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Interactions of microplastic debris throughout the marine ecosystem
Abstract
Marine microscopic plastic (microplastic) debris is a modern societal issue, illustrating the challenge of balancing the convenience of plastic in daily life with the prospect of causing ecological harm by careless disposal. Here we develop the concept of microplastic as a complex, dynamic mixture of polymers and additives, to which organic material and contaminants can successively bind to form an ‘ecocorona’, increasing the density and surface charge of particles and changing their bioavailability and toxicity. Chronic exposure to microplastic is rarely lethal, but can adversely affect individual animals, reducing feeding and depleting energy stores, with knock-on effects for fecundity and growth. We explore the extent to which ecological processes could be impacted, including altered behaviours, bioturbation and impacts on carbon flux to the deep ocean. We discuss how microplastic compares with other anthropogenic pollutants in terms of ecological risk, and consider the role of science and society in tackling this global issue in the future.
... Globally, approximately 50% of the 300 million tonnes of plastic produced per year are intended for a single use before being discarded, resulting in a growing burden of waste that can contaminate rivers and the ocean (Galloway et al., 2017a). Around 4.8-12.7 million tonnes of plastic waste enter the marine environment annually, and such a continuous increase generates five trillion pieces of plastic in the seawater (Jambeck et al., 2015). ...
... This occurs because plastic polymers are not biodegradable and may persist in the environment for long periods, ranging from decades to hundreds of years. Plastics tend to fragment in the environment and result in large or small pieces depending on the different actions to which they are submitted (i.e., physical, chemical, and mechanical); these actions are responsible for increasing the number of such particles in the water (Jambeck et al., 2015;Galloway et al., 2017a). The presence of plastic has been recorded in oceans of every geographical region (Klein et al., 2018;Jambeck et al., 2015;Law & Thompson, 2014). ...
... Microplastics have been shown to carry significant amounts of harmful substances added to their composition during their production; these additives are responsible for a few different proprieties that are conferred to them (Wang et al., 2015). In addition, they attract other substances when on the water's surface due to their hydrophobic nature, including persistent organic pollutants (POPs), plant matter, bacteria, chemical contaminants, additives, monomers, oligomers, and metals that are adsorbed by the plastic's surface (Teuten et al., 2009;Galloway & Lewis, 2017;Galloway et al., 2017a;Cole et al., 2019). This makes microplastics more harmful to organisms that inevitably absorb these substances by ingestion or breathing (Watts et al., 2014;Galloway et al., 2017b). ...
Plastic pollution represents a threat to marine ecosystems and has therefore been gaining space in the realm of public interest. In this study, we investigated the ingestion of food and non-food items (i.e., plastic particles) by fish and crabs. These animals are commonly collected by trawling with a double-ring net along the coast of Cananéia, state of São Paulo, Brazil; some of them are consumed as food by the local population. Fish and crab stomachs were removed and dissected, and their contents were examined under a stereoscopic microscope with an image-capturing system. The presence or absence of plastic was also registered. We examined 139 specimens of 16 fish species and 143 specimens of four crab species. The most frequent food items found in fish were unidentified food, followed by crustaceans, molluscs, polychaetes, and other fish; in crabs, the items were unidentified food, followed by crustaceans, molluscs and fish. Plastic particles were found in all fish species, representing 47.5% of the individuals analysed. In crabs, the incidence of plastic was lower, occurring in only two species (5% in Callinectes danae and 3% in C. ornatus). Only four fish species analysed had previous records of plastic ingestion in the scientific literature. The high incidence of microplastics in our study is worrying because they negatively affect the animals’ lives and can be transferred through the tropic web to top predators, including humans, through the ingestion of contaminated animals.
... The use of MPs in medical studies demonstrated low translocation efficiency (translocation efficiency < 0.05%) of particles <5 μm, while this translocation efficiency was 0.2-10% for NPs [185,186]. As the size decreases, the surface-to-volume ratio and reactivity of the particles increases, facilitating membrane interactions and barrier crossing [187][188][189]. Depending on the surface properties, the ability of NPs to cross barriers changes. ...
... In the marine domain, NP translocation has been observed experimentally in several fish species [194][195][196], in clams [164] and in daphnia [197,198]. The potential passage of MPs (<10 μm) and NPs could be promoted or reduced depending on the chemical nature of the eco-or bio-corona via membrane recognition mechanisms [177,187,199,200]. In the case of translocation, the retention time would increase, and the release of the particles would prove difficult. ...
... Based on laboratory exposures, ingestion of MPs is rarely lethal to exposed organisms. However, the accumulation or simple transit of these particles in the digestive tract and external organs (e.g., gills) can cause disturbances at different scales: molecular, cellular, individual and population [187,201]. It should be noted that in some cases the effects observed after exposure to plastic particles could be associated with the release of chemical compounds (e.g., additives), but this remains to be further studied [202]. ...
Microplastics are small plastic particles that come from the degradation of plastics, ubiquitous in nature and therefore affect both wildlife and humans. They have been detected in many marine species, but also in drinking water and in numerous foods, such as salt, honey and marine organisms. Exposure to microplastics can also occur through inhaled air. Data from animal studies have shown that once absorbed, plastic micro-and nanoparticles can distribute to the liver, spleen, heart, lungs, thymus, reproductive organs, kidneys and even the brain (crosses the blood-brain barrier). In addition, microplastics are transport operators of persistent organic pollutants or heavy metals from invertebrate organisms to other higher trophic levels. After ingestion, the additives and monomers in their composition can interfere with important biological processes in the human body and can cause disruption of the endocrine, immune system; can have a negative impact on mobility, reproduction and development; and can cause carcinogenesis. The pandemic caused by COVID-19 has affected not only human health and national economies but also the environment, due to the large volume of waste in the form of discarded personal protective equipment. The remarkable increase in global use of face masks, which mainly contain polypropylene, and poor waste management have led to worsening microplastic pollution, and the long-term consequences can be extremely devastating if urgent action is not taken.
... Hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) is used to liquefy organic derivates and acts as an oxidative source that helps to cleanse the sample [51]. Digestion through enzymes is costlier than other techniques and destructive types of approaches [52,53]. ...
... The slow breakdown of microplastics has been connected to microbial immobilization, although the empirical proof for immobilization is currently lacking [41]. Furthermore, microplastics may serve as media that introduce phytotoxic substances into the soil, thus adversely affecting plant roots and health [53]. Generally, by altering soil structure and microbial diversity, microplastics could alter plant diversity and community composition. ...
... Nonetheless, while postulates were made by relating alteration in soil biophysical properties to the impacts of microplastics on plants, there are few studies to prove the postulates. In addition, microplastics may be used for the emergence of phytotoxic substances into the soil, negatively impacting plant health [8,12,53]. In general, microplastics could alter plant diversity and community composition by altering soil structure and microbial diversity. ...
In recent times, the existence of microplastics in the food chain has emerged as a physiological stressor and a multifactorial food safety issue, necessitating an immediate strategic perspective due to the associated human health and eco-toxicological risks. To the best of our knowledge, edible fruit crop facts have not yet been compiled, despite their presence in various food webs. Due to the risks associated with the public’s health when consuming products (e.g., fruit crops) that contain a high concentration of microplastic pollutants, a strategic approach to the emerging issue is essential. In this review, we discussed the possible sources of microplastics and their effect on horticultural crops, soil, and microorganisms; the techniques used to know the constitution of microplastics; the eco-toxicity of microplastics and their derivatives on horticultural crops; and suggested mitigation measures and public policies on control alternatives. This research aims to help environmentalists, biotechnologists, and policymakers understand the mechanism and dynamics of microplastics in soils and edible parts so that potential risks can be mitigated in advance.
... These threats include ingestion, entanglement, and habitat degradation, which have sublethal and lethal effects on marine animals. Chronic exposure to PP can affect feeding, energy, growth, health, and reproductive output (Gall and Thompson, 2015;Li et al., 2016;Galloway et al., 2017;Law, 2017;Lavers et al., 2019;Senko et al., 2020;Yamashita et al., 2021). Accumulation of PP in marine food webs can affect the entire ecosystem (Galloway et al., 2017;Smith et al., 2018). ...
... Chronic exposure to PP can affect feeding, energy, growth, health, and reproductive output (Gall and Thompson, 2015;Li et al., 2016;Galloway et al., 2017;Law, 2017;Lavers et al., 2019;Senko et al., 2020;Yamashita et al., 2021). Accumulation of PP in marine food webs can affect the entire ecosystem (Galloway et al., 2017;Smith et al., 2018). Moreover, the plastic pollution crisis is more pronounced in protected oceanic and isolated islands (Lavers and Bond, 2017). ...
Plastic pollution (PP) is an ongoing, pervasive global problem that represents a risk to the Galápagos archipelago, despite it being one of the world's most pristine and well-protected regions. By working closely with citizen scientists, we aimed to quantify and map the magnitude and biological effects of PP. With macroplastic abundance ranging from 0.003 to 2.87 items/m2, our research indicates that all five sampled Galápagos bioregions are contaminated with PP along their coastlines. The distribution of this debris is not uniform, with macroplastics significantly higher on the windward shores. Based on the identification information found on the examined items, Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) was the most predominant type of plastic originating from both consumer and fisheries-based products deriving primarily from Perú, China, and Ecuador. The top three manufacturers were AjeCroup, Coca-Cola, and Tingy Holding Corporation. Through citizen science, we documented PP exposure in 52 species (20 endemic) in Galápagos terrestrial and marine environments, with exposure occurring in two ways: entanglement and ingestion. These included reptiles (8 species), birds (13 species), mammals (4 species), cartilaginous fish (7 species), bony fish (14 species), and invertebrates (6 species). The top five species with the greatest risk of serious harm due to entanglement (in decreasing order) were identified as green sea turtles, marine iguanas, whale sharks, spine-tail mobulas, and medium-ground finches. In contrast, Santa Cruz tortoises, green sea turtles, marine iguanas, black-striped salemas, and Galápagos sea lions were at the highest risk of harm due to the ingestion of plastics. Our research indicates that PP is a growing problem in the Galápagos archipelago and that additional work is necessary to mitigate its impact now and in the future.
... Preliminary studies on soils have reported a large number of macro-and microplastics on conventional agricultural land where they are at times applied as conditioners (Piehl et al., 2018), microplastics were reported to alter water cycles in the soil horizon (de Souza Machado et al., 2018), while others migrate into deep soil layers Rillig et al., (2017) or in uence the shape, size, and surface properties of particles resulting from "ecocorona" in the soil (Galloway et al., 2017). These studies have been conducted on agricultural farms where plastic materials have been applied purposely as addictive, plasticizers, on land sludge applications, or at lab scale. ...
... Studies on the effect of toxins from plastics on plants have been conducted. For instance, Galloway et al., (2017) showed that toxic substances can either be adsorbed onto surfaces or retained within the particle 'ecocorona' which can affect plant roots negatively. Also, additives contained in plastics may cause other toxicity on farms (Koelmans et al., 2019). ...
Microplastics and macroplastics have been reported in different urban rivers and agricultural soil across the globe. However, the interlink between them has not been previously assessed therefore, the present study evaluated the relationship between macro-and microplastics in the water columns and sediments in riverine, riverbanks, and soils from irrigated farms in Arusha, Tanzania. Detached pieces from macroplastics and suspected particles of microplastics from the samples were analyzed using the total attenuated reflectance - Fourier transform Infrared spectroscopy, where statistical analysis showed that the number of microplastics in the sediments was higher than in the water columns and that in irrigated farms than in the riverine by a magnitude of 4. Besides, the numbers of microplastics and macroplastics in the irrigation farms were exponentially-related while the macroplastics from the riverbanks had an inverse relationship with the rivers’ profile elevation. Polyethylene was the dominating macroplastic in the riverbanks and irrigated farms with a 100% frequency of occurrence while polystyrene was abundant in all samples of microplastics. However, the irrigated farms adjacent to canals had a greater number of microplastics and macroplastics. In generally, the findings showed a similar trend of plastic distribution in urban rivers and irrigated farms, suggesting an interaction between them.
... With some studies suggesting a persistence of hundreds of years (Avio et al., 2016) or fragmentation rates of only 1-5% per year (Gerritse et al., 2020), this has led us to look towards microbes for a solution to this problem. When plastics enter the environment, they are rapidly covered by organic matter, known as the ecocorona (Galloway et al., 2017), and are colonised by microbes within minutes (Harrison et al., 2014). These plastic-colonising microbes -bacteria, fungi and single-celled eukaryotes as well as macro and other organisms -are collectively termed the "plastisphere" (Zettler et al., 2013). ...
... Despite a number of studies having been published on the sinking and rising behaviour of microplastics incorporated into heteroaggregates, the experimental data needed to enable comparisons between empirical data and mathematical model predictions are lacking, specifically: (i) on the effects of microbial biofouling on the buoyancy of individual sub-millimetre microplastics; and (ii) on natural marine biofilm parameters, namely, biofilm thickness and density (Wright et al., 2020a). Further impacts of microbial colonisation on the vertical transport of plastics are related to the increased ingestion and subsequent egestion of plastics by macroorganisms, although microeukaryotes, including marine dinoflagellates and ciliates, have also been observed to ingest small microplastics, possibly making microplastics more bioavailable for marine organisms at higher trophic levels (Galloway et al., 2017;Long et al., 2017;Zhang et al., 2021). ...
... For example, during the current COVID-19 pandemic, the worldwide production and disposal of face masks as well as other plastic laboratory and medical materials have drastically increased, adding to the vast plastic and microplastic waste in the environment [10]. Several studies on plastic size abundance and distribution have shown a permanent fragmentation of microplastic from larger to smaller, to nanoplastics (< 25µm), occurring continuously in the oceans [11,12]. One of the main concerns about the smaller fraction of plastic particles is the risk potential for filter feeders, which tend to confuse it for plankton and end up consuming plastic debris [13][14][15]. ...
... For cuttlefish, microplastics may obstruct the passage from the caecum to the digestive gland via the ducts, since the duct lumen is <1 mm even in large animals (Oliveira et al., 2020). Ingested debris can also cause behavioral changes in individuals (Galloway et al., 2017), and it is important to understand whether cephalopods are also susceptible to these changes. ...
Litter is known to negatively affect numerous marine organisms, but the extent of such impacts is not well known for several groups, including cephalopods. Considering the ecological, behavioral and economic importance of these animals, we reviewed the types of interactions between cephalopods and litter in the scientific literature, to evaluate impacts and knowledge gaps. We found 30 papers, which included records of microplastic ingestion and the transfer of synthetic microfibers along the food web. The largest number of records involved litter use as shelter, and the common octopus was the most frequent species. At first sight, litter use as shelter could appear to be a potential positive effect, but it is necessary to clarify the implications of this choice and its long-term consequences. Regarding ingestion and trophic transfer, further research is needed to elucidate its occurrence and impacts on cephalopods and their predators, including humans.
... Another factor that influences the communities that constitute the plastisphere is the time of colonization. The community attached to the plastisphere exhibits a clear ecological succession during the early stages of colonization (Galloway et al., 2017;Rummel et al., 2021;Wright et al., 2020) as these communities gradually adapt to the new ecosystem over time Du et al., 2022;Lorite et al., 2011). A similar phenomenon occurs with the plastic resistome, Yang et al., (2020) analyzed the temporal evolution of ARGs for 30 days, detecting an evolution in their concentration and determining the presence of pioneer, intermediate and persistent ARGs during that month. ...
The development of plastics has been one of the largest technological breakthroughs in the history of mankind. Since the middle of the 20th century, the production of plastics has been increasing, according to the multiplication of their uses. Plastics, once used, represent a huge volume of waste that may end up dumped in the environment. The high persistence of plastics makes it very difficult to eliminate them naturally, so plastics tend to accumulate in environmental compartments. This problem has been of great concern to the
scientific community, which is paying a growing attention to all the possible effects that plastics could have on aquatic ecosystems.
One of the most unknown impacts derives from the ability of microorganisms to
attach to plastics. Eventually, a broad range of microorganisms can colonize plastics, forming communities that become more and more complex until they constitute new ecosystems.
This new type of ecosystem is called “plastisphere”. Many factors influence the communities constituted on plastics, such as geographic location, type of material, or the length of time this material has been exposed in the environment. Many plastic materials have already been colonized during their use, such as reverse osmosis membranes or greenhouse plastics, and
it is unknown how these microorganisms may affect ecosystems once they are abandoned at the end of their useful life. In addition, the mobility of plastics, especially the smaller fractions, commonly known as microplastics (MPs), can lead to the mobilization of pathogenic microorganisms, bacteria with antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and invasive organisms with the capacity to alter the communities of the receiving ecosystems. In the last few years, numerous studies have focused on the fate of plastics in marine ecosystems. However, there is an important knowledge gap about freshwater ecosystems. It has been proven that one of the main routes for plastic entering the oceans are rivers or intermittent waterways. Moreover, wastewater treatment plants are a hotspot for MPs, antibiotics and ARGs. The interaction between the afore mentioned factors must be considered since it could cause microplastics to act as a reservoir of antibiotic resistance potentially representing a risk for the environment and also to human health. The overall main objective of this Doctoral Thesis is to characterize the potential of
plastics as vectors of microorganisms in aquatic environments, especially in freshwater ecosystems.
... Plastic pollution has been recognized as an important environmental topic in recent years [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8]. Although rivers constitute the main vector of plastics to the sea [3,[9][10][11][12][13][14], research has focused more on assessing plastics in marine ecosystems [4,[15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22]. However, the number of studies on plastics in terrestrial and freshwater habitats is increasing in the past years [2,3,9,10,13,[23][24][25][26][27], with only a few studies emphasising the interactions between freshwater and terrestrial biota (i.e., evidence of negative impacts, such as ingestion, entanglement, and opportunistic use of plastics to build nests [8,[28][29][30]). ...
Plastics are widely distributed in all ecosystems with evident impacts on biodiversity. We aimed at examining the topic of plastic occurrence within bird nests. We conducted a systematic search on three social media platforms (Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter) to fill the gap of knowledge on plastic nests worldwide. As a result, we observed nests with plastics mostly belonging to synanthropic species inhabiting riverine habitats, mainly in Europe, North America, and Asia, with an increase in occurrence over the years. Two common and generalist freshwater species (Eurasian Coot Fulica atra and Swans Cygnus sp.) showed the highest frequency of occurrence of plastic debris. We suggest plastics in bird nests as a proxy for debris occurring in the environment. However, our data may be biased, due to our sample’s low representativeness. Therefore, more data are necessary to have more information on plastic distribution. In conclusion, social media might be pivotal in indicating plastic hotspot areas worldwide and being an indicator of plastic pollution within the environment.
... The majority of the litter is plastics, with the longest duration in marine and other aquatic environments. Microplastics are very small particles either directly discarded to the environment or decomposed into small, tiny particles under the physical effects of fractioning and degrading letting aquatic organisms easily eaten or swallowed (Galloway et al., 2017). In the meantime, all kinds of microplastics are transferred to other organisms living in the upper trophic levels of the food web, and the final destination would be the humans who used to consume these organisms. ...
The LitOUTer project (BSB-785) is supported by ENI CBC Black Sea Basin Programme 2014-2020 and is part of the European Union’s Cross Border Cooperation (CBC) under its European Neighborhood Instrument (ENI). The project has six partners from four Black Sea Countries. The partners are members of the universities and NGOs that are consisting of many professionals who use the best instruments to raise public awareness. Raising public awareness should feed on scientific research results. It is a bridge stretching from science to the public. The project has been built on the same activities in all partner countries. The reason for this is to analyze the cultural differences in producing a solution to the litter problems. During the project, there have been many activities with many different types of stakeholders.
... Metals like Al, Fe, Mn, Cd, Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ni, Cd, Pb and Ti are found to be attached with microplastic particles (Ashton et al., 2010;Brennecke et al., 2016;Dobardaran et al., 2018;Massos and Turner, 2017;Wang et al., 2017b). Potential toxicity by ingestion of microplastics have been validated by studies among different animal groups (plankton, microalgae, mussels, humans etc.) in their feeding, foraging, growth, metabolism, fecundity, stress response etc. (Anbymani and Kakkar, 2018;Galloway et al., 2017;Hwang et al., 2019;Prata et al., 2019;Schwarz et al., 2019). Microplastic particles clog their intestinal tracts, cause appetite loss due to satiation, inhibit secretion of gastric enzymes, cause imbalance in levels of steroid hormone, ovulation delay and fibres, films, fragments, foams, and spheres were present in atmospheric fallout and surface waters of the Nam Co Basin. ...
Microplastics have been reported from various ecosystems including lakes, ponds, wetlands, mountains, and forests globally. Recent research works showed microplastic deposition and accumulation in the Himalayan mountains and adjoining ecosystems, rivers and streams. Fine particles of microplastic originating from different anthropogenic sources can travel long distances, even upwards (altitudinally) through atmospheric transport and can pollute remote and pristine locations situated in the Himalayas. Precipitation also plays a vital role in influencing deposition and fallout of microplastics in the Himalayas. Microplastics can be trapped in the snow in glaciers for a long time and can be released into freshwater rivers by snow melting. Microplastic pollution in Himalayan rivers such as the Ganga, Indus, Brahmaputra, Alaknanda, and Kosi has been researched on both the upper and lower catchments. Additionally, Himalayan region draws many domestic and international tourists throughout the year, resulting in generation of massive and unmanageable volume of plastics wastes and finally ending up in the open landscapes covering forests, river streams and valley. Fragmentation of these plastic wastes can lead to microplastic formation and accumulation in the Himalayas. This paper discusses and explains occurrence and distribution of microplastics in the Himalayan landscapes, possible adverse effects of microplastic on local ecosystems and human population and policy intervention needed to mitigate microplastic pollution in the Himalayas. A knowledge gap was noticed regarding the fate of microplastics in the freshwater ecosystems and their control mechanisms in the Indian Himalayas. Regulatory approaches for microplastics management in the Himalayas sit within the broader plastics/solid waste management and can be implemented effectively by following integrated approaches.
... relicta) are both listed as "endangered" by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) [8,9]. Bulgaria, Georgia, Romania, Russia, Turkey and Ukraine assumed international obligations to protect Black Sea cetaceans as contracting parties of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), Con- However, their conservation is proving to be a major challenge due to factors like incidental bycatch in fishing gear (primarily gillnets), chemical pollution, vessel traffic, noise pollution, habitat degradation (including the explosive growth of populations of invasive species) and prey depletion (including illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing) [11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18]. ...
Stomach contents and intestines of two species of cetaceans from the superfamily toothed whales (Odontoceti), collected in the western part of the Black Sea during the period 2020–2021 were inspected for the presence of plastic particles. Microplastics (<5 mm) were found in all 2 bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus ssp. ponticus Barabash-Nikiforov, 1940) from the dolphin family (Delphinidae) and micro- and mesoplastics (5–25 mm) were found in 24 of 29 harbour porpoises (Phocoena phocoena ssp. relicta Abel, 1905) from the porpoise family (Phocoenidae). A total of 197 plastic particles were recorded in 26 individuals (84% of all individuals examined, 21 of 25 female and 5 of 6 male animals). The average number of plastic particles per cetacean was 6.35 ± 6.92 par.ind., ranged 0 to 25 per individual. The most common type of plastic identified were fibres (43%) and fragments (36%). The most frequent plastic colour recognized was grey, blue and black.KeywordsMicroplasticsBlack SeaCetaceansHarbour porpoiseBottlenose dolphin
... Not only can these extraction methods reduce polymer integrity, but they are likely to interfere with the sorbed chemical burdens, thereby inhibiting their quantification. The ecocorona d a coating of natural organic macromolecules interacting with the surface of MNPs which encompasses a tightly bound hard corona and a soft corona of loosely bound proteins [166] d is also unlikely to remain intact after MNP extraction using current methods. One way to circumvent these limitations is to deploy reference materials to undergo environmental processes in such a manner that they can be easily retrieved without disturbing the chemical or biological process of interest. ...
... Microplastics may be coated with biomolecules that react with biological systems and/or serve as a conduit for the transfer of organic pollutants (POPs) into animals' tissues (Galloway, Cole, & Lewis, 2017). Moreover, microplastics may have physical consequences on creatures when they are ingested. ...
Microplastics from food packaging material have risen in number and dispersion in the aquatic system, the terrestrial environment, and the atmosphere in recent decades. Microplastics are of particular concern due to their long-term durability in the environment, their great potential for releasing plastic monomers and additives/chemicals, and their vector-capacity for adsorbing or collecting other pollutants. Consumption of foods containing migrating monomers can lead to accumulation in the body and the build-up of monomers in the body can trigger cancer. The book chapter focuses the commercial plastic food packaging materials and describes their release mechanisms of microplastics from packaging into foods. To prevent the potential risk of microplastics migrated into food products, the factors influencing microplastic to the food products, e.g., high temperatures, ultraviolet and bacteria, have been discussed. Additionally, as many evidences shows that the microplastic components are toxic and carcinogenic, the potential threats and negative effects on human health have also been highlighted. Moreover, future trends is summarized to reduce the microplastic migration by enhancing public awareness as well as improving waste management.
... However, due to very small size of nanoplastics (i.e. less than 50 nm), they penetrate both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell membranes with absorbance of pathogenic microbes, thus increasing the biohazard potential of the pathogens. As both microplastics and nanoplastics transport pathogens and chemicals in a passive manner, they are known to show the so-called Trojan horse effect (Zettler et al., 2013;Galloway et al., 2017;McCormick et al., 2014). This Trojan horse effect of micro-and nanoplastics is associated with potential and neglected health hazards for human beings. ...
With the advancement of science, better monitoring of soil and water quality has become possible. Many contaminants have been reported in the recent past that influence the quality of soil and water negatively. However, the consideration of these pollutants or contaminants is still in the initial stage and needs to be explored in detail for a better understanding of their activity as contaminants. Emerging contaminants such as agrochemicals, nanomaterials, pharmaceuticals, personal care products, and micro- or nanoplastics have been found to show several harmful impacts on soil or water quality. Emerging contaminants are known to have adverse effects on plants and human beings too. The risk of their entry into the crops, food chain, and any possible interaction to human health should be properly monitored. The concentration of these contaminants in soil and water should also be monitored on a regular basis to avoid the significant damages arising from them. Future study may also be taken into consideration to avoid the possible concerns to natural resources, plants, and human wellbeing.
... serving the port hinterland, or frequent transit of trucks with containers through the city, can have direct impacts on terrestrial environment air, noise, and light pollution (Casazza et al., 2019;Elsahragty and Kim, 2015). In addition, metals pieces, oils, and (potentially) microplastic debris, entering the water column derived from port operations and ship repairs, can have direct negative impacts on seawater quality and the marine biota (Galloway et al., 2017;Yu et al., 2017). In particular, port operations and land transformation by infrastructure construction, have significant negative impacts in coastal marine ecosystems quality (e.g. ...
Ports are expanding urban systems worldwide because provide important economic benefits to local economies. But port land reclamation together with infrastructure deployment and operations, produce unprecedented pressure on surrounding coastal ecosystems. Thus, the implementation of effective management strategies to deal with social-environmental conflicts is often required. Only a few studies addressed the socio-ecological link between port impact on coastal ecosystem services and how this related to social conflicts. Here, we use multidisciplinary research to address these questions considering two ports located in Coquimbo city-port (29°S) in Chile, as our study port-system. Index scores of port impacts on urban natural ecosystem services and the city were calculated from known drivers of decline. Questionnaires were used to identify local citizens’ concerns about port operations and expansion. Our results demonstrated significant pressures from port infrastructure and operations on maritime but also in shoreland coastal ecosystem services, which were perceived as a critical environmental concern by local respondents. There was low knowledge, but positive appreciation, of eco-engineering initiatives in urban environments to rehabilitee ecosystem attributes. Field experiments showed that biodiversity enhancement of port infrastructure is effective, and might be a good initiative to link people with the port. Our results suggest that port industries must engage in more explicit initiatives to compensate for the environmental impacts of the expansion of built infrastructure, resulting in more effective integration of these urban systems with natural ecosystems.
... Their stubborn degradation characteristics lead to an unwanted persistence of plastic waste in the environment (Ritchie and Roser, 2018). Once plastics enter the environment, they break into smaller fragments -microplastics -enabling long-range transport, which increases environmental and human interactions (Fan et al., 2019;Galloway et al., 2017). A growing body of evidence shows increasing human exposure to microplastics due to accumulation in the ecosystem and food webs (Desforges et al., 2015). ...
CalSPEC responded to a request from the California Assembly Natural Resources and Senate Environmental Quality Committees to produce a report on microplastics. The research surrounding the issue of microplastics is complex and broad. The report covers the different sources, pathways, and environmental fate of microplastics; presents a rapid systematic review of the health effects of microplastics; and summarizes the current status of national, subnational, and multinational policies relating to microplastics mitigation and prevention.
The California State Policy Evidence Consortium (CalSPEC) is a University of California initiative administered through the UC Center Sacramento. In alignment with the UC mission, CalSPEC leverages the UC faculty and staff expertise in public service and research to support evidence-based policymaking at the state level. Specifically, CalSPEC seeks to build an evidence pipeline to the State Legislature that enhances policy decision-making through rapid evidence and policy reviews on complex topics of concern or interest to the State Legislature.
... While the impact of microplastics on lower levels of biological hierarchy (i.e. molecular endpoints) can become evident over short timescales [66], the impact of environmentally relevant concentrations of microplastics on apical endpoints (e.g. growth, reproduction, survival) that have the greatest relevance to populations and communities, require far longer observation periods. ...
Anthropogenic microfibres are a prevalent, persistent and globally distributed form of marine debris. Evidence of microfibre ingestion has been demonstrated in a range of organisms, including Mytilus spp. (mussels), but the extent of any impacts on these organisms are poorly understood. This study investigates, for the first time, the effect of exposing juvenile mussels to polyester and cotton microfibres at environmentally relevant concentrations (both current and predicted future scenarios) over a chronic timescale (94 days). Sublethal biomarkers included growth rate, respiration rate and clearance rate. Mussels were exposed to polyester (median length 149 µm) and cotton (median length 132 µm) microfibres in three treatments: polyester (~ 8 fibres L⁻¹), polyester (~ 80 fibres L⁻¹) and cotton (~ 80 fibres L⁻¹). Mussels exposed to 80 polyester or cotton microfibres L⁻¹ exhibited a decrease in growth rate of 35.6% (polyester) and 18.7% (cotton), with mussels exposed to ~ 80 polyester microfibres L⁻¹ having a significantly lower growth rate than the control population (P < 0.05). This study demonstrates that polyester microfibres have the potential to adversely impact upon mussel growth rates in realistic future scenarios, which may have compounding effects throughout the marine ecosystem and implications for commercial viability.
Graphical Abstract
... Many of these microplastic particles are buoyant and accumulate at the sea surface resulting in an increasing microplastic inventory at shallow depths where phytoplankton and zooplankton proliferate (Richon et al., 2022). Three major biological removal pathways for microplastic from the surface ocean have been hypothesized: biofouling by bacteria and algae increasing the buoyancy of low-density microplastics, causing them to sink or oscillate in the upper~80 meters (Kooi et al., 2016;Kooi et al., 2017), and incorporation of microplastics into sinking zooplankton faecal pellets and marine snow flocculates (Galloway et al., 2017). ...
Microplastic is a ubiquitous marine pollutant whose small dimensions make it biologically available to phytoplankton and zooplankton. These organisms are crucial as the basis of the marine food web and for the export of organic material in the form of faecal pellets from the surface to deeper in the water column, forming a long-term carbon sink. Previous laboratory studies have demonstrated empirically that ingestion of low density microplastics reduces the sinking rates of zooplankton faecal pellets. This study uses a complex earth system model to analyse this effect and assess its wider impacts in a changing climate. Results show that the slowing of faecal pellet sinking stimulates changes to ecosystems regionally and reduces ocean carbon uptake by about 4.4 Pg C between the years 1950-2100, 0.24% of anthropogenic emissions over this time. However, perturbation of organic particle fluxes is significant, especially in gyres, and of the order of climate change impacts over the same time period. We calculate that plastics carbon has a 3 orders of magnitude greater impact on marine ecosystems than atmospheric carbon over our centennial timescale. Large uncertainties in model parameters and simplistic model structure suggest our results should be interpreted as motivation to further investigate parameter estimation, calcification responses to pollution, and the combined effects of multiple impact mechanisms on ecosystems.
... Microplastics are suggested emerging threat to marine (Galloway et al., 2017), freshwater (Horton et al., 2017) and terrestrial organisms (de Souza Machado et al., 2018; Schampera et al., 2021). This triggered discussions on the need for legal regulation of the use of these anthropogenic particles. ...
Background
Current regulatory discussions about microplastics are often questioned on the basis of a lack of data indicating high ecotoxic hazards of these particles within standard recognized definitions. Moreover, there is scientific debate on what metrics to report the micro-nanoplastics toxicity (i.e. mass or particle counts-based exposure). We present here the high potential sensitivity of three genotypically different clones of the European Daphnia longispina species complex exposed to non-functionalized polystyrene nanobeads of 50 nm and 100 nm in diameter according to adapted OECD 202 test protocol.
Results
EC50s 48h varied from 0.2 to 8.9 mg L− 1 (mean 2.49 mg L− 1) for 50 nm beads, and from 32.7 to 90.3 mg L− 1 (mean 59.39 mg L⁻1) for the 100 nm. EC10s 48h varied from 0.0007 to 7.5 mg L− 1 (mean 0.28 mg L− 1) for 50 nm beads, and from 25.5 to 69.1 mg L− 1 (mean 47.51 mg L− 1) for the 100 nm. Inter-clonal variability was about 10-fold. Therefore, several 1000s-fold variations in mass-based ecotoxicity for these polystyrene beads could be observed if particle size and Daphnia genotype are considered jointly.
Conclusions
Such ecotoxicity potential is comparable to highly toxic chemicals in global and EU-based regulatory classification and labelling. Ecotoxicity based on particle counts suggested convergence of EC50s, with effects generally observed around 10¹¹ to10¹⁵ particles L− 1. The present results highlight the potential high hazard of these particles and the relevance of particle size and exposure metrics on hazard conclusion.
... The surface properties of NPs (e.g., surface functional groups and charges) were recognized to play a major role in their ecological and ecotoxicological outcomes (Galloway et al., 2017;Oliveira and Almeida, 2019). Such surface properties, pH, ionic strength and concentration of nanoparticles induce aggregation or dispersion of nanoparticles in different media. ...
Plastic products have become an integral part of our life. A widespread usage, high stability, uncontrolled disposal and slow degradation of plastics in the environment led to the generation and accumulation of nanoparticles of polymers (NPs) in the marine environment. However, little is known about the aggregation, consumption and distribution of NPs from common polymers such as polyvinyl chloride (NP-PVC) and polymethyl methacrylate (NP-PMMA), inside marine animal physiologies. In the current study, two types of polymers (PVC and PMMA) × four exposure concentrations (1, 5, 15 and 25 mg/L) × four times (4, 8, 12 and 24 h) exposure studies were conducted to understand the consumption and distribution of luminescent NP-PVC (98.6 ± 17.6 nm) and NP-PMMA (111.9 ± 37.1 nm) in R. philippinarum. Under laboratory conditions, NP-PVC showed a higher aggregation rate than NP-PMMA in seawater within a period of 24 h. Aggregations of NPs increased with an increase in initial NP concentrations, leading to significant settling of nanoparticles within 24 h exposure. Such aggregation and settling of particles enhanced the consumption of NPs by bottom-feeding R. philippinarum at all exposure concentrations during 4 h exposure. More interestingly, NP-PVC and NP-PMMA were seen in high amounts in both liver and gills (22.6 % - 29.1 %) of the clams. Furthermore, NP-PVC was detected in most organs of R. philippinarum as compared to NP-PMMA. This study demonstrates that different polymers distribute and accumulate differently in the same biological model under laboratory exposure conditions based on their chemical nature.
... The locomotor response of zebrafish embryos recorded for all live embryos, including malformed embryos and embryos showing no inflation of the swim bladder. The behavioral response was assessed based on mean distance moved in the first light phase interval (minutes [15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25] and the dark phase interval (minutes . For the violin plots the moved distance were normalized to the mean moved distance of the control for the respective phases, as follows: ...
Plastic pollution, especially by nanoplastics (NPs), has become an emerging topic due to the widespread existence and accumulation in the environment. The research on bioaccumulation and toxicity mechanism of NPs from polyethylene terephthalate (PET), which is widely used for packaging material, have been poorly investigated. Herein, we report the first use of high-resolution magic-angle spinning (HRMAS) NMR based metabolomics in combination with toxicity assay and behavioural end points to get systems-level understanding of toxicity mechanism of PET NPs in intact zebrafish embryos. PET NPs exhibited significant alterations on hatching and survival rate. Accumulation of PET NPs in larvae were observed in liver, intestine, and kidney, which coincide with localization of reactive oxygen species in these areas. HRMAS NMR data reveal that PET NPs cause: (1) significant alteration of metabolites related to targeting of the liver and pathways associated with detoxification and oxidative stress; (2) impairment of mitochondrial membrane integrity as reflected by elevated levels of polar head groups of phospholipids; (3) cellular bioenergetics as evidenced by changes in numerous metabolites associated with interrelated pathways of energy metabolism. Taken together, this work provides for the first time a comprehensive system level understanding of toxicity mechanism of PET NPs exposure in intact larvae.
... The amount of pollution in the sea makes it a negative threat both for marine products (fish, shells, or seafood) and human health. Indiscriminate disposal of plastic waste will have an impact in the future (Galloway et al., 2017). According to Carbery et al. (2018), more than 690 marine species have been affected by plastic waste, both small debris and small microplastic observed in the digestive tract of organisms from various trophic levels of the food chain. ...
Highlight Research Fish and shellfish on the coast of Payangan and Puger Several types of microplastics were detected in their gastrointestinal tract There were microplastic types of fiber, fragments, granules, and filaments Abstract Every year, it is estimated that the Indonesian seas receive 100,000-400,000 tons of plastic waste used for human consumption. Indiscriminate disposal of plastic waste will have an impact in the future. The problem of microplastics is an illustration that the use of plastic in daily activities will cause environmental ecological damage. The purpose of the study was to describe microplastic contamination in marine fish and shells in the coastal areas of Jember Regency, Indonesia. The method used is to detect and identify the type and numbers of microplastic particles in the gastrointestinal tract content of sea fish and shells obtained from fishermen around Payangan and Puger coastal Jember, Indonesia. The gastrointestinal tract was extracted with peroxide oxidation method (WPO). A light microscope was used to examine microplastic particles of types and numbers. The results showed that marine fish and shells in the coastal area of Jember Regency, Indonesia have been contaminated with microplastic. The microplastic in each marine fish and shells sample has a different type. There were microplastic types of fiber, fragments, granules, and filaments in the shells sample, while in the marine fish samples, there were all these types except granules. Fish and shellfish on the coast of Payangan and Puger had several types of microplastics detected in their gastrointestinal tract.
... These NPs can be de ned as particles having colloidal properties in aqueous systems and whose size varies from 1 nm to 1000 nm (Gigault et A large research effort has been conducted to characterize the capture and ingestion of MPs by numerous marine organisms from small invertebrates to large vertebrates (Galloway et al. 2017). MPs ingestion concerns all modes of nutrition for invertebrates including detritivores, deposit feeders, planktivores, lter feeders and suspension-feeders (Wright et al. 2013a). ...
Plastic has been largely detected in estuarine environments and represent major concern towards aquatic living organisms. Whereas the majority of previous studies analyze the effects of standard particles, mainly polystyrene (PS), not representative to what is found in natural environments, the present study evaluates the impact of microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) under realistic exposure conditions. Scrobicularia plana individuals were exposed to low concentrations (0.008, 10 and 100 µg L − 1 ) of environmental MPs and NPs as well as to standard PS NPs, as a comparison condition. The aim of this study was to understand the ecotoxicological effects of environmental plastic particles on S. plana gills and digestive glands but also to compare the effects of plastic polymers size in order to highlight if the size could induce different toxicity profiles within this model organism, at different levels of biological organization. Results showed a differential induction of detoxification enzymes (CAT, GST), immunity (AcP), DNA damage processes as well as differential effect on behavior and condition index of animals depending upon the type of plastic, the size, the concentration tested and the type of organ. This study underlines the necessity of testing i) plastics collected from the environment as compared to standard ones and ii) the effect of size using plastics coming from the same batch of macrosized plastics. This study concludes on the future need directions that plastic-based studies must take in order to be able to generate large quantity of relevant data that could be used for future regulatory needs on the use of plastic.
... A large research effort has been conducted to characterize the capture and ingestion of MPs by numerous marine organisms from small invertebrates to large vertebrates (Galloway et al. 2017). MPs ingestion concerns all modes of nutrition for invertebrates including detritivores, deposit feeders, planktivores, filter feeders, and suspension feeders (Wright et al. 2013a). ...
Plastic has been largely detected in estuarine environments and represents major concern towards aquatic living organisms. The present study evaluates the impact of microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) under realistic exposure conditions. Scrobicularia plana individuals were exposed to low concentrations (0.008, 10, and 100 µg L−1) of environmental MPs and NPs as well as to standard PS NPs, as a comparison condition. The aim of this study was to understand the ecotoxicological effects of environmental plastic particles on S. plana gills and digestive glands but also to compare the effects of plastic polymers size in order to highlight if the size could induce different toxicity profiles within this model organism, at different levels of biological organization. Results showed a differential induction of detoxification enzymes (CAT, GST), immunity (AcP), DNA damage processes as well as a differential effect on behavior and condition index of animals depending upon the type of plastic, the size, the concentration tested, and the type of organ. This study underlines the necessity of testing (i) plastics collected from the environment as compared to standard ones and (ii) the effect of size using plastics coming from the same batch of macrosized plastics. This study concludes on the future need directions that plastic-based studies must take in order to be able to generate a large quantity of relevant data that could be used for future regulatory needs on the use of plastic.
... For instance, microplastics such as microbeads and microfibers showed different types of interaction with the soil aggregates (de Souza Machado et al., 2018a;De Souza MacHado et al., 2018b), and the migration of microplastics are also exerting the same variation and depends on the type of microplastics. Similarly, the physical properties of these microplastics also strongly influence the migration of these particles and influence the degradation process (Galloway et al., 2017;Rillig et al., 2017bRillig et al., , 2017c. The conceptual diagram (Fig. 2) shows the different factors influencing the transportation and migration of microplastics in soil. ...
Plastics, especially microplastics in soils, are considered a severe environmental issue worldwide. However, globally, the main research focus is on microplastic pollution in the marine environment, the microplastic pollution on soils and sediments remains on the sideline so far. But the fact is that microplastics are omnipresent in terrestrial systems in the form of microbeads in industrial systems and in sewage sludge. Their presence in agricultural soils and sediments is enormously increased due to plastic mulching, plastic greenhouses and compost and extensive use of controlled release fertilizers. Therefore, this review outlines the global scenario regarding plastics and microplastics production, consumption, and possible pathways of penetration into the soil environment. Various mechanisms to restrict and manage the pathways of plastics and microplastics into the soil environment are also discussed. This review also focuses on the challenges and limitations on the use of plastic alternates such as bioplastics and oxo plastics. Also, the knowledge gaps on the source of microplastics in the environment and their deleterious effects on properties of soil, soil health and focused light on their soil trophic transfer in food chains via plants. This review provides a detailed insight on the management and possible control measures to alleviate the potential risk caused by microplastics pollution in the soil environment and the overall ecosystem's health. In spite of the occurrence and fate of microplastics on terrestrial environment, knowledge gaps and challenges for tackling this contamination are also explored which facilitates the policy makers to develop regulatory measures towards the containment of microplastics in living ecosystem.
... Microplastics is a form of solid pollution that has caused high concern, especially but not exclusively in the marine environment, because of its ubiquitous occurrence and distribution, and size distributions overlapping with that of natural particles. Since it has been proposed that microplastics pose a potential hazard and impact on aquatic ecosystems this has spurred intense research on potential physical and chemical effects (Takahashi et al., 2012;Galloway et al., 2017;Corinaldesi et al., 2021). Microplastic particles are however made up of a large variety of chemical compositions (polymers, additives and other ingredients), and physical forms and sizes (Hartmann et al., 2019). ...
Microplastics in the marine environment have been the focus of intense research recently, however little attention has been given to boat paint sources, despite its direct influence on the marine ecosystem. This is largely due to the lack of established analytical methods. Microplastics from boating sources may originate from antifouling paints on the underwater body, surface coatings on the top sides, deck, and superstructure, as well as plastic parts of the boat construction. Their release can occur during construction, operation (leisure boats and commercial ships), service, and maintenance, from the materials themselves or used chemicals (e.g., abrasive detergents). Most importantly, boat paint microplastics containing biocides, such as the metals copper and zinc, and particles containing tin (residues from old or current use of tributyl-tin ship hull paints) should raise higher concern on potential environmental impacts. This study aims to provide practical insight on methods for the quantification of boat paint microplastics in marine waters and provide a baseline survey on their occurrence. Sampling and analysis methods are applied on case studies, i.e., marinas on the Swedish coast. A multi-method approach for identifying and characterizing boat paint microplastics based on visual and chemical characteristics is presented. In general, the measured content of biocide-containing microplastics was remarkably high in all marinas, with concentration levels of copper-rich particles >10 μm between 400 and 1400 particles per L. Given that biocide paint particles are manufactured to be toxic, it is particularly important to take into account field measurements in future environmental status assessments. This work underlines the importance of monitoring data in the action work between relevant authorities and stakeholders.
Microparticles of polyethylene and polypropylene are largely found in aquatic environments because they are the most produced and persistent plastic materials. Once in biological media, they are covered by a layer of molecules, the so-called corona, mostly composed of proteins. A yeast protein extract from Saccharomyces cerevisiae was used as a protein system to observe interactions in complex biological media. Proteins, acting as surfactants and providing hydrophilic surfaces, allow the dispersion of highly hydrophobic particles in water and stabilize them. After 24 h, the microplastic quantity was up to 1 × 1011 particles per liter, whereas without protein, no particles remained in solution. Label-free imaging of the protein corona by synchrotron radiation deep UV fluorescence microscopy (SR-DUV) was performed. In situ images of the protein corona were obtained, and the adsorbed protein quantity, the coverage rate, and the corona heterogeneity were determined. The stability kinetics of the microplastic suspensions were measured by light transmission using a Turbiscan analyzer. Together, the microscopic and kinetics results demonstrate that the protein corona can very efficiently stabilize microplastics in solution provided that the protein corona quality is sufficient. Microplastic stability depends on different parameters such as the particle's intrinsic properties (size, density, hydrophobicity) and the protein corona formation that changes the particle wettability, electrostatic charge, and steric hindrance. By controlling these parameters with proteins, it becomes possible to keep microplastics in and out of solution, paving the way for applications in the field of microplastic pollution control and remediation.
"The Gully", situated off Nova Scotia, Canada, is the largest submarine canyon in the western North Atlantic. This unique oceanographic feature, which became a Marine Protected Area (MPA) in 2004, is rich in marine biodiversity and is part of the critical habitat of Endangered northern bottlenose whales (Hyperoodon ampullatus). To understand the potential impact of plastic pollution in the MPA and on this endangered cetacean, we evaluated trends over time in the abundance and composition of plastics and compared these to the stomach contents of recently stranded northern bottlenose whales. From the 1990s-2010s, the median abundance of micro-sized (<5 mm) and small plastics (5 mm-2.5 cm) increased significantly, while the median abundance of large plastics (>2.5 cm) decreased significantly. Plastic abundance from the 2010s for micro-sized and small plastics varied from 5586-438 196 particles km-2, higher than previously measured estimates for surrounding offshore areas. Polymers identified using FTIR spectroscopy included polyethylene, polypropylene, polyethylene terephthalate polyester, nylon, alkyds (paint), and natural and semi-synthetic cellulosic fibers. The abundance of large debris ranged from 0 to 108.6 items km-2 and consisted of plastic sheets and bags, food wrappers and containers, rope, fishing buoys, and small plastic fragments. Whale stomach contents contained fragments of fishing nets, ropes, bottle caps, cups, food wrappers, smaller plastic fragments, fibers, and paint flakes, consistent with the composition and character of items collected from their critical habitat. Despite being far from centres of human population, the unique oceanographic features of The Gully (i.e., currents and bathymetric complexity) may concentrate plastic debris, increasing exposure rates of whales to plastic pollution. The increase in micro-sized and small plastics over time suggests associated health and welfare impacts of ingested plastics should be accounted for in future recovery plans for this endangered species.
Microplastics can act as carriers of pollutants in the aquatic environment and have the potential to absorb and release heavy metal pollutants. In this study, copper (Cu(II)) was chosen as the classical pollutant, mainly investigated the desorption behavior of the heavy metal Cu(II) from polystyrene (PS) microplastics in Milli-Q water, artificial seawater, and simulated gastric fluid. The results showed that the desorption occurred rapidly, within a few hours or even minutes in different media. The desorption of copper was consistent with pseudo-second-order model and the Freundlich isothermal model. The desorption amounts were in the order of simulated gastric fluid > artificial seawater > Milli-Q water. In addition, hysteresis was obviously detected in the adsorption/desorption of Cu(II) in the three environments media. Moreover, the influence of adsorption medium is greater than the desorption medium on desorption. Increasing the temperature would improve the desorption ability. There was a higher risk of exposure in warm-blooded organisms than in cold-blooded organisms. In addition, the presence of sediment particles had a significant effect on desorption, which would reduce the desorption ratio. This study reveals the migration behavior of heavy metals carried by microplastics, which provides a scientific basis for assessing ecological risks and studying the migration and transformation patterns of contaminants.
Due to its ever-increasing ocean inputs, fossil-based microplastics (MP) comprise a considerable constituent in the particulate organic carbon (POC) pool, which is instrumental in ocean biogeochemical cycling. Their distribution within the oceanic water column and the underpinning processes, however, remain unclear. Here we show that MP prevail throughout the water column of the eastern North Pacific subtropical gyre, comprising 334 #/m3 (84.5% of plastic particles <100 μm), with exponential relationships between concentrations and water depth in the upper 500-m layer and marked accumulation below this layer. Our results suggest that the biological carbon pump (BCP) strongly contributes to the water-column MP redistribution in terms of polymer type, material density and particle size, which in turn could influence the efficiency of organic matter export to the deep sea. We further show that 14C-depleted plastic particles predictably are an emerging non-neglectable perturbation to radiocarbon signatures in the deep ocean through depletion of the 14C/C ratio in the POC pool. Our data provide insight into vertical MP flux and highlight the potential role of MP in alternating the marine particulate pool and interactions with the BCP.
The worldwide abundance of microplastics (MP) and nanoplastics (NP) is generally identified as a persistent problem to the marine environment and is already deemed a silent threat in aquatic environments. However, their presence in agricultural soil and terrestrial environment has largely been overlooked, and our understanding of its effect on the terrestrial ecosystem is not fully understood. This chapter addressed the global accumulation and abundance of MP and NP in terrestrial ecosystems. Furthermore, the factors contributing to their distribution and widespread presence in terrestrial soil have been evaluated for better insights in microplastic studies. Based on the limited studies done on terrestrial soil, the abundance of MP and NP varies geographically with high concentrations being detected in the regions of China, Pakistan, Canada, the USA, Spain, Italy, and Australia whereas comparatively, a lower amount has been detected in France, Germany, and Antarctica. This chapter intends to (1) summarize the accumulation and distribution of MPs and NPs in the terrestrial ecosystem and (2) evaluate the factors regulating the distribution of MPs and NPs as environmental pollutants on territorial soil system. The prospects for future research include an in-depth investigation of the concentration and characterization of MPs and NPs in the terrestrial soil of various countries and analysis of different factors controlling its distribution and its potential impact.
The Okavango Panhandle is the main influent watercourse of the Okavango Delta, an inland sink of the entire sediment load of the Cubango-Okavango River Basin (CORB). The sources of pollution in the CORB, and other endorheic basins, are largely understudied when compared to exorheic systems and the world's oceans. We present the first study of the distribution of microplastic (MP) pollution in surface sediments of the Okavango Panhandle in Northern Botswana. MP concentrations (64 μm-5 mm size range) in sediment samples from the Panhandle range between 56.7 and 399.5 particles kg-1 (dry weight) when analysed with fluorescence microscopy. The concentrations of MP in the 20 μm to 5 mm grain size range (analysed with Raman spectroscopy) range between 1075.7 and 1756.3 particles kg-1. One shallow core (15 cm long) from an oxbow lake suggests that MP size decreases with depth while MP concentration increases downcore. Raman Spectroscopy revealed that the compositions of the MP are dominated by polyethene terephthalate (PET), polypropylene (PP), polyethene (PE), polystyrene (PS), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). From this novel data set it was possible to estimate that 10.9-336.2 billion particles could be transported into the Okavango Delta annually, indicating that the region represents a significant sink for MP, raising concerns for the unique wetland ecosystem.
The health risks of exposure to ‘eco-friendly’ biodegradable plastics of anthropogenic origin and their effects on the gastrointestinal tract are largely unknown. Here we demonstrate that the enzymatic hydrolysis of polylactic acid microplastics generated nanoplastic particles by competing for triglyceride-degrading lipase during gastrointestinal processes. Nanoparticle oligomers were formed by hydrophobically driven self-aggregation. In a mouse model, polylactic acid oligomers and their nanoparticles bioaccumulated in the liver, intestine and brain. Hydrolysed oligomers caused intestinal damage and acute inflammation. A large-scale pharmacophore model revealed that oligomers interacted with matrix metallopeptidase 12. Mechanistically, high binding affinity (Kd = 13.3 μmol l⁻¹) of oligomers to the catalytic zinc-ion finger domain led to matrix metallopeptidase 12 inactivation, which might mediate the adverse bowel inflammatory effects after exposure to polylactic acid oligomers. Biodegradable plastics are considered to be a solution to address environmental plastic pollution. Thus, understanding the gastrointestinal fates and toxicities of bioplastics will provide insights into potential health risks.
Plastic is now a pervasive pollutant in all marine ecosystems. The microplastic and macroplastic debris were studied in three French Mediterranean coastal lagoons (Prevost, Biguglia and Diana lagoons), displaying different environmental characteristics. Furthermore, biofilm samples were analysed along the seasons to quantify and identify microalgae communities colonizing macroplastics, and determine potentially harmful microorganisms. Results indicate low but highly variable concentrations of microplastics, in relation to the period and location of sampling. Micro-Raman spectroscopy analyses revealed that the majority of macroplastic debris corresponded to polyethylene (PE) and low-density polyethylene (LDPE), and in a far lesser extent to polypropylene (PP). The observations by Scanning Electron Microscopy of microalgae communities colonizing macroplastic debris demonstrated differences depending on the seasons, with higher amounts in spring and summer, but without any change between lagoons and polymers. Among the Diatomophyceae, the most dominant genera were Amphora spp., Cocconeis spp., and Navicula spp.. Cyanobacteria and Dinophyceae such as Prorocentrum cordatum, a potentially toxic species, were also found sporadically. The use of Primer specific DNA amplification tools enabled to detect potentially harmful microorganisms colonizing plastic such as Alexandrium minutum or Vibrio spp. An additional in situ experiment performed during one year revealed an increase in the diversity of colonizing microalgae in relation to the duration of immersion for the three tested polymers PE, LDPE and polyethylene terephthalates (PET). Vibrio settled durably after two weeks of immersion, whatever the polymer. This study confirms that Mediterranean coastal lagoons are vulnerable to the presence of macroplastic debris that may passively host and transport various species, including some potentially harmful algal and bacterial microorganisms.
Microplastics (MPs, diameter <5 mm) are widely distributed on Earth, especially in the oceans. Diatoms account for ∼40% of marine primary productivity and affect the global biogeochemical cycles of macroelements. However, the effects of MPs on marine nitrogen cycling remain poorly understood, particularly comparisons between nitrogen-replete and nitrogen-limited conditions. We found that MPs trigger the Matthew effect on nitrogen assimilation in diatoms, where MPs inhibited nitrogen assimilation under nitrogen-limited conditions while enhancing nitrogen metabolism under nitrogen-replete conditions in Phaeodactylum tricornutum. Nitrate reductase (NR) and nitrite reductase (NIR) are upregulated, but nitrate transporter (NRT) and glutamine synthetase (GS) are downregulated by MPs under nitrogen-limited conditions. In contrast, NR, NIR, and GS are all upregulated by MPs under nitrogen-replete conditions. MPs accelerate nitrogen anabolic processes with an increase in the accumulation of carbohydrates by 80.7 ± 7.9% and enhance the activities of key nitrogen-metabolizing enzymes (8.20-44.90%) under nitrogen-replete conditions. In contrast, the abundance of carbohydrates decreases by 22.0-34.4%, and NRT activity is inhibited by 79.0-86.5% in nitrogen-limited algae exposed to MPs. Metabolomic and transcriptomic analyses were performed to further explore the molecular mechanisms of reprogrammed nitrogen assimilation, including carbon metabolism, nitrogen transport and ammonia assimilation. The aforementioned spatial redistribution (e.g., the Matthew effect between nitrogen-replete and -limited conditions) of nitrogen assimilation highlights the potential risks of MP contamination in the ocean.
Microplastic pollution of the ocean has received extensive attention as plastic pollution increases globally, but the potential ecological risks caused by microplastic interactions with trace metals still require further research. In this study, Apostichopus japonicus was used to explore the individual and combined toxicities of cadmium (Cd) and microplastics and their effects on growth, Cd tissue accumulation, digestive enzymes, and gut microbes. The body weight gain and specific growth rate of animals exposed to a combination of high concentrations of Cd and microplastics decreased. The addition of high concentrations of cadmium to the diet led to an increase in cadmium content in the respiratory tree, digestive tract and body wall. Amylase, lipase and trypsin decreased to different degrees in the group treated with high concentrations of Cd/microplastics. Firmicutes were significantly reduced across multiple treatment groups, with the order Lactobacillales being the most significantly affected. Cd is the pollutant causing the greatest negative impact, but the presence of microplastics undoubtedly increases its toxicity.
Microplastics (MPs) usually coexist with heavy metals (HMs) in soil. MPs can influence HMs mobility and bioavailability, but the underlying mechanisms remain largely unexplored. Here, polyethylene and polypropylene MPs were selected to investigate their effects and mechanisms of sorption-desorption, bioaccessibility and bioavailability of cadmium (Cd) in paddy soil. Batch experiments indicated that MPs significantly reduced the Cd sorption in soil (p < 0.05). Accordingly, soil with the MPs had lower boundary diffusion constant of Cd (C1= 0.847∼1.020) and the Freundlich sorption constant (KF = 0.444-0.616) than that without the MPs (C1 = 0.894∼1.035, KF = 0.500-0.655). X-ray diffraction, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analyses suggested that the MPs reduced Cd chemisorption, by covering the soil active sites and thus blocking complexation of Cd with active oxygen sites and interrupting the formation of CdCO3 and Cd3P2 precipitates. Such effects of MPs enhanced about 1.2-1.5 times of Cd bioaccessibility and bioavailability in soil. Almost the same effects but different mechanisms of polyethylene and polypropylene MPs on Cd sorption in the soil indicated the complexity and pervasiveness of their effects. The findings provide new insights into impacts of MPs on the fate and risk of HMs in agricultural soil.
Microplastics pollution is major threat to ecosystems and is impacting abiotic and biotic components. Microplastics are diverse and highly complex contaminants that transport other contaminants and microbes. Current methods to remove microplastics include biodegradation, incineration, landfilling, and recycling. Here we review microplastics with focus on sources, toxicity, and biodegradation. We discuss the role of algae, fungi, bacteria in the biodegradation, and we present biotechnological methods to enhance degradation, e.g., gene editing tools and bioinformatics.
Interaction of different pollutants can aggravate hazards to biotic components in agroecosystems. Microplastics (MPs) are especially needed to be focused on because of their increasing use in life around the globe. We investigated the interactive impacts of polystyrene microplastics (PS-MP) and lead (Pb) on mung bean (Vigna radiata L.). Toxicity of MPs and Pb directly impeded V. radiata attributes. In combination i.e., M2P2 (40 µM Pb + 4.0 mg L-1 MPs) predominantly reduced the shoot root fresh and dry weights. \ Pb and PS-MP impaired the Rubisco activity and chlorophyll contents. The dose dependent relationship (M2P2) discomposed indole 3-acetic acid by 59.02%. Individual treatments P2 (40 µM Pb) and M2 (4.0 mg L-1 MPs) respectively instigated a decline (44.07% and 27.12%) in IBA, while ABA was elevated. M2 significantly enhanced the contents of Alanine (Ala), Arginine (Arg), Proline (Pro), and glycine (Gly) by 64.11%, 63%, and 54% compared to control. Lysine (Lys) and Valine (Val) presented a converse relationship with other amino acids. Except for control, a gradual decline in yield parameters were observed in individual and combined applications of PS-MP. Proximate composition of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins also reflected a clear decrease in these compounds after combined application of Pb and MPs. Although, individual doses caused a decline in these compounds but effect of combined doses Pb and PS-MP was highly significant. Our results demonstrated the toxicity effect of Pb and MP in V. radiata attributes that is mainly linked with cumulative physiological and metabolic perturbations. These collective negative impacts of different doses of MPs and Pb on V. radiata would certainly pose serious implications for humans.
Microplastic (MP) contamination in bivalve mollusks has become a significant concern over the last few years. These ecologically and economically valuable species are popular seafood items for human consumption. As filter feeders, bivalves may ingest MPs in their bodies, possibly impacting their physiology and fitness. Additionally, a considerable amount of the seafood that humans consume comes from coastal areas where MP concentrations tend to be the highest. This research provides the first examination of MPs in eastern oysters (Crassostrea virginica) and hard clams (Mercenaria mercenaria) that were grown locally in coastal areas of New York, contributing to a baseline for the northeast and mid-Atlantic regions of the U.S. A total of 48 eastern oysters (n = 12 per site, at four sites) and hard clams (n = 24 per site, at two sites) were sampled in summer 2021. While MP fibers and fragments (i.e. polyethylene terephthalate, polystyrene, and polypropylene) were found in some oysters, other contaminants (e.g. indigo dye, phthalocyanine, dye 823, etc.) were found in both bivalve species. Particle composition was verified using Raman microspectroscopy. Although mean MP concentrations were low in eastern oysters (i.e. 0.008 MPs g−1 of soft tissue wet weight; 0.125 MPs ind−1) and not found in hard clams, more research is needed to assess the magnitude of contamination in these edible bivalves.
Contamination from plastic debris is omnipresent in marine environments, posing a substantial risk to marine organisms, food webs and the ecosystem. The overlap between the size range of plastic pollution with pelagic prey means that plastics are readily available for consumption by organisms at all trophic levels. Large plastic debris can directly result in the death of larger marine organisms, through entanglement, strangulation, choking and starvation through a false sense of satiation. Whereas smaller plastic debris, such as micro and nanoplastics can have adverse impacts to marine organisms due to their large surface area to volume ratio and their ability to translocate within an organism. Various physiological processes have been reported to be impacted by these small contaminants, such as feeding behaviour, reproductive outputs, developmental anomalies, changes in gene expression, tissue inflammation and the inhibition of growth and development to both adults and their offspring. Micro and nanoplastics are still relatively poorly understood and are considered a hidden threat. Plastic is a complex contaminant due to the diversity in sizes, shapes, polymer compositions, and chemical additives. These factors can have unique and species-specific impacts. This review investigated the intrusion of plastics into the marine food web and the subsequent consequences of plastic ingestion for marine biota. Consumption of plastics can occur directly, through ingestion and indirectly, through trophic transfer, entanglement of prey, adherence of plastics to external surfaces, and adherence of organisms to the external surfaces of plastics. The objective of this review was to identify the complexity of impacts to marine organisms through the food web from plastic contamination. Through a concise analysis of the available literature the review has shown plastic polymers and the associated additives can adversely impact environmental and biological health.
Plastic debris is ingested by hundreds of species of organisms, from zooplankton to baleen whales, but how such a diversity of consumers can mistake plastic for their natural prey is largely unknown. The sensory mechanisms underlying plastic detection and consumption have rarely been examined within the context of sensory signals driving marine food web dynamics. We demonstrate experimentally that marine-seasoned microplastics produce a dimethyl sulfide (DMS) signature that is also a keystone odorant for natural trophic interactions. We further demonstrate a positive relationship between DMS responsiveness and plastic ingestion frequency using procellariiform seabirds as a model taxonomic group. Together, these results suggest that plastic debris emits the scent of a marine infochemical, creating an olfactory trap for susceptible marine wildlife.
An important issue in assessing microplastics is whether this newly emerging type of pollution affects freshwater invertebrates. This study was designed to examine the interactions between the amphipod Gammarus fossarum and two types of microplastics. To determine the ingestion and egestion of polyamide (PA) fibres (500 × 20 μm), amphipods were exposed to four concentrations (100, 540, 2680, 13,380 PA fibres cm⁻² base area of glass beakers) and four exposure times (0.5, 2, 8, 32 h) as well as four post-exposure times (1, 2, 4, 16 h). We demonstrate a positive correlation between concentration and ingestion of PA fibres. Fibres were found in the gut after 0.5 h of exposure. Egestion was rapid and the digestive tract was empty 16 h after exposure ended. To investigate whether polystyrene (PS) beads (1.6 μm) can be taken up in the epithelial cells of the gut and the midgut glands, four concentrations (500, 2500, 12,500, 60,000 PS beads mL⁻¹) were tested. Cryosections exhibited fluorescent PS beads only within the gut lumen. In a 28-day feeding experiment with both, fibres and beads, we studied the amphipod’s feeding rate, assimilation efficiency and wet weight change. The exposure to PA fibres (2680 PA fibres cm⁻² base area of glass beakers) significantly reduced the assimilation efficiency of the animals. While both tested polymer types are ingested and egested, PA fibres can impair the health and ecological functions of freshwater amphipods under continuous exposure.
Microplastics are ubiquitous in the marine environment worldwide, and may cause a physical and chemical risk to marine organisms. Their small size makes them bioavailable to a range of organisms with evidence of ingestion at all levels of the marine ecosystem. Despite an increasing body of research into microplastics, few studies have explored how consumption changes complex behaviours such as predator avoidance and social interactions. Pollutant exposure can result in alterations in behaviour that not only leads to sub optimal conditions for individual organisms but may also serve as a warning sign for wider effects on a system. This research assessed the impacts of microplastics on the ecology of coastal biota using beachhoppers (Platorchestia smithi) as model organisms. We exposed beachhoppers to marine-contaminated microplastics
to understand effects on survival and behaviour. Beachhoppers readily ingested microplastics, and there was evidence for accumulation of microplastics within the organisms. Exposure tests showed that microplastic consumption can affect beachhopper survival. Individuals also displayed reduced jump height and an increase in weight, however, there was no significant difference in time taken to relocate shelter post disturbance. Overall, these results show that short-term ingestion of microplastics have an impact on survival and behaviour of P. smithi. A reduction in the capacity for beachhoppers to survive and function may have flow on effects to their local environment and higher trophic levels.
In this study, we evaluated accumulation and adverse effects on ingestion of microplastic in the monogonont rotifer (Brachionus koreanus). The dependence of microplastic toxicity on particle size was investigated by measuring several in vivo endpoints and studying the ingestion and egestion using 0.05, 0.5, and 6 µm non-functionalized polystyrene microbeads. To identify the defense mechanisms activated in response to microplastic exposure, the activities of several antioxidant-related enzymes and the phosphorylation status of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) were determined. Exposure to polystyrene microbeads of all sizes led to significant size-dependent effects, including reduced growth rate, reduced fecundity, decreased lifespan and longer reproduction time. Rotifers exposed to 6 µm fluorescently-labeled microbeads did not exhibit almost any fluorescence after 24 h, while rotifers exposed to 0.05 and 0.5 µm fluorescently labeled microbeads displayed fluorescence until 48 h, suggesting that 6 µm microbeads are more effectively egested from B. koreanus than 0.05 or 0.5 µm microbeads. This observation provides a potential explanation for our findings that microbead toxicity was size-dependent and smaller microbeads were more toxic. In vitro tests revealed that antioxidant-related enzymes and MAPK signaling pathways were significantly activated in response to microplastic exposure in a size-dependent manner.
Concerns are being raised that microplastic pollution can have detrimental effects on the feeding of aquatic invertebrates, including zooplankton. Both small plastic fragments (microplastics, MPs) produced by degradation of larger plastic waste (secondary MPs; SMPs) and microscopic plastic spheres used in cosmetic products and industry (primary MPs; PMPs) are ubiquitously present in the environment. However, despite the fact that most environmental MPs consist of weathered plastic debris with irregular shape and broad size distribution, experimental studies of organism responses to MP exposure have largely used uniformly sized spherical PMPs. Therefore, effects observed for PMPs in such experiments may not be representative for MP-effects in situ. Moreover, invertebrate filter-feeders are generally well adapted to the presence of refractory material in seston, which questions the potential of MPs at environmentally relevant concentrations to measurably affect digestion in these organisms. Here, we compared responses to MPs (PMPs and SMPs) and naturally occurring particles (kaolin clay) using the cladoceran Daphnia magna as a model organism. We manipulated food levels (0.4 and 9 μg C mL-1) and MP or kaolin contribution to the feeding suspension (
The hypothesis that 'microplastic will transfer hazardous hydrophobic organic chemicals (HOC) to marine animals' has been central to the perceived hazard and risk of plastic in the marine environment. The hypothesis is often cited and has gained momentum, turning it into paradigm status. We provide a critical evaluation of the scientific literature regarding this hypothesis. Using new calculations based on published studies, we explain the sometimes contrasting views and unify them in one interpretive framework. One explanation for the contrasting views among studies is that they test different hypotheses. When reframed in the context of the above hypothesis, the available data become consistent. We show that HOC microplastic-water partitioning can be assumed to be at equilibrium for most microplastic residing in the oceans. We calculate the fraction of total HOC sorbed by plastics to be small compared to that sorbed by other media in the ocean. We further demonstrate consistency among (a) measured HOC transfer from microplastic to organisms in the laboratory, (b) measured HOC desorption rates for polymers in artificial gut fluids (c) simulations by plastic-inclusive bioaccumulation models and (d) HOC desorption rates for polymers inferred from first principles. We conclude that overall the flux of HOCs bioaccumulated from natural prey overwhelms the flux from ingested microplastic for most habitats, which implies that microplastic ingestion is not likely to increase the exposure to and thus risks of HOCs in the marine environment.
Human activity is leaving a pervasive and persistent signature on Earth. Vigorous debate continues about whether this warrants recognition as a new geologic time unit known as the Anthropocene. We review anthropogenic markers of functional changes in the Earth system through the stratigraphic record. The appearance of manufactured materials in sediments, including aluminum, plastics, and concrete, coincides with global spikes in fallout radionuclides and particulates from fossil fuel combustion. Carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycles have been substantially modified over the past century. Rates of sea-level rise and the extent of human perturbation of the climate system exceed Late Holocene changes. Biotic changes include species invasions worldwide and accelerating rates of extinction. These combined signals render the Anthropocene stratigraphically distinct from the Holocene and earlier epochs. Copyright
The increasing global production and use of plastics has led to an accumulation of enormous amounts of plastic litter in the world’s oceans. Characteristics such as low density, good mechanical properties and low cost allow for successful use of plastics in industries and everyday life but the high durability leads to persistence of the synthetic polymers in the marine environment where they cause harm to a great variety of organisms. In the diverse marine habitats, including beaches, the sea surface, the water column, and the seafloor, plastics are exposed to different environmental conditions that either accelerate or decelerate the physical, chemical and biological degradation of plastics. Degradation of plastics occurs primarily through solar UV-radiation induced photo oxidation reactions and is, thus, most intensive in photic environments such as the sea surface and on beaches. The rate of degradation is temperature-dependent resulting in considerable deceleration of the processes in seawater, which is a good heat sink. Below the photic zone in the water column, plastics degrade very slowly resulting in high persistence of plastic litter especially at the seafloor. Biological decomposition of plastics by microorganisms is negligible in the marine environment because the kinetics of biodegradation at sea is particularly slow and oxygen supply for these processes limited. Degradation of larger plastic items leads to the formation of abundant small microplastics. The transport of small particles to the seafloor and their deposition in the benthic environment is facilitated by the colonization of the material by fouling organisms, which increase the density of the particles and force them to sink. © 2015, Springer International Publishing. All Rights Reserved.
The presence of pollutants on plastic debris is an emerging environmental hot topic. Understanding the surface alteration of plastics while in the marine environment increases our understanding of the pollutanteplastic debris interaction. Plastic pellets are widely distributed throughout the world oceans. Eroded and virgin polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP) pellets were studied for their surface properties to better understand the interaction between plastic and compounds in marine environment. Surface properties such as point of zero charge, surface area and pore volume, surface topography, functional groups and acidebase behavior are important factors which affect sorption. Virgin plastic pellets had homogeneous smooth surfaces that do not have any acidebase behavior. Eroded PE demonstrates an altered surface that at seawater pH acquires a negative charge due to ketone groups. The uneven surface and possible functional groups could have been formed from the erosion processes while floating at the sea surface and might explain the interaction of eroded plastics with microbes and metals.
Biological significance:
Daphnia magna are an important environmental indicator species who may be especially sensitive to nanoparticles (NPs) as a result of being filter-feeders. This paper demonstrates for the first time that proteins released by Daphnia magna create an eco-corona around polystyrene NPs which causes heightened uptake of the NPs and consequently increases toxicity. The secreted protein eco-corona also causes the NPs to be less efficiently removed from the gut of D. magna and NPs remaining in the gut of D. magna affected the rate of subsequent feeding. Thus, fate of NPs in the environment should be evaluated and monitored under more realistic exposure scenarios.
Plastics are highly versatile materials that have brought huge societal benefits. They can be manufactured at low cost and their lightweight and adaptable nature has a myriad of applications in all aspects of everyday life, including food packaging, consumer products, medical devices and construction. By 2050, however, it is anticipated that an extra 33 billion tonnes of plastic will be added to the planet. Given that most currently used plastic polymers are highly resistant to degradation, this influx of persistent, complex materials is a risk to human and environmental health. Continuous daily interaction with plastic items allows oral, dermal and inhalation exposure to chemical components, leading to the widespread presence in the human body of chemicals associated with plastics. Indiscriminate disposal places a huge burden on waste management systems, allowing plastic wastes to infiltrate ecosystems, with the potential to contaminate the food chain. Of particular concern has been the reported presence of microscopic plastic debris, or microplastics (debris ≤1 mm in size), in aquatic, terrestrial and marine habitats. Yet, the potential for microplastics and nanoplastics of environmental origin to cause harm to human health remains understudied. In this article, some of the most widely encountered plastics in everyday use are identified and their potential hazards listed. Different routes of exposure to human populations , both of plastic additives, microplastics and nanoplastics from food items and from discarded debris are discussed. Risks associated with plastics and additives considered to be of most concern for human health are identified. Finally, some recent developments in delivering a new generation of safer, more sustainable polymers are considered.
Each year vast amounts of plastic are produced worldwide. When released to the environment, plastics accumulate, and plastic debris in the world´s oceans is of particular environmental concern. More than 60% of all floating debris in the oceans is plastic and amounts are increasing each year. Plastic polymers in the marine environment are exposed to sunlight, oxidants and physical stress, and over time they weather and degrade. The degradation processes and products must be understood to detect and evaluate potential environmental hazards. Some attention has been drawn to additives and persistent organic pollutants that sorb to the plastic surface, but so far the chemicals generated by degradation of the plastic polymers themselves have not been well studied from an environmental perspective. In this paper we review available information about the degradation pathways and chemicals that are formed by degradation of the six plastic types that are most widely used in the Europe. We extrapolate that information to likely pathways and possible degradation products under environmental conditions found on the oceans’ surface. The potential degradation pathways and products depend on the polymer type. UV-radiation and oxygen are the most important factors that initiate degradation of polymers with a carbon-carbon backbone, leading to chain scission. Smaller polymer fragments formed by chain scission are more susceptible to biodegradation and therefore abiotic degradation is expected to precede biodegradation. When heteroatoms are present in the main chain of a polymer, degradation proceeds by photo-oxidation, hydrolysis, and biodegradation. Degradation of plastic polymers can lead to low molecular weight polymer fragments, like monomers and oligomers, and formation of new end groups, especially carboxylic acids.
This study aimed to determine whether the uptake and localization of Ag in zebrafish was affected by the presence of polyethylene microplastic beads (PE MPBs). Zebrafish were exposed to 1 μg Ag L(-1) (radiolabelled with (110m)Ag) for 4 and 24 h in the presence or absence of PE MPBs (10, 100 or 1000 MPBs mL(-1)), and one treatment in which MPBs (1000 MPBs mL(-1)) were incubated with Ag to promote adsorption. The presence of MPBs, at any of the tested doses, had no effect on the uptake or localization of Ag. However, exposure to the Ag-incubated MPBs (∽75% of the Ag bound to MPBs) significantly reduced Ag uptake at both time points and also significantly increased the proportion of intestinal Ag. This study demonstrates that microplastics can alter the bioavailability and uptake route of a metal contaminant in a model fish species.
Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A growing body of literature reports on the abundance and effects of plastic debris, with an increasing focus on microplastic particles smaller than 5 mm. It has often been suggested that plastic particles in the <100 nm size range as defined earlier for nanomaterials (here referred to as 'nanoplastics'), may be emitted to or formed in the aquatic environment. Nanoplastics is probably the least known area of marine litter but potentially also the most hazardous. This paper provides the first review on sources, effects and hazards of nanoplastics. Detection methods are in an early stage of development and to date no nanoplastics have actually been detected in natural aquatic systems. Various sources of nanoplastics have been suggested such as release from products or nanofragmentation of larger particles. Nanoplastic fate studies for rivers show an important role for sedimen-tation of heteroaggregates, similar to that for non-polymer nanomaterials. Some prognostic effect studies have been performed but effect thresholds seem higher than nanoplastic concentrations expected in the environment. The high surface area of nanoplastics may imply that toxic chemicals are retained by nanoplastics, possibly increasing overall hazard. Release of non-polymer nanomaterial additives from small product fragments may add to the hazard of nanoplastics. Because
Humans have brought about unprecedented changes to environments worldwide. For many species, behavioral adjustments represent
the first response to altered conditions. In this review, we consider the pivotal role that behavior plays in determining
the fate of species under human-induced environmental change and highlight key research priorities. In particular, we discuss
the importance of behavioral plasticity and whether adaptive plastic responses are sufficient in keeping pace with changing
conditions. We then examine the interplay between individual behavioral responses and population processes and consider the
many ways in which changes in behavior can affect ecosystem function and stability. Lastly, we turn to the evolutionary consequences
of anthropogenic change and consider the impact of altered behaviors on the evolutionary process and whether behavior can
facilitate or hinder adaptation to environmental change.
Archaea are widespread in marine sediments, but their occurrence and relationship with natural salinity gradients in estuarine sediments is not well understood. This study investigated the abundance and diversity of Archaea in sediments at three sites [Brightlingsea (BR), Alresford (AR) and Hythe (HY)] along the Colne Estuary, using quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) of 16S rRNA genes, DNA hybridization, Archaea 16S rRNA and mcrA gene phylogenetic analyses. Total archaeal 16S rRNA abundance in sediments were higher in the low-salinity brackish sediments from HY (2-8 × 10(7) 16S rRNA gene copies cm(-3)) than the high-salinity marine sites from BR and AR (2 × 10(4)-2 × 10(7) and 4 × 10(6)-2 × 10(7) 16S rRNA gene copies cm(-3), respectively), although as a proportion of the total prokaryotes Archaea were higher at BR than at AR or HY. Phylogenetic analysis showed that members of the 'Bathyarchaeota' (MCG), Thaumarchaeota and methanogenic Euryarchaeota were the dominant groups of Archaea. The composition of Thaumarchaeota varied with salinity, as only 'marine' group I.1a was present in marine sediments (BR). Methanogen 16S rRNA genes from low-salinity sediments at HY were dominated by acetotrophic Methanosaeta and putatively hydrogentrophic Methanomicrobiales, whereas the marine site (BR) was dominated by mcrA genes belonging to methylotrophic Methanococcoides, versatile Methanosarcina and methanotrophic ANME-2a. Overall, the results indicate that salinity and associated factors play a role in controlling diversity and distribution of Archaea in estuarine sediments.
© The Author 2014. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Federation of European Microbiological Society.
Marine snow is a continuous shower of organic and inorganic detritus, and plays a crucial role in transporting materials from the sea surface to the deep ocean. The aims of the current study were to identify N-acyl homoserine lactone (AHL)-based quorum sensing (QS) signaling molecules directly from marine snow particles and to investigate the possible regulatory link between QS signals and extracellular hydrolytic enzymes produced by marine snow bacteria. The marine snow samples were collected from the surface water of China marginal seas. Two AHLs, i.e. 3OC6-HSL and C8-HSL, were identified directly from marine snow particles, while six different AHL signals, i.e. C4-HSL, 3OC6-HSL, C6-HSL, C10-HSL, C12-HSL and C14-HSL were produced by Pantoea ananatis B9 inhabiting natural marine snow particles. Of the extracellular hydrolytic enzymes produced by P. ananatis B9, alkaline phosphatase activity was highly enhanced in growth medium supplemented with exogenous AHL (C10-HSL), while quorum quenching enzyme (AiiA) drastically reduced the enzyme activity. To our knowledge, this is the first report revealing six different AHL signals produced by P. ananatis B9 and AHL-based QS system enhanced the extracellular hydrolytic enzyme in P. ananatis B9. Furthermore, this study first time revealing 3OC6-HSL production by Paracoccus carotinifaciens affiliated with Alphaproteobacteria.
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Microplastics are an emerging marine pollutant. It is important to understand their distribution in the marine environment and their implications on marine habitats and marine biota. Microplastics have been found in almost every marine habitat around the world, with plastic composition and environmental conditions significantly affecting their distribution. Marine biota interact with microplastics including birds, fish, turtles, mammals and invertebrates. The biological repercussions depend on to the size of microplastics encountered, with smaller sizes having greater effects on organisms at the cellular level. In the micrometre range plastics are readily ingested and egested, whereas nanometre-sized plastics can pass through cell membranes. Despite concerns raised by ingestion, the effects of microplastic ingestion in natural populations and the implications for food webs are not understood. Without knowledge of retention and egestion rates of field populations, it is difficult to deduce ecological consequences. There is evidence to suggest that microplastics enter food chains and there is trophic transfer between predators and prey. What is clear is that further research on a variety of marine organisms is required to understand the environmental implications of microplastics in more detail and to establish effects in natural populations.
Due to sampling difficulties, little is known about microbial communities associated with sinking marine snow in the twilight zone. A drifting sediment trap was equipped with a viscous cryo gel and collected intact marine snow from 100 and 400 m off Cape Blanc (Mauretania). Marine snow aggregates were fixed and washed in situ to prevent changes in microbial community composition and to enable subsequent analysis using catalyzed reporter deposition fluorescence in situ hybridization (CARD-FISH). The attached microbial communities collected at 100 m were similar to the free-living community at the depth of fluorescence maximum (20 m), but different from those from other depths (150, 400, 550, and 700 m). Therefore, the attached microbial community seemed to be "inherited" from that of the fluorescence maximum. The attached microbial community structure at 400 m differed both from that attached at 100 m as well as any free-living community at the tested depths. The differences between the particle-associated communities at 400 m and 100 m appeared to be due to internal changes in the attached microbial community rather than de novo colonization, detachment, or grazing during the sinking of marine snow. The new sampling method presented here will facilitate future investigations into the mechanisms that shape the bacterial community within sinking marine snow, leading to better understanding of the mechanisms which regulate biogeochemical cycling of settling organic matter.
Copyright © 2014, American Society for Microbiology. All Rights Reserved.
Plastic pollution is ubiquitous throughout the marine environment, yet estimates of the global abundance and weight of floating plastics have lacked data, particularly from the Southern Hemisphere and remote regions. Here we report an estimate of the total number of plastic particles and their weight floating in the world’s oceans from 24 expeditions (2007–2013) across all five sub-tropical gyres, costal Australia, Bay of Bengal and the Mediterranean Sea conducting surface net tows (N5680) and visual survey transects of large plastic debris (N5891). Using an oceanographic model of floating debris dispersal calibrated by our data, and correcting for wind-driven vertical mixing, we estimate a minimum of 5.25 trillion particles weighing 268,940 tons. When comparing between four size classes, two microplastic ,4.75 mm and meso- and macroplastic .4.75 mm, a tremendous loss of microplastics is observed from the sea surface compared to expected rates of fragmentation, suggesting there are mechanisms at play that remove ,4.75 mm plastic particles from the ocean surface.
The “biological pump” is the process by which photosynthetically-produced organic matter in the ocean descends from the surface layer to depth by a combination of sinking particles, advection or vertical mixing of dissolved organic matter, and transport by animals. Particulate organic matter that is exported downward from the euphotic zone is composed of combinations of fecal pellets from zooplankton and fish, organic aggregates known as “marine snow” and phytodetritus from sinking phytoplankton. Previous reviews by Turner and Ferrante (1979) and Turner (2002) focused on publications that appeared through late 2001. Since that time, studies of the biological pump have continued, and there have been > 300 papers on vertical export flux using sediment traps, large-volume filtration systems and other techniques from throughout the global ocean. This review will focus primarily on recent studies that have appeared since 2001. Major topics covered in this review are 1) an overview of the biological pump, and its efficiency and variability, and the role of dissolved organic carbon in the biological pump; 2) zooplankton fecal pellets, including the contribution of zooplankton fecal pellets to export flux, epipelagic retention of zooplankton fecal pellets due to zooplankton activities, zooplankton vertical migration and fecal pellet repackaging, microbial ecology of fecal pellets, sinking velocities of fecal pellets and aggregates, ballasting of sinking particles by mineral contents, phytoplankton cysts, intact cells and harmful algae toxins in fecal pellets, importance of fecal pellets from various types of zooplankton, and the role of zooplankton fecal pellets in picoplankton export; 3) marine snow, including the origins, abundance, and distributions of marine snow, particles and organisms associated with marine snow, consumption and fragmentation of marine snow by animals, pathogens associated with marine snow; 4) phytodetritus, including pulsed export of phytodetritus, phytodetritus from Phaeocystis spp., picoplankton in phytodetritus, the summer export pulse (SEP) of phytodetritus in the subtropical North Pacific, benthic community responses to phytodetritus; 5) other components of the biological pump, including fish fecal pellets and fish-mediated export, sinking carcasses of animals and macrophytes, feces from marine mammals, transparent exopolymer particles (TEP); 6) the biological pump and climate, including origins of the biological pump, the biological pump and glacial/interglacial cycles, the biological pump and contemporary climate variations, and the biological pump and anthropogenic climate change. The review concludes with potential future modifications in the biological pump due to climate change.
Significance
High concentrations of floating plastic debris have been reported in remote areas of the ocean, increasing concern about the accumulation of plastic litter on the ocean surface. Since the introduction of plastic materials in the 1950s, the global production of plastic has increased rapidly and will continue in the coming decades. However, the abundance and the distribution of plastic debris in the open ocean are still unknown, despite evidence of affects on organisms ranging from small invertebrates to whales. In this work, we synthetize data collected across the world to provide a global map and a first-order approximation of the magnitude of the plastic pollution in surface waters of the open ocean.
Microplastic debris (<5 mm) is a prolific environmental pollutant, found worldwide in marine, freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems. Interactions between biota and microplastics are prevalent, and there is growing evidence that microplastics can incite significant health effects in exposed organisms. To date, the methods used to quantify such interactions have varied greatly between studies. Here, we critically review methods for sampling, isolating and identifying microplastics ingested by environmentally and laboratory exposed fish and invertebrates. We aim to draw attention to the strengths and weaknesses of the suite of published microplastic extraction and enumeration techniques. Firstly, we highlight the risk of microplastic losses and accumulation during biotic sampling and storage, and suggest protocols for mitigating contamination in the field and laboratory. We evaluate a suite of methods for extracting microplastics ingested by biota, including dissection, depuration, digestion and density s
Microplastics collected at sea harbour a high diversity of microorganisms including some Vibrio genus members, raising questions about the role of microplastics as a novel ecological niche for potentially pathogenic microorganisms. In the present study we investigated the adhesion dynamics of Vibrio crassostreae on polystyrene microparticles (micro-PS) using electronic and fluorescence microscopy techniques. Micro-PS were incubated with bacteria in different media (Zobell culture medium and artificial seawater) with or without natural marine aggregates. The highest percentage of colonised particles (38-100%) was observed in Zobell culture medium, which may be related to nutrient availability for production of pili and exopolysaccharide adhesion structures. A longer bacterial attachment (6 days) was observed on irregular micro-PS compared to smooth particles (<10h) but complete decolonisation of all particles eventually occurred. The presence of natural marine agreggates around micro-PS led to substantial and perennial colonisation featuring monospecific biofilms at the surface of the aggregates. These exploratory results suggest that V. crassostreae may be a secondary coloniser of micro-PS, requiring a multi-species community to form a durable adhesion phenotype. Temporal assessment of microbial colonisation on microplastics at sea using imaging and omics approaches are further indicated to better understand the microplastics colonisation dynamics and species assemblages.
Marine bivalves are known to ingest microplastics, but information on the consequences for their physiological performance is limited. To investigate a potential exposure pathway that has not yet been addressed, we mimicked the resuspension of microplastics from the sediment in a laboratory exposure experiment. For this, we exposed the Asian green mussel Perna viridis to 4 concentrations (0mg/l, 21.6mg/l, 216mg/l, 2160mg/l) of suspended polyvinylchloride (PVC) particles (1-50μm) for two 2-hour-time-periods per day. After 44days, mussel filtration and respiration rates as well as byssus production were found to be a negative function of particle concentration. Furthermore, within 91days of exposure, mussel survival declined with increasing PVC abundance. These negative effects presumably go back to prolonged periods of valve closure as a reaction to particle presence. We suggest that microplastics constitute a new seston component that exerts a stress comparable to natural suspended solids.
Microscopic plastic (microplastic) debris is a marine pollutant that threatens aquatic biota and ecosystems. Microplastics have been detected throughout the world's oceans; however, the relative importance of different processes that control the spatial distribution and long-term fate of microplastics in the marine environment remains largely unknown. Results from laboratory and field studies indicate that interactions between microplastic debris and marine organisms may play an important role in redistributing plastic in the oceans. We provide an overview of the various mechanisms through which marine life and microplastics can interact. By considering coupled physical–biological processes, we also identify regions where these interactions are most likely to occur, and outline a new research agenda that aims to determine their prevalence in the marine environment. We hypothesize that biological interactions are key to understanding the movement, impact, and fate of microplastics in the oceans.
The effects of polystyrene microbeads (micro-PS; mix of 2 and 6 μm; final concentration: 32 μg L−1) alone or in combination with fluoranthene (30 μg L−1) on marine mussels Mytilus spp. were investigated after 7 days of exposure and 7 days of depuration under controlled laboratory conditions. Overall, fluoranthene was mostly associated to algae Chaetoceros muelleri (partition coefficient Log Kp = 4.8) used as a food source for mussels during the experiment. When micro-PS were added in the system, a fraction of FLU transferred from the algae to the microbeads as suggested by the higher partition coefficient of micro-PS (Log Kp = 6.6), which confirmed a high affinity of fluoranthene for polystyrene microparticles. However, this did not lead to a modification of fluoranthene bioaccumulation in exposed individuals, suggesting that micro-PS had a minor role in transferring fluoranthene to mussels tissues in comparison with waterborne and foodborne exposures. After depuration, a higher fluoranthene concentration was detected in mussels exposed to micro-PS and fluoranthene, as compared to mussels exposed to fluoranthene alone. This may be related to direct effect of micro-PS on detoxification mechanisms, as suggested by a down regulation of a P-glycoprotein involved in pollutant excretion, but other factors such as an impairment of the filtration activity or presence of remaining beads in the gut cannot be excluded. Micro-PS alone led to an increase in hemocyte mortality and triggered substantial modulation of cellular oxidative balance: increase in reactive oxygen species production in hemocytes and enhancement of anti-oxidant and glutathione-related enzymes in mussel tissues. Highest histopathological damages and levels of anti-oxidant markers were observed in mussels exposed to micro-PS together with fluoranthene. Overall these results suggest that under the experimental conditions of our study micro-PS led to direct toxic effects at tissue, cellular and molecular levels, and modulated fluoranthene kinetics and toxicity in marine mussels.
Over the past twenty years microplastic pollution has been recorded in all major marine habitats, and is now considered to be of high environmental concern. Correspondingly, the number of reports of microplastic ingestion by marine species is increasing. Despite this, there are still relatively few studies which address the uptake and retention of microplastic in wild populations. Langoustine, Nephrops norvegicus, sampled from the Clyde Sea Area, have previously been seen to contain large aggregations of microplastic fibres. The large proportion of contaminated individuals and size of the microplastic aggregations observed suggests that Nephrops are at high risk of microplastic ingestion. In this study the levels of ingested microplastic in populations of N. norvegicus from the Clyde Sea Area, North Minch and North Sea are examined. Animals in the near-shore, Clyde Sea population showed both a higher percentage of microplastic containing individuals and much greater weights of microplastic retained in the gut. N. norvegicus revealed that only a small percentage of individuals from the North Sea and Minch contained microplastic, predominantly single strands. An expanded sample from the Clyde Sea Area was examined to identify the factors influencing microplastic retention. This revealed that males, larger individuals, and animals that had recently moulted contained lower levels of microplastic. The presence of identified food items in the gut was not seen to correlate with microplastic loads. Observations of microplastic in the shed stomach lining of recently moulted individuals and the lack of aggregations in wild-caught individuals suggests that ecdysis is the primary route of microplastic loss by N. norvegicus. Therefore the large aggregations observed in wild-caught animals are believed to build up over extended periods as a result of the complex gut structure of N. norvegicus.
Recent studies revealed that freshwaters are not only polluted by chemicals, but also by persistent synthetic material like microplastics (plastic particles <1 mm). Microplastics include a diverse range of characteristics, e.g. polymer type, size or shape, but also their tendency to sorb pollutants or release additives. Although there is rising concern about the pollution of freshwaters by microplastics, knowledge about their potential effects on organisms is limited. For a better understanding of their risks, it is crucial to unravel which characteristics influence their effects on organisms. Analysing effects by the mere particles is the first step before including more complex interactions e.g. with associated chemicals. The aim of this study was to analyse potential physical effects of microplastics on one representative organism for limnic zooplankton (Daphnia magna). We investigated whether microplastics can be ingested and whether their presence causes adverse effects after short-term exposure. Daphnids were exposed for up to 96 h to 1-μm and 100-μm polyethylene particles at concentrations between 12.5 and 400 mg L(-1). Ingestion of 1-μm particles led to immobilisation increasing with dose and time with an EC50 of 57.43 mg L(-1) after 96 h. 100-μm particles that could not be ingested by the daphnids had no observable effects. These results underline that, considering high concentrations, microplastic particles can already induce adverse effects in limnic zooplankton. Although it needs to be clarified if these concentrations can be found in the environment these results are a basis for future impact analysis, especially in combination with associated chemicals.
