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Concerning heritage: lessons from rock art management in the Maloti-Drakensberg Park World Heritage Site. In Makuvaza, S., (ed) forthcoming 'Aspects of Management Planning for Cultural World Heritage Sites: Principles, Approaches and Practices'. Springer.
Abstract
At the time of writing, sixteen years have passed since the inscription of the World Heritage Site (WHS) in the uKhahlamba-Drakensberg Park (uDP), South Africa. How has its cultural heritage been managed, and what lessons can be learned in order to inform its extension into the Kingdom of Lesotho? In 2013 UNESCO approved the inclusion of Lesotho’s Sehlabathebe National Park (SNP) to create a trans-boundary World Heritage Site known as the Maloti-Drakensberg Park, Lesotho/South Africa (MDP). This contribution is a critique for those planning and implementing site management strategies at rock art World Heritage sites. It draws specifically from experiences and outcomes on both sides of the international border (uDP and SNP). In this short essay we touch on the underlying management frameworks and how these are affected by the relationships between cultural heritage practitioners, cultural heritage agencies, and site managers. We outline the concerns of sustainability, tourism and marketing and whether these have hampered the park’s integrity. We further indicate how, perhaps, some of the pitfalls hitherto encountered, may be overcome. This is especially relevant to those heritage practitioners currently engaged in the planning of the new visitor centre at the SNP.
Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, overtourism was a major topic in global tourism management discourse. The continued growth of international tourism placed pressure on many high-profile urban destinations containing some of the world's most important intrinsic cultural heritage. This paper critically examines the operation of Hidden Florence, a heritage tourism augmented reality (AR) application (app) for the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Florence in Italy. Since 2016, the city management plan has actively promoted digital and smart solutions to address the issues induced by mass heritage tourism. Through user engagement data from 2013 to 2018, this paper investigates the nature and extent of app use, both in and away from the city. The paper makes two main contributions. First, from a managerial perspective, the empirical analysis points to several major practical and methodological challenges if AR apps, and the data they generate, are to be employed effectively as part of the management of established heritage destinations. Second, the use of AR apps in, and smart approaches to, tourism management have been recently theorised and advocated. Evidence from Hidden Florence demonstrates that translating conceptual possibilities into longer-term management practices and beneficial change is more challenging than existing discourse concedes.
This paper addresses the general theme of conservation and/or change of heritage sites in urban and regional planning. The particular focus is on the management of UNESCO industrial World Heritage sites in Europe. Industrial heritage refers back to historic innovation and continues to be embedded today in innovation-orientated urban and regional development. The question that our study examines is: In which aspects does the management of an industrial World Heritage site coincide with (or differ from) that of areas of innovation? We identified criteria both for the management of industrial heritage sites ("Good Practice Wheel") and areas of innovation (suc-cess factors for European Science and Technology Parks). In an online survey, we asked managers of heritage sites to evaluate management criteria. Completed survey responses were obtained for 22 of 38 European sites (58%) in 12 of 15 countries concerned (80%). Our study clearly shows an overlap of conservation and innovation priorities even in the management of UNESCO industrial World Heritage sites, and underlines the importance of integrative, "good" heritage management.
Archaeological sites are part of the history and identity of a community playing a strategic role on the different scales of the cultural and economic common life. Whereas on the one end the most famous archaeological sites attract huge flows of tourists and investment, on the other hand, many minor archaeological sites remain almost ignored and neglected. This study proposes a project-evaluation approach devoted to the “minor” archaeological site development, outlining a territorial, socio-economic, and landscape communication pattern aimed at creating an archaeological network integrating other cultural and natural resources. As such, these networks get able to match the demand of customers who shy away from iper-consumerist tourism and want to deepen their knowledge of a place. The proposed approach integrates knowledge, evaluation, and design in a multiscale pattern whose scope is to foster and extend the archaeological research program, involving public and private stake/stockholders to widen the cultural-contemplative experience and promote further educational events concerning the themes of the local identity. With reference to the archaeological basin of Tornambè, Italy, a Web-GIS knowledge system has been drawn to provide the territorial information requested by the economic-evaluation multiscale pattern implemented to verify the cost-effectiveness of the project. The expected negative results of the economic valuation supported the allocation pattern of the considerable investment costs, as well as the hypothetic scenarios about the evolution of the cultural-contemplative experience due to the extension of the archaeological estate. Some disciplinary remarks propose a heterodox approach for a further interpretation of the economic results and financial indexes, by introducing the monetary dimension of such a social capital asset.
The Matobo Hills World Heritage Area in southern Zimbabwe is an acknowledged treasure trove of rock art sites. Despite a century of research and management, there remains much to be done to conserve these sites for future generations. Following a chronological approach, this paper reviews a century of research and conservation efforts, detailing various strategies and achievements by individuals, government agencies, and affiliated organisations. Zimbabwe’s recent economic collapse and ‘land reform’ programme had fundamental impacts on the appreciation and protection of the rock art sites by tourists, local communities, international organisations and government agencies, all of which are explored. The article ends with brief suggestions on how to potentially improve and expand the management of rock art in the Matobo Hills area.
This research explores archaeological heritage management at the Memphis and its Necropolis – the Pyramid Fields from Giza to Dahshur World Heritage Site in Egypt. The case study methodology involved a structured questionnaire in order to gather data from key stakeholders. The results suggest only partial implementation of the World Heritage Site (WHS) management plan due in part to financial constraints, while strategies to raise visitor numbers remain limited. Actions are required to promote tourism, and to find resources for site enhancements. Current site management responsibilities appear centralised, with a need to develop an integrated management plan for the WHS. There could be better understanding of the needs of visitors and how these can be met. The study recommends development of a more Integrated Management Plan for the site, perhaps also involving some restructuring of key (state) organisations and/or specifically the creation of an entity responsible for management of the site.
Gathering digital data is a twenty-first-century research concern. Working in the previously undocumented region of t he Eastern Cape’s former 'Transkei' homeland presents several data collection opportunities and obstacles. Local community collectives can vastly enhance the data collection process,aiding in administration, field walking, translation and—as trained archaeologists—excavation and rock art documentation. In the last 7 years, the Matatiele Archaeology Rock Art (MARA) team has discovered over 240 archaeological sites, the vast majority of which contain rock art. The principal investigator (PI), post-doctoral fellows, technical skills specialists and students have all engaged with, helped train and benefited from field technicians chosen by the local communities to work with us. With their help, we have undertaken excavations and taken thousands of documentary photographs. We have documented oral traditions and the indigenous knowledge of local healers, all of which research is produced, and stored, digitally and requires preservation in perpetuity. The present contribution out-lines some of the many and varied ways in which this programme has undertaken these tasks, in the endeavour to redress the imbalance in this region’s history.
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The boundary of uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park (uDP), first inscribed on the list of World Heritage Sites on 29 November 2000, was extended in 2013 to include the Sehlabathebe National Park in Lesotho. The new transboundary World Heritage Site was named the Maloti-Drakensberg Park. This paper offers a critique of the management of heritage resources in the South African portion of the World Heritage Site, the uDP, and the involvement of and benefits for communities living on the borders of the site. I note that the management authority for the South African side of the Maloti-Drakensberg Park does not have cultural heritage management expertise. I further show that the concept of indigeneity is problematic, that neighbouring communities have been historically and in some quarters continually disregarded in the management of protected areas and heritage, and that there are still a number of challenges when it comes to the structures established to improve their involvement in the uDP. However, there have been positive benefits accruing as the result of this inscription.
Analogies are an important tool of archaeological reasoning. The Kalahari San are frequently depicted in introductory texts as archetypal, mobile hunter-gatherers, and they have influenced approaches to archaeological, genetic and linguistic research. But is this analogy fundamentally flawed? Recent arguments have linked the San populations of southern Africa with the late Pleistocene Later Stone Age (c. 44 kya) at Border Cave, South Africa. The authors argue that these and other claims for the Pleistocene antiquity of modern-day cultures arise from a fundamental misunderstanding of the nature of cultural and archaeological taxonomies, and that they are a misuse of analogical reasoning.
The discipline of archaeology has, like any other discipline, undergone transformation of various kinds over years. Such transformation is encouraged by various factors, which may range from the need to improve research techniques and theoretical frameworks to extract better results from the material culture to racial transforming within the discipline. The latter is true in the case of South Africa. An effort to bring about racial transformation within South African archaeology was initiated in 2007 by three African archaeologists who had the desire to see meaningful changes happening in the discipline following the democratic transition in 1994. A transformation charter was approved by the professional structure of archaeology in Southern Africa a year later. In it, we not only strive to achieve racial balance within the archaeological discipline, but explore how archaeology is practised in the context of archaeological heritage management. What does this transformation agenda mean for the management of archaeological resources? How can South African archaeological heritage management, through the transformation charter, bring about a truly post-colonial and Africanist archaeology? A review of post-colonial and Africanist ideology in the context of heritage management will be presented. In the case of South Africa, current archaeological heritage management principles are one-dimensional and Eurocentric in that the physical approach to heritage management is emphasized. This approach is at loggerheads with an approach based on African understanding of archaeological heritage management. To highlight this phenomenon, I shall briefl y discuss the current heritage legislation. I conclude the paper by arguing that a post-colonial and Africanist archaeology cannot be meaningfully achieved by a mere change of theoretical principles, but by the full incorporation of professionals from across the racial divide. In the context of the paper, archaeological heritage management should not be about managing African heritage for the Africans in their absence.
This paper addresses the presentation of rock art to the public, and perceptions of indigenous identity, by focusing on two rural South African rock art visitor centers. Both visitor centers were designed in the early 2000s to provide tangible benefits to people in rural areas and also to present rock art in a challenging and exciting new way – one that would dovetail with the central tenets of the “new South Africa”. Fifteen years on, this paper considers the extent to which the visitor centers have succeeded.
The aim of this paper is to go beyond a binary opposition approach that pits preservation against tourism development, and to determine the ways in which tourism can contribute to the preservation of rock art sites. The results presented derive from research conducted in the region of the uKhahlamba-Drakensberg Park (UDP) of South Africa. We examine how an analysis of tourist practices and motivations can be used in the development of sustainable rock art tourism. Specific attention is paid to the identification of different types of visitors to the area, their reasons for visiting and their practices while there. Five main types of visitors were identified: 'hedonists', 'outdoor and sports tourists', 'information seekers', 'rock art enthusiasts' and 'general sightseers'. This understanding of the types of tourist visiting the UDP led us to determine a set of actions that might be taken to develop sustainable rock art tourism in the area. Finally, we consider the extent to which our approach and our recommendations hold lessons for those managing rock art in other areas.
The construction of physical barriers as protection of rock art against the threats of graffiti, vandalism, encroachment, deforestation, quarrying, and other human activity is rarely effective. The best barrier is a community which has an emotional or economic link to the heritage. Engaging local communities in the management, conservation, and valorization of sites and ensuring that they are beneficiaries of the heritage lays the foundations of those protective barriers. One of the ways the Trust for African Rock Art (TARA) has been doing this is through the development of responsible rock art tourism. In 2008, TARA's partnership in a project with the people of Mfangano Island, Kenya, led to the official opening of the Abasuba Community Peace Museum, the gateway to the Island's rock art and other heritage. The project provided a community project model which TARA has subsequently used in Kenya, Malawi, Niger, Tanzania, and Uganda.
This paper describes new developments and deliberations at the 35th Session of the World Heritage Committee in Paris in June 2011. One of the most striking aspects of this year's meetings was the vocal challenge to the expert status and authority of the Advisory Bodies (ICOMOS and IUCN) by the Committee in making recommendations for site inscription. By the end of the meetings they had overturned 22 of the Advisory Body recommendations previously presented in the Draft Decision. Many of those challenges reflect a broader desire to inscribe properties within nations that have been historically underrepresented on the World Heritage List. I also suggest, however, that long-standing political allegiances and new socioeconomic alliances were key factors in voting trends, while heritage sites themselves and their specific requirements received less substantive discussion. The ramifications of these developments for States Parties and communities in terms of site conservation and management can only be assessed in years to come.
This paper considers successes and failures in the history of rock art management and presentation in southern Africa. It argues that public rock art sites have a key role in national identity, poverty relief, and job creation and makes a strong case for a management process in rock art tourism development based on carefully negotiated partnerships between landowners, local communities, archaeologists, and heritage
managers.
This paper focuses on rock art tourism, a highly vulnerable heritage of broad public interest,
only sustainable within an effective management framework. The paper explores
tourism management in South Africa’s uKhahlamba-Drakensberg World Heritage Site,
inscribed in 2000 for its natural landscapes and its exceptional rock art heritage. In practice,
nature dominates the area’s tourism and management dynamics. Current tourism
patterns, markets and frequencies, together with rock art’s low place within tourist
agendas, are described. This situation is shown to be a legacy of European Alpine
romanticism, and the political rejection of indigenous cultural heritage prior to 1994,
still expressed through visitor patterns and marketing policies. Despite rock art needing
tourism to valorise its conservation, and being recognised by commentators and the
state as a viable route to tourism development, heritage conservation, socio-economic
regeneration and cultural empowerment, the failure to reformentrenched and ineffective
tourism/conservation governance and management systems is exposed. The problems
affecting rock art tourism have allowed the retention of unwelcome values from South
Africa’s pre-democratic era, risk the loss of World Heritage site status, the destruction
of globally outstanding art works and waste an important opportunity to expand and
diversify sustainable tourism in South Africa.
Formal heritage management systems have failed to protect archaeological sites in many parts of southern Africa. Since historical times, local communities living in close proximity to heritage places have often played a large role in ensuring the survival of places of cultural significance through their traditional custodianship systems. Yet often these systems are ignored or not fully recognized by the State heritage management organizations. This study investigates whether an intimate understanding of traditional custodianship systems can provide direction towards a more effective and sustainable method of managing archaeological sites imbued with sacred values. In an attempt to harness the positive parts of both the traditional and formal systems, the work recommends the adoption of a framework enriched by a philosophy of rooted cosmopolitanism that embraces legal pluralism in heritage legislation and cultural polices.
The uKhahlamba-Drakensberg Park (UDP) was declared a World Heritage Site in 2000 on the basis of its magnificent scenery, biodiversity, and archaeological richness, comprising a rich corpus of rock paintings and occupation deposits relating to the San hunter-gatherers. The desire to encourage heritage tourism to the UDP following the declaration, along with the wish to present a more positive picture of the San hunter-gatherers, led to the development of the Kamberg (in 2002) and Didima Rock Art Centres (in 2003). These centres, together with the Main Caves visitor attraction, which had been redeveloped in 1998, distinguish the UDP as the premier region in South Africa for the interpretation of the San past. Cognizant of the critical role that public interpretation plays in the management of archaeological resources, this paper investigates which aspects of the archaeological record have been stressed and which have been overlooked, the relationship between the interpretations and the findings of UDP archaeological research since the 1970s, and whether these findings enhance the significance and value of the resources and thereby promote their management. It is shown that the overall interpretive emphasis is on rock art and that information derived from Later Stone Age hunter-gatherer excavations since the 1970s have been neglected. Furthermore, it is revealed that the display of Early and Middle Stone Age material at Didima is inconsistent with regional archaeological findings and that there is a neglect of local archaeological remains. It is concluded that the development of any further attractions should be based on an interpretive plan which considers the interpretive requirements of the region as a whole.
Heritage management and cultural legislation have always existed in the African continent, even before the days of written laws. However, it is often perceived that it was with the 'taking over' of the continent that civilization and heritage legislation were first implemented. The 'new' legislation did not recognize the indigenous means of management and ignored the fact that heritage sites have existed long prior to the scramble for the continent. The first enacted legislation in South Africa was distinctively biased towards the Bushmen heritage. I argue that this was probably because it was not politically problematic as Bushmen were considered to be a dying nation with a culture going 'extinct'. Having legislation that promoted the heritage of the people you were colonizing might not have been strategically correct. Legislation over the years moved away from the 'Bushmen culture' to protecting colonial heritage sites. Whilst the post-colonial heritage legislation has improved on the previous legislation — as can be shown by its success in courts — there are still areas of concern. I find the whole heritage framework represented by the legislation to still be clearly non-African, with a top-down approach that has not much respect for African culture, especially the values that clash with Eurocentric ones. I conclude that indeed there has been significant progress made with legislation over the years, from 1911 to 1999 when the current legislation was promulgated. However, a lack of proactive measures from within heritage management, as well as external factors, are still a stumbling block to a successful implementation of heritage legislation and as a result heritage is still threatened.
Rock art conservation has developed hand-in-hand with the increased pace of tourism, yet the two activities tend to remain
in opposing camps. Policies and guidelines have been developed for cultural heritage and cultural tourism and there is a widely
accepted range of principles in place, but a theory of sustainable rock art tourism is only in its infancy. To mature, the
discipline needs research into the interaction of key elements that affect the long-term conservation of frequently visited
rock paintings and engravings in their original setting, as well as consideration of social and economic factors that drive
tourism and the public interest in rock art.
KEY WORDS:Rock art-conservation-heritage tourism-heritage management
Located in the former Transkei homeland of the apartheid era, now the Eastern Cape Province, Matatiele is one of many disadvantaged though culturally rich communities in South Africa. Both the government and academics have neglected the region for decades. The Matatiele Community and its Mehloding Community Trust needed to understand community views about a proposed heritage centre. Therefore, I conducted research (including interviews) to understand the various communities’ perceptions of what they regard as heritage, including their views on heritage management and the significance of rock art. In this paper, I outline the complexities of rock art management within an area whose inhabitants do not relate to the ‘western’ meaning of heritage, as well as the significance of involving community perspectives to achieve a better understanding of the dynamics surrounding heritage and its management. Communities’ perspectives this study have informed heritage management strategies that are relevant for Matatiele.
For their conservation and development project, the Lesotho office of the Maloti-Drakensberg Transfrontier Project (MDTP) hired a consultant to contribute information and recommendations on cultural heritage. Many objectives were addressed in this component of MDTP. In this paper I discuss the survey of palaeontological, archaeological, rock art, historical and living heritage sites in the MDTP area between early 2005 and early 1006, and parallel training of Basotho technicians involved in the project. This work shows the composition of the palaeontological, archaeological and historical heritage in the area; the significance and abundance of the heritage; and the considerable threat heritage resources are under from various sources. This project has produced additional heritage practitioners and an initial database of cultural heritage in the country which will contribute to planning for conservation, development and research by the Lesotho government.
Overview of UDP Rock Art Management Since the 1960sInstitutional ResponsibilitiesInventories, Planning, Implementation, and Indigenous VoicesWorld Heritage, Tourism, and Public InterpretationDiscussionConclusion
AcknowledgmentsNotesReferences
The Kingdom of Lesotho is surrounded by the Republic of South Africa and they share the Maloti Drakensberg mountain bioregion along Lesotho's eastern border. This mountain bioregion hosts globally significant natural and cultural heritage and is also of great scenic value. This was recognised when the uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park was registered as a World Heritage Site in 2000. Some time before this though, in the 1980s, officials from the two countries had already recognised the need to collaborate on the management of this shared asset. Preliminary talks grew to the signing of a declaration of intent in 1997 and then an international memorandum of understanding in 2001. This then led to the launching of the first 5 year phase of a transfrontier conservation and development programme in 2003. As this phase is drawing to a close and efforts are focussed on getting all that is necessary in place for the 2 nd phase, much has been achieved and learnt as far as the mechanisms that are required for cooperation across the numerous boundaries within this mountain bioregion. Collaboration across the international boundary has been the most challenging with the significant differences between the two countries in terms of their legal, social, cultural, political and economic frameworks. This paper will discuss these differences and how they were addressed during the 1 st phase as well as what has been planned for phase II. Together with this biological and cultural richness, the Maloti Drakensberg also has strategic significance in the form of ecosystem services delivered from the area, and water in particular.
After ten years and extensive debate of UNESCO’s Convention on the Safeguarding of the Intangible Heritage (2003), workable definitions and frameworks for safeguarding Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) are either emergent or non-existent. This is particularly significant in the case of heritage mitigation associated with large-scale construction projects: where these entail population resettlement and/or landscape loss, recording ICH is necessary both for impact assessment and mitigation and for helping impacted-upon communities cope with trauma. Nevertheless, there is little discussion of how to implement ICH safeguarding frameworks in salvage contexts.This paper focuses on attempts to record ICH impacted upon by western Lesotho’s Metolong Dam. We highlight the practical shortcomings of existing ICH definitions and safeguarding protocols. We discuss the methodology used at Metolong and its ethical entailments, and take inspiration from UNESCO policy (and debates thereupon) and other sources in an attempt to find a workable framework for ICH recording in development contexts.
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