the biological pump. The effects of microplastics on faecal pellet properties are currently unknown. Here we test the hypotheses that (1) faecal pellets are a vector for transport of microplastics, (2) polystyrene microplastics can alter the properties and sinking rates of zooplankton egests and, (3) faecal pellets can facilitate the transfer of plastics to coprophagous biota. Following exposure to 20.6 μm polystyrene microplastics (1000 microplastics mL(-1)) and natural prey (∼1650 algae mL(-1)) the copepod Calanus helgolandicus egested faecal pellets with significantly (P < 0.001) reduced densities, a 2.25-fold reduction in sinking rates, and a higher propensity for fragmentation. We further show that microplastics, encapsulated within egests of the copepod Centropages typicus, could be transferred to C. helgolandicus via coprophagy. Our results support the proposal that sinking faecal matter represents a mechanism by which floating plastics can be vertically transported away from surface waters.
Article
There are certain human environmental perturbations so major that they are capable of destabilizing the earth’s normal function at a global scale (1). These so-called planetary boundary threats include climate change, ozone depletion, and ocean acidification. Emerging as a novel addition to this list is the vast quantity of discarded plastic waste that is accumulating in the oceans on an unprecedented scale, where it breaks down to form microscopic and nanoscopic fragments, or microplastics. Microplastics (particles with a diameter <1 mm, with no lower limit) derive from progressive fragmentation of larger plastic items, or may be manufactured to be of a small size, for use in personal care products, medicines, and industry (2). They reach the seas through beach littering, road runoff, sewage, and illegal dumping activities. Microplastics are ubiquitous in marine waters, from deep ocean sediments to polar icecaps, a result of the estimated 8 million tons of plastic that enters the oceans each year (3). Despite calls for plastic to be reclassified as hazardous (4), legislation to restrict marine debris accumulation is hindered by a lack of evidence that it causes ecological harm. In PNAS, Sussarellu et al. (5) provide an important starting point for assembling this evidence: Using an integrative approach, they show that ingestion of microplastics during gametogenesis has impacts on feeding and reproduction in oysters, with negative impacts on adult fecundity and offspring quality, both of which are key components of an organism’s individual fitness.
Article
Significance Plastics are a contaminant of emerging concern accumulating in marine ecosystems. Plastics tend to break down into small particles, called microplastics, which also enter the marine environment directly as fragments from a variety of sources, including cosmetics, clothing, and industrial processes. Given their ubiquitous nature and small dimensions, the ingestion and impact of microplastics on marine life are a cause for concern, notably for filter feeders. Oysters were exposed to polystyrene microparticles, which were shown to interfere with energy uptake and allocation, reproduction, and offspring performance. A drop in energy allocation played a major role in this reproductive impairment. This study provides ground-breaking data on microplastic impacts in an invertebrate model, helping to predict ecological impact in marine ecosystems.
Book
Synthesizing decades of work, but up-to-date, this book focuses on organism-level responses to pollutants by marine animals, mainly crustaceans, molluscs, and fishes. Emphasizing effects on physiological processes (feeding/digestion, respiration, osmoregulation), life-cycle (reproduction [including endocrine disruption], embryo development, larval development, developmental processes later in life (growth, regeneration, molting, calcification, cancer), and behaviour, the book also covers bioaccumulation and detoxification of contaminants, and the development of tolerance. The major pollutants covered are metals, organic compounds (oil, pesticides, industrial chemicals), nutrients and hypoxia, contaminants of emerging concern, and ocean acidification. Some attention is also devoted to marine debris and noise pollution. © 2014 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht. All rights are reserved.
Article
Plastic debris is a prolific contaminant effecting freshwater and marine ecosystems across the globe. Of growing environmental concern are 'microplastics' and 'nanoplastics', encompassing tiny particles of plastic derived from manufacturing and macroplastic fragmentation. Pelagic zooplankton are susceptible to consuming microplastics, however the threat posed to larvae of commercially important bivalves is currently unknown. We exposed Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas) larvae (3-24 d.p.f.) to polystyrene particles spanning 70 nm-20 µm in size, including plastics with differing surface properties, and tested the impact of microplastics on larval feeding and growth. The frequency and magnitude of plastic ingestion over 24 hours varied by larval age and size of polystyrene particle (ANOVA, P<0.01), and surface properties of the plastic, with aminated particles ingested and retained more frequently (ANOVA, P<0.01). A strong, significant correlation between propensity for plastic consumption and plastic load per organism was identified (Spearmans, r=0.95, P<0.01). Exposure to 1 and 10 µm PS for up to 8 days had no significant effect on C. gigas feeding or growth at <100 microplastics mL-1. In conclusion, whilst micro- and nanoplastics were readily ingested by oyster larvae, exposure to plastic concentrations exceeding those observed in the marine environment resulted in no measurable effects on the development or feeding capacity of the larvae over the duration of the study.
Article
Microscopic plastic fragments (<5mm) are a worldwide conservation issue, polluting both coastal and marine environments. Fibres are the most prominent plastic type reported in the guts of marine organisms, but their effects once ingested are unknown. This study investigated the fate of polypropylene rope microfibres (1-5mm in length) ingested by the crab, Carcinus maenas, and the consequences for the crab's energy budget. In chronic 4 week feeding studies, crabs which ingested food containing microfibres (0.3-1.0% plastic by weight) showed reduced food consumption (from 0.33g d-1 to 0.03g d-1) and a significant reduction in energy available for growth (scope for growth) from 0.59 kJ crab d-1 to -0.31 kJ crab d-1 in crabs fed with 1% plastic. The polypropylene microfibres were physically altered by their passage through the foregut, and were excreted with a smaller overall size and length, and amalgamated into distinctive balls. These results support of the emerging paradigm that a key biological impact of microplastic ingestion is a reduction in energy budgets for the affected marine biota. We also provide novel evidence of the biotransformations that can affect the plastics themselves following ingestion and excretion.
Article
Anthropogenic debris contaminates marine habitats globally, leading to several perceived ecological impacts. Here, we critically and systematically review the literature regarding impacts of debris from several scientific fields to understand the weight of evidence regarding the ecological impacts of marine debris. We quantified perceived and demonstrated impacts across several levels of biological organization that make up the ecosystem and found 366 perceived threats of debris across all levels. Two hundred and ninety-six of these perceived threats were tested, 83% of which were demonstrated. The majority (82%) of demonstrated impacts were due to plastic, relative to other materials (e.g., metals, glass) and largely (89%) at suborganismal levels (e.g., molecular, cellular, tissue). The remaining impacts, demonstrated at higher levels of organization (i.e., death to individual organisms, changes in assemblages), were largely due to plastic marine debris (>1 mm; e.g., rope, straws, and fragments). Thus, we show evidence of ecological impacts from marine debris, but conclude that the quantity and quality of research requires improvement to allow the risk of ecological impacts of marine debris to be determined with precision. Still, our systematic review suggests that sufficient evidence exists for decision makers to begin to mitigate problematic plastic debris now, to avoid risk of irreversible harm.