A Longitudinal Integration of Identity Styles and Educational Identity Processes in Adolescence

Abstract

Identity formation is a main adolescent psychosocial developmental task. The complex inter-connection between different processes that are at the basis of one’s identity is a research and applied intervention priority. In this context, the identity style model focuses on social-cognitive strategies (i.e., informational, normative, and diffuse-avoidant) that individuals can use to deal with identity formation. The three-factor identity dimensional model examines the interplay between identity processes of commitment, in-depth exploration, and reconsideration of commitment in different life domains. Theoretical integrations between these models have been proposed but there is a dearth of studies unraveling their longitudinal links in specific identity domains. We addressed this gap by testing in a three-wave longitudinal study the bidirectional associations between identity styles and educational identity processes measured during one academic year. Participants were 1,151 adolescents (58.7% female). Results highlighted that the informational style was related over time to higher levels of educational commitment and in-depth exploration, whereas the diffuse-avoidant style was related to lower levels of commitment and higher levels of reconsideration of commitment. Educational commitment was positively related to the informational and normative styles; in-depth exploration was positively related to the informational style; and reconsideration of commitment was positively related to the diffuse-avoidant style. These relations were not moderated by adolescents’ gender and age. Hence, identity styles and educational identity processes reinforce each other during one academic year. Theoretical integrations between these models, suggestions for integration with other identity approaches (e.g., narrative identity models), and practical implications are discussed.

Full text

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IDENTITY STYLES AND IDENTITY PROCESSES
Negru-Subtirica, O., Pop, E. I., & Crocetti, E. (2017). A longitudinal integration of identity styles
and educational identity processes in adolescence. Developmental Psychology. doi:
10.1037/dev0000325
Manuscript submitted for a Special Issue of Developmental Psychology: Identity Development Process
and Content: Toward an Integrated and Contextualized Science of Identity
Accepted March 6, 2017
© 2017, American Psychological Association. This paper is not the copy of record and may not exactly
replicate the final, authoritative version of the article. Please do not copy or cite without authors
permission. The final article will be available, upon publication, via its DOI: 10.1037/dev0000325

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IDENTITY STYLES AND IDENTITY PROCESSES
Running head: IDENTITY STYLES AND IDENTITY PROCESSES
A Longitudinal Integration of Identity Styles and Educational Identity Processes in Adolescence
Oana Negru-Subtirica1, Eleonora Ioana Pop1, Elisabetta Crocetti2
1 Department of Psychology, Babes-Bolyai University, Romania
2 Department of Psychology, University of Bologna, Italy
Correspondence concerning this paper should be addressed to
Oana Negru-Subtirica
Department of Psychology, Babes-Bolyai University, str. Republicii, nr. 37, 400015, Cluj-
Napoca, Cluj, Romania
Phone: +40743069794; E-mail: oananegru@psychology.ro, oana.m.negru@gmail.com

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IDENTITY STYLES AND IDENTITY PROCESSES
Abstract
Identity formation is a main adolescent psychosocial developmental task. The complex inter-
connection between different processes that are at the basis of one’s identity is a research and
applied intervention priority. In this context, the identity style model focuses on social-cognitive
strategies (i.e., informational, normative, and diffuse-avoidant) that individuals can use to deal
with identity formation. The three-factor identity dimensional model examines the interplay
between identity processes of commitment, in-depth exploration, and reconsideration of
commitment in different life domains. Theoretical integrations between these models have been
proposed but there is a dearth of studies unraveling their longitudinal links in specific identity
domains. We addressed this gap by testing in a three-wave longitudinal study the bidirectional
associations between identity styles and educational identity processes measured during one
academic year. Participants were 1,151 adolescents (58.7% female). Results highlighted that the
informational style was related over time to higher levels of educational commitment and in-
depth exploration, whereas the diffuse-avoidant style was related to lower levels of commitment
and higher levels of reconsideration of commitment. Educational commitment was positively
related to the informational and normative styles; in-depth exploration was positively related to
the informational style; and reconsideration of commitment was positively related to the diffuse-
avoidant style. These relations were not moderated by adolescents’ gender and age. Hence,
identity styles and educational identity processes reinforce each other during one academic year.
Theoretical integrations between these models, suggestions for integration with other identity
approaches (e.g., narrative identity models), and practical implications are discussed.
Keywords: Identity styles; Identity processes; Integration; Adolescence; Longitudinal

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IDENTITY STYLES AND IDENTITY PROCESSES
A Longitudinal Integration of Identity Styles and Educational Identity Processes in Adolescence
Identity formation is deeply embedded in one’s personal and social development across
the life-span (McAdams & Zapata-Gietl, 2015). In this respect, a better understanding of the
profound inter-connections between the different layers and processes that construct one’s
identity is a research and applied intervention priority. More specifically, recent reviews on the
state of identity research have underscored the importance of understanding how different
conceptualizations of one’s personal identity are inter-related (
Hammack, 2015; Meeus, 2011;
Vignoles, Schwartz, & Luyckx, 2011
). Such an endeavor would help scientists in better
mapping the dynamics of identity construction and it would assist practitioners in designing
intervention programs that are more specifically targeted at facilitating the advancement of
adaptive identities. As adolescence represents a key developmental period for identity formation
(Kroger & Marcia, 2011), in-depth analyses on the longitudinal links between different processes
of identity formation in this time-frame would increase our understanding on how identity is
constructed.
Building upon Erikson’s (1950, 1968) psychosocial theory and Marcia’s (1966) identity
status paradigm, various identity models were developed to capture the process through which
young people form their identity (cf. McLean & Syed, 2015; Meeus, 2011). In this context, the
identity style model (Berzonsky, 1989, 2011) focuses on social-cognitive strategies (i.e.,
informational, normative, and diffuse-avoidant) that individuals can use to deal with or avoid the
task of identity formation. The three-factor identity dimensional model (Crocetti, Rubini, &
Meeus, 2008) focuses on how individuals form and evaluate their identity in different domains
by examining the interplay between identity processes of commitment, in-depth exploration, and
reconsideration of commitment. Theoretical integrations between these models have been

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IDENTITY STYLES AND IDENTITY PROCESSES
proposed and supported by cross-sectional evidence (Crocetti, Sica, Schwartz, Serafini, &
Meeus, 2013). However, there is a dearth of longitudinal studies testing how social-cognitive
strategies and identity processes are related to each other over time and, importantly, in specific
identity domains.
In this study, we sought to address this gap in order to advance theoretical integration
among different identity models paying attention to a specific identity domain. In particular, we
tested in a three-wave longitudinal study the reciprocal associations between identity styles (i.e.,
informational, normative, and diffuse-avoidant) and identity processes measured in the
educational domain (i.e., educational commitment, educational in-depth exploration, and
educational reconsideration of commitment) within one academic year. Furthermore, we
examined the moderating effects of adolescents’ gender and age.
Identity Styles: Understanding How Self-Relevant Information are Processed
Berzonsky’s identity style model (1989, 1990, 2004, 2011) has provided a significant
contribution to the identity literature, as it brought forward that to form a personal sense of identity,
individuals can obtain and evaluate self-relevant information in different ways. The author postulated
that individuals use three different social-cognitive strategies, or processing orientations, to deal with
or avoid the identity formation task: informational, normative, and diffuse-avoidant orientations.
Social-cognitive strategies refer to the systematic behavioral and cognitive responses individuals
engage in as they attempt to deal with identity relevant issues and information. These orientations are
assumed to function at different levels. One’s identity style refers to the social-cognitive strategy that
an individual reportedly characteristically uses or would prefer to use when dealing with identity
conflicts and decisions (Berzonsky, 1990). Specifically, individuals with an informational style are
self-reflective and they actively seek out and evaluate self-relevant information. Those with a

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IDENTITY STYLES AND IDENTITY PROCESSES
normative style more automatically internalize and conform to the prescriptions and values of
significant others. Young people with a diffuse-avoidant style procrastinate and delay dealing with
identity issues as long as possible (Berzonsky, 1989, 2011).
Consistent findings revealed that identity styles are differentially associated with the types of
self-components on which adolescents rely to define their sense of identity (Berzonsky, 2004).
Specifically, individuals who adopt an informational style tend to define themselves by means of
personal attributes, like “my values”, “my goals”, “my standards”. Adolescents who mainly use a
normative style are inclined to rely on collective self-attributes, such as “my family”, “my religion”,
“my ethnicity”. Finally, individuals with a diffuse/avoidant style have a propensity to emphasize
social self-elements, like “my reputation”, “my popularity”, and “the impression I make on others”
(Berzonsky, 1994; Berzonsky, Macek, & Nurmi, 2003).
A large number of studies investigated further correlates of identity styles (cf. Berzonsky,
2004, 2011 for reviews). Convergent evidence revealed that the informational style is strongly and
positively intertwined with openness to experience, need for cognition, and openness to change values,
whereas the normative style is positively related to conscientiousness, need for closure, and
conservation values. The diffuse-avoidant style is negatively associated with conscientiousness,
openness to experience, need for cognition, conservation values, and it is not significantly related to
need for closure (Berzonsky, 1993; Berzonsky & Sullivan, 1992; Dollinger, 1995; Duriez, Luyckx,
Soenens, & Berzonsky, 2012; Soenens, Duriez, & Goossens, 2005). Summing up, each identity style
is characterized by specific information-processing strategies that are linked to differential indicators
of positive and negative psychosocial functioning.
Identity Processes: Untangling Identity Formation Dynamics

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IDENTITY STYLES AND IDENTITY PROCESSES
In the past decades, several identity models have focused on the dynamic processes at the
basis of construction and reconstruction of one’s personal identity
(Crocetti et al., 2013;
Luyckx, Goossens, & Soenens, 2006; Luyckx, Goossens, Soenens, Beyers, & Vansteenkiste,
2005).
In the identity process model proposed by Meeus, Crocetti, and colleagues (Crocetti et
al., 2008, 2015; Meeus, van de Schoot, Keijsers, Schwartz, & Branje, 2010) three pivotal identity
processes are taken into account to parsimoniously explain identity dynamics. Commitment
refers to enduring choices that individuals have made with regard to various developmental
domains and to the self-confidence they derive from these choices. In-depth exploration refers to
the active monitoring of and reflection upon present commitments, and hence a deeper
understanding of one’s current choices. These two processes assist adolescents in maintaining a
coherent sense of identity, which is perpetually reinforced by active investigation of self and
environment (i.e., identity maintenance cycle). Reconsideration of commitment is the process of
comparing existing unsatisfactory current commitments with other possible alternatives, in an
attempt to change or optimize these commitments. This process helps adolescents in
relinquishing goals that are no longer in accordance with personal desires or contextual demands
and in identifying new commitments (i.e., identity formation cycle). The interplay between these
two cycles (identity maintenance and identity formation) captures the dyad identity synthesis
versus identity confusion that Erikson (1968) conceptualized at the core of identity work in
adolescence (Meeus, 2011).
Consistent evidence has pointed out that each identity process is differently related to
psychosocial functioning. Specifically, commitment is positively associated with personal and social
adaptation (Crocetti et al., 2008; Crocetti, Branje, Rubini, Koot, & Meeus, 2017). In-depth exploration
can be both an adaptive process, linked with academic adjustment (Klimstra, Luyckx, Germeijs,

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IDENTITY STYLES AND IDENTITY PROCESSES
Meeus, & Goossens, 2012; Pop, Negru-Subtirica, Crocetti, Opre, & Meeus, 2016), but also a
maladaptive process, due to associations with depressive and anxiety symptoms (Crocetti et al., 2008).
Reconsideration of commitment has been positively linked to internalizing and externalizing problems
(Morsünbül, Crocetti, Cok, & Meeus, 2014), for instance. Overall, identity processes play differential
roles and have specific dynamics in young people’s lives: commitment is an adaptive component, in-
depth exploration has a dual nature, and reconsideration of commitments plays a negative,
maladaptive role in personal and social functioning, at least in the short term.
These identity processes can be applied to study identity dynamics in specific life domains
(e.g., education, friendship, religion; Crocetti, Scrignaro, Sica, & Magrin, 2012). One category of
salient commitments pertains to identity strivings in the educational domain. As school is the
dominant social milieu for adolescents, educational identity reflects their preoccupation with setting
and pursuing personal goals regarding their schooling (Nurmi, 1993). The way in which adolescents
define their educational identity has been found to be strongly influenced by their academic
achievement (Pop et al., 2016) and to be related to adjustment and well-being (Karaś, Cieciuch,
Negru, & Crocetti, 2015). Thus, educational identity is a highly salient domain for adolescent identity
formation.
The current study was conducted in Romania, a post-communist Eastern-European country
mostly defined by a collectivist culture orientation (Hofstede, 2001), where education is viewed,
especially by older generations, as a means for social ascension and, hence, it is highly valued.
Schooling is mandatory until the 10th grade and a
cademic knowledge is appraised at the end of each
school semester through final exams.
Romanian adolescents attend school six to seven hours a day,
spend a large amount of their time after school doing homework, have little freedom in choosing their
academic subjects, and have little to no work experiences during their schooling (Pop et al., 2016).

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IDENTITY STYLES AND IDENTITY PROCESSES
Additionally, parents enforce the role extensive schooling plays in their offspring’s future life success
and accordingly guide their children to continue their education from high-school to university (Karaś
et al., 2015). In fact, p
arents fully financially support their offspring across adolescence and
emerging adulthood and have a major influence in the educational and vocational decisions their
children make
(
Damian, Negru-Subtirica, Pop, & Baban, 2016).
Existing longitudinal research on
educational identity in Romanian adolescents (Pop et al., 2016) highlighted that across an academic
year educational commitments and in-depth exploration tend to decrease, while reconsideration of
educational commitments increases. Also, cross-lagged analyses indicated that academic achievement
seems to positively foster educational commitment and to negatively influence reconsideration of
educational commitments. In sum, in the Romanian context education is a core pursuit for adolescents,
as education represents the dominant and normative life domain at this developmental stage.
An Integration of Identity Styles and Identity Processes in Adolescence
The identity styles model views identity construction as an implementation of personal styles
in approaching identity conflicts and decisions and the three-factor identity dimensional model focuses
on the iterative interplay between identity formation and identity maintenance cycles. An integration
of these models could help researchers to “…map the structure and functions of identity more closely”
(Schwartz, Luyckx, & Crocetti, 2015, p. 555). More specifically, a longitudinal investigation on how
the processing of identity-relevant information is linked to people’s allegiance to and relinquishment
of personal goals can assist identity researchers in distinguishing which cognitive strategies support or
inhibit identity synthesis. Additionally, identity processes may also influence the selection and
preferential use of certain identity styles in specific life domains. In this regard, education represents a
normative developmental domain for many adolescents and emerging adults, who have to finalize
their schooling in order to transition toward adulthood (Super, 1980). Therefore, it may be that identity

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IDENTITY STYLES AND IDENTITY PROCESSES
formation and identity maintenance cycles in the educational domain enforce the preferential use of
specific identity styles due to the peculiarities of the identity domain under analysis.
So far, studies addressed this question by means of cross-sectional designs in which the focus
was mainly on overall identity processes (instead of considering specific identity domains). Extant
studies highlighted that the informational and the normative styles are positively related to
commitment, whereas the diffuse-avoidant style is negatively related to commitment (Crocetti, Rubini,
Berzonsky, & Meeus, 2009; Zimmermann, Biermann, Mantzouranis, Genoud, & Crocetti, 2012). In
terms of strength of these associations, it should be noted that the strongest links are those between the
normative style and commitment, while the weakest links are those between the diffuse-avoidant style
and commitment. Associations between identity styles and in-depth exploration and reconsideration of
commitment further pointed out that adolescents with different identity styles can reach stronger or
weaker certainty about their commitments in different ways (Crocetti et al., 2009; Zimmermann et al.,
2012). In fact, the informational style is much more strongly related to in-depth exploration than the
normative style, indicating that adolescents with an informational style are more active in reflecting on
the meaning of their commitments whereas adolescents with a normative style enact commitments in a
more automatic way (cf. Berzonsky, 2011). Furthermore, the diffuse-avoidant style is negatively
related to in-depth exploration and positively associated with reconsideration of commitment (Crocetti
et al., 2009; Zimmermann et al., 2012). This suggests that adolescents with a diffuse-avoidant style
might experience a sort of “psychological tourism” (Palmonari, 2001), in which they superficially
consider different identity alternatives without thoughtfully evaluating any of them.
Up to now, only one study (Crocetti et al., 2013) adopted a domain-specific approach,
examining how identity styles are related to identity processes in one specific domain. This study
highlighted that the associations discussed above were replicated in educational and interpersonal

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IDENTITY STYLES AND IDENTITY PROCESSES
identity domains. However, the cross-sectional design of this study does not allow any conclusion
about directions of effects. Are identity styles driving relative changes in identity processes in specific
identity domains or the other way around? In the current study, we sought to address this question to
further clarify how general identity styles influence and are influenced by the way in which
adolescents form and revise their identity (identity processes) in a specific and salient identity domain
(education).
Current Study Aims and Hypotheses
Recent analyses on the state of identity research have underscored the importance of
integrating different identity models in order to capture in a more unitary manner the
complexity of identity (e.g., Hammack, 2015; Meeus, 2011; Vignoles et al., 2011). In this
endeavor, we set out to investigate longitudinal relations between identity styles and
educational identity processes in adolescence. To our knowledge, this is the first study that
depicts these relations in the span of one academic year. As adolescence is a key
developmental period for identity styles and identity processes in the educational domain
(Meeus, 2011), by untangling these links we could gain a better theoretical understanding on
how socio-cognitive styles of processing identity-relevant contents influence commitment,
in-depth exploration, and reconsideration of commitment in a specific identity domain, and
the other way around. Additionally, educational interventions aimed at strengthening
educational identity coherence would greatly benefit from the results of our study.
First, based on theoretical underpinnings (e.g., Berzonsky, 2004, 2011) and findings
of cross-sectional studies (e.g., Crocetti et al., 2009, 2013;
Zimmermann et al., 2012
) we
expected the informational style to be positively linked with educational commitment and
educational in-depth exploration. We expected to depict the strongest bidirectional

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IDENTITY STYLES AND IDENTITY PROCESSES
longitudinal associations between the informational style and educational in-depth
exploration. In other words, we expected that adolescents who employ strategies of skeptical
self-exploration and are scientific self-theorists, in that they apply rational information
processing strategies for identity-relevant issues (Berzonsky 2004, 2011), will have stronger
educational commitments and will become more involved in educational in-depth
exploration across the school year. Additionally, we expected educational identity
commitment and in-depth exploration to be positively linked to an informational style across
time. The formation of strong educational commitments (i.e., identity formation cycle) and
the thorough investigation of present commitments (i.e., identity maintenance cycle) would
further enforce active reflection upon and evaluation of self-relevant information.
Second, as a normative identity style has been previously linked primarily with
strong identity commitments (e.g.,
Berzonsky, 1993; Berzonsky & Ferrari, 1996; Berzonsky &
Kuk, 2005
), we expected these two constructs to mutually enforce each other across time,
with a normative style supporting firm educational commitments, and the other way around.
Adolescents who mostly rely on information provided by significant others (e.g., parents,
peers, teachers) when processing identity-relevant issues will have strong educational
commitments across time and vice-versa. The core component of a normative style is the
automatic processing and adoption of the goals and prescriptions provided by their person(s)
or group(s) of reference (
Berzonsky, 2004
). As these adolescents tend to protect themselves
against information that may contravene the contents transmitted by their persons of
reference, these processing strategies will support strong educational commitments, and in
turn will be supported by firm educational commitments.

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IDENTITY STYLES AND IDENTITY PROCESSES
Third, we expected a diffuse-avoidant style to be negatively associated with
educational commitment and positively linked with reconsideration of educational
commitments and the other way around. These assumptions are supported by existing cross-
sectional research (e.g.,
Adams, Berzonsky, & Keating, 2006; Berzonsky & Kuk, 2000;
Krettenauer, 2005
), which pointed out that a diffuse-avoidant style is positively related to
self-handicapping actions and a tendency to use escapism or procrastination as identity-
processing strategies. These information processing strategies may hinder the formation of
strong educational commitments and may reinforce adolescents’ pursuits for changing
current educational commitments. Also, weak commitments and strong reconsideration of
commitment could reinforce a diffuse-avoidant style across time. This type of dynamics
may hamper the identity formation cycle, by strengthening adolescents’ procrastination in
dealing with the task of forming strong identity commitments.
Last, we tested the moderating effects of gender and age. Longitudinal research on
the relation between identity styles and identity contents (e.g., value orientations, Duriez et
al., 2012) pointed to a similar pattern of longitudinal relations across gender groups.
Additionally, cross-sectional studies did not indicate age differences between different
adolescent age-groups (Berzonsky, 2004, 2011). Hence, we expected that this pattern of
associations would apply similarly to boys and girls and to younger and older adolescent
groups.
Method
Participants and Procedure
Our study uses data from the ongoing longitudinal study
entitled Transylvania
Adolescent Identity Development Study (TRAIDES)
. We collected data from seven schools

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IDENTITY STYLES AND IDENTITY PROCESSES
located in
four towns in the North-Western part of Romania. Students from the 8
th
to the 12
th
grade
(10.5% in the 8th grade, 21.9% in the 9th grade, 24.4% in the 10th grade, 21.4% in the 11th
grade, and 21.8% in the 12th grade) completed
paper-and-pencil questionnaires at three
measurement waves 3 to 4 months apart during one
school year. Students completed all
questionnaires in classrooms during school hours. Participation in the study was voluntary and
confidential. In the first data collection, participants were asked to generate a personal code (e.g., indicating
the first letter of their surname, their date of birth). At each following wave, they were asked to repeat the
same information. In this way, it was possible to match the respondents' data across waves protecting their
privacy. At all waves, students gave their informed consent for participating in the study and could
choose not to fill in the questionnaires and become
involved in other classroom activities. The
study was approved by the Faculty of Psychology
and Educational Sciences of the first
author’s university and by the schools’ headmasters
through a written collaboration protocol.
The total number of participants was 1,151 adolescents (58.7% female; nTime1= 971; nTime2
= 934; nTime3 = 856) with a mean age of 16.45 years (SD age = 1.40). Those participants who were
not in classroom at Time 1 filled in the questionnaires starting from Time 2. The total sample
was divided into an early-to-middle adolescent cohort (n = 462, M age = 15.04, SD age = 0.62, age
range = 13-15 years) and a middle-to-late adolescent cohort (n = 689, M age = 17.39, SD age =
0.89, age range = 16-19 years). In terms of family structure, 79.5% came from intact two-parent
families, 13.4% reported that their parents had divorced, and 4.9% reported other family
situation (e.g., one of the parents is deceased). The large majority of adolescents in the sample
(90.8%) were living with one or both parents, while 8% were living with other students or
relatives. Most of our participants were fully financially supported by their parents (85.8%),

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IDENTITY STYLES AND IDENTITY PROCESSES
while few of them reported having some personal income (8.4%) (i.e., state-provided student
allocation, scholarship) or being financially supported by their relatives (1.6%).
Overall, 21.76% of data were missing at Time 1 – Time 3. The range of missing
items varied from 15.8% to 28.8% across the three waves. Little’s (1988) Missing
Completely at Random (MCAR) test on the variables of interest yielded a normed χ
2
(χ
2
/df) of 1.10. According to the guidelines by Bollen (1989) this indicates that data were
probably missing at random. Thus, all participants were included in the analyses conducted
by means of full information maximum likelihood (FIML) procedure available in Mplus
7.4 (Muthén & Muthén, 2002). FIML uses all available information (including information
from participants with missing data) to estimate model parameters (Enders, 2010).
Measures
Identity Styles.
Identity styles were measured with the Identity Style Inventory
(ISI-5; Berzonsky et al., 2013), tapping into: the information-oriented style (9 items; e.g.,
“I handle problems in my life by actively reflecting on them”); the normative style (9
items; e.g., “I strive to achieve the goals that my family and friends hold for me”); and the
diffuse-avoidant style (9 items; e.g., “I try not to think about or deal with problems as long
as I can”). Items were scored on a scale ranging from 1 (not at all like me) to 5 (very much
like me). The Romanian version of the questionnaire was prepared by the research team in
2013 with permission from Michael Berzonsky. The measure was translated from English
to Romanian through the back-translation
method by a team of four academics, who
independently translated the questionnaire. All discrepancies were discussed until a consensus
was
met for a final Romanian form of the ISI-5. Then, two bilingual translators back
-
translated the Romanian versions to English. This final back-translation procedure provided

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IDENTITY STYLES AND IDENTITY PROCESSES
English versions identical to the original forms of each scale.
1
Table 1 details the
Cronbach’s Alphas for each style; the values were similar to those reported in previous
studies employing the ISI (e.g., Italy, Crocetti et al., 2009; Lithuania, Crocetti, Erentainte,
& Zukauskiene 2014).
Educational Identity Processes.
The Romanian version (Crocetti et al., 2015) of the
Utrecht-Management of Identity Commitments Scale (U-MICS, Crocetti et al., 2008) was used
to assess the three identity processes in the educational domain. The instrument consists of 13
items scored on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (does not apply to me at all) to 5 (applies
to me very well): educational commitment (5 items, e.g., “My education gives me certainty in
life”), educational in-depth exploration (5 items, e.g., “I think a lot about my education”), and
educational reconsideration of commitment (3 items, e.g., “I often think it would be better to try
to find a different education”). Cronbach’s Alphas are presented in Table 1.
Results
Preliminary Analyses
We report mean scores and standard deviations for study variables from Time 1 to Time
3 in Table 1. Correlations between study variables at Time 1, Time 2, and Time 3 are
detailed in Table 2. These correlations can be interpreted by means of Cohen’s (1988)
benchmarks. These benchmarks refer to the magnitude of effect sizes (Hemphill, 2003)
and indicate that correlation coefficients around the value of .10 are “small”, those around
.30 are “medium”, and those of .50 can be viewed as “large”.
1
We performed Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) with the Maximum Likelihood Robust estimation in
Mplus 7.4 (Muthén and Muthén, 1998-2012) to check the factor structure of the Romanian version of the ISI-
5. In line with previous validation studies of the ISI (e.g., Crocetti, Erentainte, & Zukauskiene 2014; Luyckx
,
Lens, Smits, & Goossens
2010), three parcels of items served as indicators of each latent variable (information-
oriented, normative, and diffuse-avoidant styles). The three-factor structure provided a good fit to the data:
χSB2
= 111.358, df = 24; CFI = .960, TLI = .940; RMSEA = .062
.

17
IDENTITY STYLES AND IDENTITY PROCESSES
Cross-Lagged Analyses
In order to address our study goal, we examined reciprocal longitudinal associations
between adolescent identity styles and educational identity processes through cross-lagged
analyses conducted in Mplus 7.4, using the Maximum Likelihood Robust estimator (MLR;
Satorra & Bentler, 2001). We tested for cross-lagged associations between identity styles and
educational identity processes (e.g., identity styles measured at Time 1 predicting educational
identity processes at Time 2 and educational identity processes at Time 1 predicting identity
styles at Time 2), controlling for: (a) first-order autoregressive paths (e.g., identity styles at Time
1 predicting identity styles at Time 2); (b) second-order autoregressive paths (e.g., identity styles
at Time 1 predicting identity styles at Time 3); and (c) within-time correlations among all the
variables. We also used multi-group tests to investigate the possible moderating effects of gender
and age. In Figure 1 we present a schematization of the tested model. The fit of each model was
evaluated considering the Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) and the Comparative Fit Index (CFI), with
values higher than .90 suggesting an acceptable fit and values higher than .95 pointing out to an
excellent fit. Also, we used the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), with
values lower than .08 suggesting an acceptable fit and values less than .05 implying a very good
fit (Byrne, 2012).
In order to model the longitudinal associations between identity styles and educational
identity processes as parsimoniously as possible (e.g, Crocetti et al., 2017; Luyckx, Teppers,
Klimstra, & Rassart, 2014), we examined if cross-lagged paths and Time 2 – Time 3 within-time
correlations (i.e., correlated changes in the cross-lagged framework) between identity styles and
educational identity processes were time invariant
. We compared the baseline unconstrained
model (Model 1) with: (a) the model assuming time-invariance of cross-lagged associations

18
IDENTITY STYLES AND IDENTITY PROCESSES
(Model 2); (b) the model assuming time-invariance of Time 2 – Time 3 within-time
correlations (Model 3); and the model assuming time invariance of both cross-lagged
associations and of Time 2 – Time 3 within-time correlations (Model 4). Table 3 depicts
model fit indices and model comparisons.
To determine significant differences between these
models at least two out of these three criteria had to be matched: ΔχSB2 significant at p < .05,
ΔCFI ≥ -.010, and ΔRMSEA ≥ .015 (Chen, 2007; Cheung & Rensvold, 2002).
As depicted in Table 3, our findings confirmed the assumptions of time-invariance.
Therefore, we could retain as the final model the most parsimonious model (Model 4), with time-
invariant cross-lagged associations and Time 2 – Time 3 within-time correlations. This model fit
the data very well (χSB2 = 92.452, df = 76, CFI = .996, TLI = .992, RMSEA = .014 [.000-.023]).
Stability paths for all variables are presented in Table 4. Significant cross-lagged associations are
reported in Figure 2. Results highlighted that the informational style was positively related over
time with educational commitment and in-depth exploration, whereas the diffuse-avoidant style
was negatively related over time to educational commitment and positively linked with
reconsideration of commitment. On the other side, educational commitment positively predicted
the normative style; in-depth exploration positively predicted the informational style; and
reconsideration of commitment positively predicted the diffuse-avoidant style. Within-time
correlations are reported in Table 5. Most associations were significant both at Time 1 and at
Time 2 – Time 3. We depicted
associations between the informational and normative styles
and the identity maintenance cycle (commitment and in-depth exploration). We also
highlighted links between a diffuse-avoidant style and educational in-depth exploration and
reconsideration of commitments.

19
IDENTITY STYLES AND IDENTITY PROCESSES
In order to analyze if cross-lagged associations between identity styles and
educational identity processes were significantly moderated by gender and age, we
conducted multi-group analyses (Byrne, 2012; Little, 2013). For gender, the unconstrained
model in which parameters
were free to vary across groups
(χSB2 = 233.721, df = 167, CFI =
.983, TLI = .972, RMSEA = .027 [.018-.034])
and the constrained model in
which the
parameters were fixed across groups
(χSB2 = 275.868, df = 196, CFI = .980, TLI = .972,
RMSEA = .027[.019-.034])
were not substantially different (∆
χSB2
(29) = 42.115, p = .054,
ΔCFI = -.003, ΔRMSEA = .000
). Similarly, for age, the unconstrained model in which
parameters
were free to vary across groups
(χSB2 = 202.045, df = 167, CFI = .991, TLI = .984,
RMSEA = .021 [.006-.030])
and the constrained model in
which the parameters were fixed
across groups
(χSB2 = 235.921, df = 196, CFI = .989, TLI = .985, RMSEA = .021[.008-.030])
were not substantially different were not significantly different (∆
χSB2
(29) = 33.900, p =
.242,
ΔCFI = -.002, ΔRMSEA = .000
). Therefore, the cross-lagged associations between
identity styles and educational identity processes were similar for boys and girls and for
early-to-middle and middle-to-late adolescents.
Discussion
In order to track the complexity of identity pursuits, research studies must tap into
multiple dimensions and processes of identity formation (Syed & McLean, 2015). As
adolescence is a key period for finding and making identity commitments in multiple life
domains (e.g., education, friendship, see Meeus, 2011 for a review), it is important to have a
more detailed perspective on the how of identity development. Therefore, the present study
investigated the bidirectional associations between identity styles and educational identity
processes during one academic year. Our study brought forward positive bidirectional links

20
IDENTITY STYLES AND IDENTITY PROCESSES
between an informational style and educational in-depth exploration and also between a diffuse-
avoidant style and reconsideration of educational commitments. Additionally, an informational
style positively predicted educational commitment across time, while a diffuse-avoidant style
negatively predicted educational commitment across one academic year. Educational
commitment positively predicted the normative style; in-depth exploration positively predicted
the informational style; and reconsideration of commitment positively predicted the diffuse-
avoidant style. From an identity theory perspective, our study provided a first longitudinal
account of how identity styles, viewed as socio-cognitive strategies of approaching the identity
formation task, are longitudinally linked to identity processes in a core identity domain of
adolescence: education. From an applied perspective, the pattern of cross-lagged associations
that we depicted could inform policy makers, educators, and counselors in the development and
implementation of educational identity policies and programs.
Reciprocal Longitudinal Associations between Identity Styles and Educational Identity
Processes
Our findings underscored that an informational style was positively linked with
educational commitment and educational in-depth exploration during one academic year.
These links strongly support the assumption that people who use this identity style “adopt a
constructivist epistemological stance, which assumes that knowledge is relative and that
people play a role in constructing who they are” (Berzonsky, 2011, p. 61). Hence, across
time, the identity maintenance cycle was sustained by systematic self-reflection, with
adolescents constructing themselves as skeptical self-explorers, open to different ideas and
ready to learn new things. This finding is line with previous cross-sectional (e.g.,
Berzonsky,
Cieciuch, Duriez, & Soenens, 2011; Berzonsky & Sullivan, 1992;
Soenens et al., 2005) and

21
IDENTITY STYLES AND IDENTITY PROCESSES
longitudinal (e.g., Duriez et al., 2012) research that highlighted the benefits of an
informational style for adaptive personal and social functioning, in terms of vigilant
decision-making, openness to change values, and high need for cognition.
In turn, in-depth exploration also predicted increases in the informational style. This
bidirectional relation indicates a mutual reciprocity between this identity style and an active
search for and an investigation of present educational commitments. As identity styles are
assumed to be more stable and to reflect an increase in self continuity and ego synthesis
(Berzonsky, 1990; Schwartz, Mullis, & Dunham, 1998; Schwartz, 2001), this bidirectional
relation highlights that domain-specific identity exploration contributes to the strengthening
of social-cognitive strategies that construct one’s personal identity.
Strong educational identity commitment was a positive predictor for the normative
style; in turn, a normative style was not a significant predictor for educational identity
commitment. These findings only partially confirmed our research hypotheses. The fact that
the relation between a normative style and identity commitment was unidirectional could be
linked to the dynamic of educational identity formation during an academic year. More
specifically, across the school year educational commitments may foster and reinforce
consultation with significant others (e.g., parents, teachers, peers). Adolescents’ educational
goals are closely linked to the goals promoted by their family of origin (Spera, 2005;
Whiston & Keller, 2004) and also by their school role models (
Wentzel, 1998
). These studies
have pointed out that educational functioning in middle-school and high-school is guided by
parents and then reinforced by teachers and peers. Hence, students who entered the
academic year with firm educational commitments further strengthened these commitments
by relying more on the automatic processing and adoption of the goals and prescriptions

22
IDENTITY STYLES AND IDENTITY PROCESSES
provided by their group(s) of reference. This finding can also be seen in light of the results
of the longitudinal study conducted by Duriez and colleagues (2012) on the relation between
identity styles and goal pursuits in adolescence. Their study highlighted that a high focus on
conservation goals (i.e., conformity to rules, up keeping tradition) was longitudinally linked
to an increased use of a normative style.
As adolescents have limited autonomy in choosing or changing their education, it
may be that high identity commitment in the educational domain reflects a type of
conservation or conventional value, at least in a collectivist culture, as is the case for the
Romanian culture (Hofstede, 2001; Kara
ś
et al., 2015). Education is highly valued in this
culture and adolescents may be highly committed to their education because their families
view education as a core life pursuit (Damian et al., 2016). Hence, high educational identity
commitment best supports the use of a normative identity style. This over-reliance on the
opinions and advice of others may be in some respect an adaptive socio-cognitive strategy in
this age-group, counteracting other potentially maladaptive goals (e.g., skipping school,
substance abuse). It ensures that adolescents remain in educational settings and that they
reinforce and conserve this choice through an automatic adoption of their significant others’
prescriptions.
A diffuse-avoidant style was negatively associated with educational commitment and
positively linked with reconsideration of educational commitments. In turn, educational
reconsideration of commitment positively predicted a diffuse-avoidant style across time.
Hence, a diffuse-avoidant style hampers the identity formation cycle through the
bidirectional positive relation between the socio-cognitive strategies of postponement and
procrastination in approaching identity-relevant activities and reconsideration of existing

23
IDENTITY STYLES AND IDENTITY PROCESSES
educational commitments. The self-serving, present orientation that characterizes a diffuse-
avoidant style hindered the assumption of strong educational identity commitments, which
is in line with previous theoretical and empirical findings (Berzonsky & Ferrari, 2009;
Luyckx et al., 2010). The bidirectional positive link between a diffuse-avoidant style and
reconsideration of educational commitments suggests that these processes mutually
reinforce each other across the school year. This provides support for the manner in which
this style is longitudinally related to the revision of identity commitments in specific life
domains (i.e., education). The increased use of a diffuse-avoidant style greatly limits self-
development and makes adolescents excessively dwell on the present as a maladaptive
coping strategy to avoid taking on identity-relevant decisions (e.g., What should I do in my
educational future?). This excessive focus on the present and avoidance in facing the future
supports and in turn is supported by heightened reconsideration of present educational
identity commitments.
Overall, today’s society is increasingly focused on the present (Côté, 2009; Waterman,
1999), with a myriad of temptations and alternative activities that may weaken adolescents’
educational commitments (e.g., excessive care for maintaining an online identity, involvement in
at-risk behaviors that are valued by the peer group). By focusing on the bidirectional links
between identity styles and educational identity processes, we could better map how to bring
back and heighten the fascination of critical self-construction to identity development in the
educational domain.
Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research
This study should be viewed in light of some limitations, which may open new directions
of research. First, identity processes were appraised solely for the educational domain. Future

24
IDENTITY STYLES AND IDENTITY PROCESSES
studies could integrate more identity domains (e.g., friendship, religion, leisure), to investigate if
the cross-lagged associations between identity styles and identity processes are similar for
different identity domains. Also, the centrality or importance of an identity domain in one’s life
(Hammack, 2015; Settles, 2004; Turner, 1991) could be also appraised, in order to better track
how identity styles are related to identity processes in central or important life domains versus
more peripheral life domains or what happens when adolescents have high levels of centrality for
identity in conflicting domains (e.g., educational identity versus gang member identity).
Second, we did not explicitly appraise the relation between identity styles, educational
identity processes, and adolescents’ values. Value orientations are important identity contents
that bring texture and meaning to identity processes (Duriez et al., 2012). Previous studies have
underscored strong associations between an informational style and openness to change and a
normative style and conservation values (e.g., Berzonsky & Cieciuch, 2016; Duriez et al., 2012).
Hence, a longitudinal exploration of the role of value orientations in the relation between identity
styles and educational identity processes would be very useful for cross-cultural educational
policies.
Third, the longitudinal relations between identity styles and educational identity
processes were only tested on one longitudinal sample, across one academic year. In order to
increase the validity (generalizability) of these findings for theory and practice, future replication
studies need to be conducted, in different cultural contexts, capturing these relations across
multiple academic years.
Fourth, in this study we used a variable-centered approach. Future longitudinal person-
centered studies (Crocetti & Meeus, 2014) could analyze how adolescents in a diffused
educational identity status (i.e., weak educational commitments, weak educational in-depth

25
IDENTITY STYLES AND IDENTITY PROCESSES
exploration, and low reconsideration of current educational choices) versus an achieved
educational identity status (i.e., high educational commitments, high educational in-depth
exploration, and low levels of reconsideration of educational choices) may differentially employ
the three identity styles in school-related activities.
Finally, our study relied solely on self-report questionnaire measures. Though these
questionnaire measures yielded robust and useful research findings, they cannot tap into personal
conceptualizations of identity. In this respect, narrative identity (McAdams & McLean, 2013;
McLean & Pratt, 2006) offers depth and uniqueness to identity construction and may best
capture identity contents and also the shifts between different information processing strategies
(Syed & Azmitia, 2008, 2010). Thus, an analysis of narratives of educational identity formation,
by means of self-defining memories (Singer & Blagov, 2000; Singer & Moffitt, 1991-1992) in
relation with adolescents’ identity styles, could bring more nuance to the manner in which young
people attach meaning and how they process identity-relevant experiences.
Conclusions
Our study tackled recent recommendations that underscored the role of integrating
different identity conceptualizations in order to bring more coherence to the growing field of
identity research (e.g., McLean & Syed, 2015; Meeus, 2011;
Vignoles et al., 2011
). By
analyzing the longitudinal links between identity styles and identity processes in a core
ideological domain of adolescence (i.e., education), we focused the lens on how identity
develops across a school year. We underscored that the informational style fosters educational
identity maintenance, whereas the diffuse-avoidant style hampers the formation of a stable sense
of educational identity. We also documented reciprocal effects, with educational commitment
and in-depth exploration leading to relative increases in the use of adaptive styles (i.e., normative

26
IDENTITY STYLES AND IDENTITY PROCESSES
and informational) and reconsideration of commitment increasing the reliance on the
maladaptive diffuse-avoidant style. These findings have multiple implications for identity
research and for identity applied interventions.

27
IDENTITY STYLES AND IDENTITY PROCESSES
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by a grant of the Romanian National Authority for Scientific Research
and Innovation, CNCS – UEFISCDI, project number PN-II-RU-TE-2014-4-1061.

28
IDENTITY STYLES AND IDENTITY PROCESSES
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IDENTITY STYLES AND IDENTITY PROCESSES
Table 1
Descriptive Statistics and Reliability for Identity Styles and Identity Processes
Variable
Descriptive Statistics
Reliability
Time 1
M (SD)
Time 2
M (SD)
Time 3
M (SD)
Time 1
α
Time 2
α
Time 3
α
Identity Styles
Informational style
3.50 (0.63)
3.45 (0.64)
3.42 (0.65)
.78
.81
.81
Normative style
3.26 (0.54)
3.23 (0.53)
3.26 (0.56)
.61
.63
.68
Diffuse-avoidant style
2.80 (0.71)
2.78 (0.67)
3.00 (0.70)
.76
.77
.80
Educational Identity Processes
Educational commitment
4.13 (0.73)
4.02 (0.82)
4.00 (0.83)
.83
.89
.89
Educational in-depth
exploration
3.22 (0.82)
3.16 (0.85)
3.23 (0.85)
.75
.80
.82
Educational reconsideration
of commitment
2.14 (1.05)
2.23 (1.03)
2.50 (1.08)
.84
.84
.84
Note. M = Mean; SD = Standard Deviation; α = Cronbach’s Alpha.

39
IDENTITY STYLES AND IDENTITY PROCESSES
Table 2
Pearson’s Correlations between Identity Styles and Educational Identity Processes
Educational identity processes
Commitment
In-depth exploration
Reconsideration of commitment
T1/T2/T3
T1/T2/T3
T1/T2/T3
Identity styles
Informational
.31***/.32***/.37***
.38***/.33***/.40***
.02/.02/.06*
Normative
.25***/.30***/.30***
.24***/.28***/.33***
.04/.08**/.16***
Diffuse-avoidant
-.02/-.06*/.04
.13***/.13***/.26***
.27***/.36***/.38***
Note. T1 = Time 1, T2 = Time 2, T3 = Time 3. *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.

40
IDENTITY STYLES AND IDENTITY PROCESSES
Table 3
Cross-Lagged Models: Fit Indices and Model Comparisons
Model fit indices
Model comparison
Models
χSB2
df
TLI
CFI
RMSEA
[90% CI]
Models
ΔχSB2
Δdf
P
ΔCFI
ΔRMSEA
M1: Baseline model
40.986
32
.990
.998
.016 [.000, .028]
M2: Model with cross-lagged paths
fixed to be time-invariant
77.431
61
.990
.996
.015 [.000, .025]
M2-M1
36.469
29
.160
-.002
-.001
M3: Model with T2-T3 within-time
correlations fixed to be time-invariant
54.888
47
.994
.998
.012 [.000, .024]
M3-M1
14.191
15
.511
.000
-.004
M4: Final model with paths and T2-T3
correlations fixed to be time-invariant
92.452
76
.992
.996
.014 [.000, .023]
M4-M1
51.618
44
.200
-.002
-.002
Note. χ2 = Chi-Square; df = degrees of freedom; TLI = Tucker-Lewis Index; CFI = Comparative Fit Index; RMSEA = Root Mean Square Error of Approximation
and 90% Confidence Interval; Δ = change in parameter. ΔχSB2 model comparisons are based on Satorra and Bentler’s (2001) scaled difference chi-square test
statistic.

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IDENTITY STYLES AND IDENTITY PROCESSES
Table 4
Stability Paths in Cross-Lagged Analyses
T1-T2
T2-T3
T1-T3
Identity Styles
Informational style
.56***
.40***
.19***
Normative style
.34***
.26***
.13***
Diffuse-avoidant style
.47***
.37***
.18***
Educational Identity Processes
Educational commitment
.51***
.41***
.23***
Educational in-depth exploration
.34***
.32***
.20***
Educational reconsideration of commitment
.38***
.25***
.15***
Note. *** p < .001

42
IDENTITY STYLES AND IDENTITY PROCESSES
Table 5
Within-Time Correlations between Identity Styles and Educational Identity Processes at Time 1 and
Times 2-3 found in the Cross-Lagged Analyses
Educational identity processes
Commitment
In-depth exploration
Reconsideration of
commitment
T1
T2-T3
T1
T2-T3
T1
T2-T3
Informational style
.31***
.20***
.34***
.23***
.02
.07*
Normative style
.25***
.19***
.24***
.20***
.04
.12***
Diffuse-avoidant style
-.02
-.01
.13***
.15***
.27***
.29***
Note. T1 = Time 1, T2 = Time 2, T3 = Time 3. * p < .05; *** p < .001. Since the model with time-invariant
T2-T3 correlations was retained as the final one, we present T1 and T2-T3 correlations (with the latter being
the averaged standardized coefficients).

43
IDENTITY STYLES AND IDENTITY PROCESSES
Time 1 Time 2 Time 3
Figure 1. Schematization of the tested model. Ed. identity processes = Educational identity processes
Ed. identity
processes
Identity
styles
Ed. identity
processes
Identity
styles
Ed. identity
processes
Identity
styles

44
IDENTITY STYLES AND IDENTITY PROCESSES
Time 1 Time 2 Time 3
.11**
*
.11***
-.08**
.16***
.05**
.07**
.05*
Informational style
Normative style
Diffuse-avoidant style
Educational commitment
Educational in-depth
exploration
Educational reconsideration of
commitment
Informational style
Normative style
Diffuse-avoidant style
Educational commitment
Educational in-depth
exploration
Educational reconsideration of
commitment
Informational style
Normative style
Diffuse-avoidant style
Educational commitment
Educational in-depth
exploration
Educational reconsideration of
commitment
.11**
*
.11***
-.07**
.15***
.05**
.07**
.05*
Figure 2. Significant Standardized Cross-Lagged Paths. For the sake of clarity, within-time correlations, stability paths, and regression paths
between identity styles and for educational identity processes are not reported. *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.