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Facilitating successful behavior change: Beyond goal setting to goal flourishing
Abstract
Most successful coaching engagements encourage clients to start, increase, decrease, modify, or stop behaviors that contribute to their effectiveness and performance on the job (Fogg, n.d.). Successfully sustaining new or altered behaviors over time until they become a habit is even more difficult (Nowack, 2009). Goal intentions (e.g., “I want to be a more participative and involvement-oriented leader”) have been found in a recent meta-analysis to be a weak predictor of acquiring new habits and account for approximately 28% of the variance in successful behavior-change efforts (Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006). Translating insight in coaching engagements to deliberate, varied, and ongoing practice has been shown to be associated with long-term successful behavior change (Nowack & Mashihi, 2012). This paper reviews current issues and best practices in goal intentions, goal striving, and goal flourishing to maximize coaching success with clients.
... The coaching has three theory-driven conceptual foundations. First, it is a couple coaching to consider the context of SBOs and their spouses as work-linked couples when setting goals (Orehek and Forest 2016) and when fostering individual behavior change toward detachment and WLB (e.g., Hobfoll and Hobfoll 1994;Nowack 2017;Park and Haun 2017). Second, the coaching is based on the resultoriented coaching concept (Greif 2008) which stresses result-oriented self-reflection as the coaching mechanism of change. ...
... Small business owners and their spouses face highly integrated life-domains and evince interdependencies in setting and pursuing health-related goals . Spouses in general have strong influences on individual recovery experiences (Park and Haun 2017;Park and Fritz 2014), WLB (Helmle et al. 2014) and behavior change in general (Nowack 2017). As Hobfoll and Hobfoll (1994) outlined from the perspective of conservation of resources (COR) theory (Hobfoll 1989), spouses act interdependently and coordinate their actions to protect and build up individual and shared resources, such as detachment experiences. ...
... When the coach manages to deliver the intervention as intended, the coach stimulates spousal support during coaching. Counseling research supports to consider the social support climate of clients for engaging in behavior change (Nowack 2017 tance of spousal social support for shaping goal pursuits on the basis of goal systems theory (Orehek and Forest 2016). Thus, we expected the coaching intervention to work successfully when delivered as intended by activating spousal social support. ...
Small business owners often work together with their spouses in their business. They blur work-life boundaries and find it difficult to psychologically detach from work, which both jeopardize a satisfying work-life balance (WLB). This paper aims to investigate the mechanisms and outcomes of a coaching intervention for couples to foster their detachment and WLB. We study the role of coaches’ intervention fidelity and empathy. A blended coaching format was chosen, i.e., we combined face-to-face with tele-sessions and online courses, thereby using digitalization to keep the coaching flexible to the couples’ life situations and for digital support between sessions.
Coaches’ behavior in regard to intervention fidelity was observed. Based on these ratings, the clients’ sample ( N = 42) was partitioned into two intervention groups (“high intervention fidelity” vs. “low intervention fidelity”) using the adapted study design approach. We also observed coaches’ empathy and assessed clients’ self-reports at different times up to 4 months after the coaching intervention ended regarding the hypothesized mechanisms of change of the coaching concept and coaching outcomes. We also assessed clients’ affinity for technology (ATI) because of the blended format of the coaching.
Two-factor ANOVAs with repeated measures showed large effects ( d = 1) for detachment ( p = .002) and middle effects ( d = 0.7) for WLB ( p = .042) up to 4 months after the intervention ended without any interaction effect. Only in the “high intervention fidelity” group did the mechanisms of change and ATI ( p = .000 to p = .036) predict general coaching outcomes 4 months after the coaching ceased. Coaches’ empathy predicted goal attainment ( p = .004) in the “high intervention fidelity” group.
The couple coaching was highly effective in boosting clients’ detachment and WLB independent of coaches’ intervention fidelity. The assumed change mechanisms of the coaching concept and the ATI were only effective when there was a high degree of intervention fidelity. Coaches should be aware of the conceptual foundations and the core components of their coaching approach.
... Researchers believe that academic participation can be effective in students' help-seeking (16,17). Helpseeking behavior in students is influenced by the attitudes and motivational beliefs they adopt during their education (18). Motivational beliefs are a set of personal and social criteria that people refer to act. ...
... Motivational beliefs are a set of personal and social criteria that people refer to act. Researchers believe that there is a relationship between motivational beliefs and academic helpseeking behaviors (16,18,20). Researches also suggest the relationship between self-determination and motivational beliefs (21,22) and the relationship between flourishing and motivational beliefs (23). ...
... The purpose of this study was to investigate the structural relationships between students' academic help-seeking based on self-determination and flourishing with the mediating role of academic participation and motivational beliefs. The results showed that motivational beliefs are related to academic helpseeking; the results of this study are consistent with studies (18,16,20) that believe that motivational beliefs are related to helpseeking and even motivational beliefs can predict help-seeking. Another finding of this study indicates the relationship between self-determination and motivational beliefs. ...
... Furthermore, participants in the study by Vandaveer et al. (2016) rated determining if coaching is the correct intervention (87%) and contracting and establishing agreed-upon coaching expectations with coachee and organization (84%) as the top two most crucial elements to effective coaching outcomes. Therefore, many variables are at play beyond using a particular coaching approach, and coaches need to be aware of them-in addition to understanding that the coaching approach has relevance from the client's perspective (Bono & Colbert, 2005;Mckenna & Davis, 2009;Nieminen, Smerek, Kotrba, & Denison, 2013;Nowack, 2017). ...
... Although Jones et al. (2016) and Theeboom et al. (2014) reported that number of sessions did not statistically impact coaching outcomes, there may indeed be a dose-effect relationship such that longer coaching would have resulted in higher outcomes. Also, it is unclear whether there was sufficient time for a new behavior to become automatic and natural (Nowack, 2017). Considering studies from other disciplines for additional insight (Pascual-Leone, Amedi, Fregni, & Merabet, 2005), we suggest that sustainable change may not have occurred given the short duration and frequency of coaching conducted in this study. ...
... Considering studies from other disciplines for additional insight (Pascual-Leone, Amedi, Fregni, & Merabet, 2005), we suggest that sustainable change may not have occurred given the short duration and frequency of coaching conducted in this study. Current literature suggests the automaticity of behaviors could take 2 or more months, with continued performance of the said behavior (Lally, van Jaarsveld, Potts, & Wardle, 2010;Nowack, 2017), which was beyond the timeframe of this study. ...
Using random assignment and a switching-replications design in a corporate setting, this study compared the effectiveness of two approaches to executive coaching: goal-focused and process-oriented. Goal-focused coaching is based on goal-setting theory, which concentrates on identifying a task to be accomplished, whereas process-oriented coaching emphasizes interpersonal processes more than specific content or goals. Sixty-four senior executives and their supervisors (dyads) from a multibillion-dollar company were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 conditions: (a) goal-focused coaching, (b) process-oriented coaching, (c) goal-focused control group, and (d) process-oriented control group. Participants and their supervisors each chose 1 of 8 leadership competencies from the organization’s performance-management system as the coaching objective. The coaching consisted of 4 face-to-face, 1-hr coaching sessions over a 4- to 6-week period. The 16 executive coaches in the study received precoaching training to ensure consistent delivery of the two approaches. The results showed an increase in leadership competencies and behaviors for the coaching groups but not for the control groups, as rated by the coachees only. Contrary to prediction, however, there was no significant difference between the approaches of goal-focused and process-oriented coaching on leadership competencies or behaviors. Furthermore, there were no differences between the two approaches in the postcoaching follow-up. Implications of the results for executive-coaching theory, research, and practice are discussed.
... In general, outdoor activities involving exercise have been shown to significantly increase happiness, positive affect, and meaning/purpose and to decrease mental distress (White et al., 2019). As such, matching specific microbreaks and physical activities at work that are intrinsically motivating to one's client will more likely translate into long-term habit formation and success enhancing mental agility (Nowack, 2017a). ...
... The way refers to the cognitive and informational aspects of behavior change and transferring habits into lasting goals, which requires integrating brain activity (TPNs), including the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, parietal cortex, and temporoparietal junction). It is important to note that wanting to change, often observed as stating intentions through goals, does not necessarily ensure or strongly predict successful change in your clients (Nowack, 2017a). ...
To help organizations find and nurture leaders to be prepared for the complexity and multiplicity of challenges, Lombardo and Eichinger (2000) developed the framework characterized as learning agility. Their research, along with other colleagues (De Meuse, 2022; De Meuse et al., 2011) have typically identified five dimensions (observable behaviors) to learning agility: mental agility, people agility, change agility, results agility, and self-awareness. Although in the early stages of research, there is a promising body of evidence showing learning agility as a significant predictor of identifying potential leaders, leader performance, and leader success (Burke & Smith, 2019; De Meuse, 2019). This article summarizes the current conceptualization of learning agility, provides a neuroscience lens, and identifies associated key brain structures involved in enhancing learning agility. Specific evidence-based neuroscience hacks for practitioners are introduced to enhance each of those five more popularly cited dimensions of learning agility.
... With respect to individual goal setting and goal striving with their clients, coaches might use implementation intentions using 'if/then' plans to enhance successful commitment and actions toward speci c behavioural activities (Nowack, 2017). It has been established that the greatest commitment towards individual behaviour change goals in clients occurs when they rst set and are nearing completion of their goals (e.g. ...
... With respect to addressing the challenge disposition theoretical underpinning of cognitive hardiness, coaches should focus client's attention to learning versus performance-based goals (Nowack, 2017) and emphasise a growth-based mindset versus xed-based mindset (Dweck & Yeager, 2019). A growth-based mindset is the belief that human capacities are not entirely xed but can be enhanced and developed over time. ...
Introduction: Client factors contribute the largest variance to predicting successful coaching (McKenna & Davis, 2009). One important client factor related to appraising work and life change and adversity as a challenge, possessing a sense of self-efficacy, and having an internal sense of locus of control is cognitive hardiness. The aim of this study is to help coaches clarify whether cognitive hardiness acts as a relatively stable personal resource influencing the outcomes of coaching (personality trait), something that can be improved by coaching (skill) or is a useful outcome measure.
Design: A total of 256 employees working in a tax audit company were asked to complete a set of validated measures to explore the association with specific individual factors (hardiness, happiness, proactive coping) with multiple work (job satisfaction, work self-efficacy, work conflict, and counterproductive behaviour) and health outcomes (physical symptoms, job burnout, and depression).
Results: Regression analyses were used to identify the individual factors that contributed to predicting work and health outcomes. Cognitive hardiness significantly added to predictions of burnout, depression, happiness, work locus of control, job satisfaction, work conflict, and proactive coping but not work-related self-efficacy, physical symptoms, or counterproductive behaviour (p<.001). Results of the stepwise multiple linear regression indicated that five variables significantly contributed to the prediction of cognitive hardiness (happiness, locus of control, depression, proactive coping, and burnout) accounting for R2 of .56 (F (9,256) = 60.82, p<.00).
Conclusion: Extending prior research demonstrating significant change in cognitive hardiness following individually based coaching and training programmes using the same assessment, the results of this study lend support that this construct can act as personality trait, but also can be used as a useful outcome measure in coaching effectiveness, as well as a skill that can be enhanced as a result of specific psychoeducational techniques and strategies. Implications for coaching psychology, based on different conceptualisations of cognitive hardiness are discussed.
... With respect to individual goal setting and goal striving with their clients, coaches might use implementation intentions using 'if/then' plans to enhance successful commitment and actions toward speci c behavioural activities (Nowack, 2017). It has been established that the greatest commitment towards individual behaviour change goals in clients occurs when they rst set and are nearing completion of their goals (e.g. ...
... With respect to addressing the challenge disposition theoretical underpinning of cognitive hardiness, coaches should focus client's attention to learning versus performance-based goals (Nowack, 2017) and emphasise a growth-based mindset versus xed-based mindset (Dweck & Yeager, 2019). A growth-based mindset is the belief that human capacities are not entirely xed but can be enhanced and developed over time. ...
Introduction: Client factors contribute the largest variance to predicting successful coaching (McKenna & Davis, 2009). One important client factor related to appraising work and life change and adversity as a challenge, possessing a sense of self-ef cacy, and having an internal sense of locus of control is cognitive hardiness. The aim of this study is to help coaches clarify whether cognitive hardiness acts as a relatively stable personal resource in uencing the outcomes of coaching (personality trait), something that can be improved by coaching (skill) or is a useful outcome measure. Design: A total of 256 employees working in a tax audit company were asked to complete a set of validated measures to explore the association with speci c individual factors (hardiness, happiness, proactive coping) with multiple work (job satisfaction, work self-ef cacy, work con ict, and counterproductive behaviour) and health outcomes (physical symptoms, job burnout, and depression). Results: Regression analyses were used to identify the individual factors that contributed to predicting work and health outcomes. Cognitive hardiness signi cantly added to predictions of burnout, depression, happiness, work locus of control, job satisfaction, work con ict, and proactive coping but not work-related self-ef cacy, physical symptoms, or counterproductive behaviour (p<.001). Results of the stepwise multiple linear regression indicated that ve variables signi cantly contributed to the prediction of cognitive hardiness (happiness, locus of control, depression, proactive coping, and burnout) accounting for R2 of .56 (F (9,256) = 60.82, p<.00). Conclusion: Extending prior research demonstrating signi cant change in cognitive hardiness following individually based coaching and training programmes using the same assessment, the results of this study lend support that this construct can act as personality trait, but also can be used as a useful outcome measure in coaching effectiveness, as well as a skill that can be enhanced as a result of speci c psychoeducational techniques and strategies. Implications for coaching psychology, based on different conceptualisations of cognitive hardiness are discussed.
... Couple coaching builds on insights into the influence of spousal support on behavior change and goal pursuit (Nowack, 2017;Orehek & Forest, 2016), on enhancing recovery experiences (Park & Fritz, 2015;Park & Haun, 2017), and on work-life balance and well-being (Gudmunson et al., 2009;Helmle et al., 2014;Leung et al., 2020;Maslach, 2017). The clients worked on their individual goals but were constantly encouraged by the coach to support each other. ...
... Coaching research has suggested an important role for coaches in considering the social support climate of clients for engaging in behavior change efforts (Nowack, 2017). Using social support is one of the most popular proposals to ameliorate burnout (Maslach, 2017). ...
... Neuroplasticity, like the concept of validity, is both specific and has some limits so it must be carefully defined and explained. It is important to point out that there is a difference between changes at the neural level (neuroplasticity) and resulting behaviors becoming more efficient and leading to visible performance outcomes that are meaningful for clients (Kleim & Jones, 2008;Nowack, 2017b). Table 1 summarizes eight major principles of neuroplasticity that have practical implications for coaching, training, and consulting; this is adapted from Kleim and Jones (2008). ...
... For coaches and consultants, the importance of this aspect of neuroplasticity (use it lose it) has important implications for goal initiation, goal pursuit, and successful behavior change in our clients. Using reminders to prompt mindfulness of stated goals, utilizing implementation intentions (i.e., with an "if-then" framework) to enhance goal pursuit (Nowack, 2017b), incorporating selfmonitoring and reward systems to help achieve goals, and having goal "mentors" and support networks to ensure persistence to challenging goals are all examples of ways to enhance habit formation. Neuroscience research in the area of neuroplasticity has provided an empirical rationale for consultants to track and evaluate client and team changes over longer periods of time, explore mechanisms and strategies to minimize relapse, and help clients maintain new behaviors as long as possible. ...
The growing popularity of neuroscience within consulting psychology is a blend of myth, hype, and grounded empirical research. This special issue of Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research addresses recent advances, issues, and discoveries surrounding the neuroscience of coaching and consulting. To address these, the papers cover diverse topics from a variety of perspectives such as coaching, goal setting, interpersonal trust, and resilience. Each paper provides evidence-based research and practical implications for coaches, consultants, human-resources professionals, leaders, and organizations to enhance individual, team, and organizational effectiveness.
... Ein gemeinsames Coaching kann ein solches Projekt darstellen. Für ein Paarsetting spricht auch, dass die Lebenspartner*innen generell eine große Rolle einnehmen, wenn es um Verhaltensänderung geht (Nowack 2017). Mit einem Paarcoaching erreichen wir weiterhin auch Einzelne, die sich alleine nicht in ein Gesundheitscoaching begeben würden, es aber für ihre*n Partner*in tun. ...
Online Coaching-Angebote nehmen rasant zu in einer individualisierten und digitalisierten Lebenswelt. Das betrifft auch Gesundheitscoaching. Arbeitsbezogenes Gesundheitscoaching thematisiert die gesundheitsförderliche Gestaltung der Arbeitstätigkeit und -organisation, gesundheitsförderliches Verhalten am Arbeitsplatz, Work-Life Balance (WLB) und Erholung. Pandemiebedingt sind aktuell viele Erwerbstätige im Homeoffice und erleben besondere Herausforderungen an ihre WLB und die Gestaltung von Erholung. Ähnliche Herausforderungen kennen Inhaber*innen von Kleinbetrieben seit jeher. In diesem Beitrag stellen wir neben deren erfolgreichen Strategien zur Gestaltung von Erholung und WLB ein darauf abzielendes Blended Gesundheitscoaching für erwerbstätige Paare und dessen Evaluation vor. Homeoffice und die damit einhergehenden Anforderungen an die Erholungsgestaltung und WLB werden auch zukünftig von Bedeutung sein und stellen neben anderen Veränderungen der Arbeitswelt eine Herausforderung für die betriebliche Gesundheitsförderung dar. Online Coaching kann auf diese Herausforderung eine geeignete Antwort sein.
... One must recognize and take advantage of good opportunities to act, overcome initial reluctance, suppress unwanted responses, and block response-inhibiting emotions such as shame or fear. When this is the case, implementation intentions or practice plans (Nowack, 2017) significantly increase goal striving and goal attainment (Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006). These are "if-then plans that connect good opportunities to act with cognitive or behavioral responses that are affected in accomplishing one's goals" (Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006, p. 82). ...
Organizational Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI) interventions usually involve some kind of training, and in recent years, that training is likely to concentrate on implicit bias. We examine the content of implicit bias training programs offered in several large organizations to answer two questions: 1) do the programs offer accurate information about implicit bias and 2) do the programs provide the range of knowledge and skills needed for managing and reducing implicit bias? We concluded that while all programs teach in-trapersonal skills for raising self-awareness, detecting and reducing bias, they neglect the interpersonal skills necessary for talking about bias with co-workers and clients. We provide recommendations that con-sultants can use for improving both the content and methods of bias training.
... In summary, research shows that goal-focused coaching is effective but that goals assume several forms (e.g., type and difficulty of the goal, Nowack, 2017). Coaches helping their coachees to identify the right goal can increase the latter's motivation to pursue a goal. ...
... Goal setting works by directing attention, stimulating action, increasing persistence, and prompting employees to utilize KSAs (Locke & Latham, 2002). Supervisors should help employees set goals for using newly acquired KSAs (Nowack, 2017). Stating goals as implementation intentions (e.g., If we are holding a team meeting, then I will ask my team members what they This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. ...
... One must recognize and take advantage of good opportunities to act, overcome initial reluctance, suppress unwanted responses, and block response-inhibiting emotions such as shame or fear. When this is the case, implementation intentions or practice plans (Nowack, 2017) significantly increase goal striving and goal attainment (Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006). These are "if-then plans that connect good opportunities to act with cognitive or behavioral responses that are affected in accomplishing one's goals" (Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006, p. 82). ...
Organizational Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI) interventions usually involve some kind of training, and in recent years, that training is likely to concentrate on implicit bias. We examine the content of implicit bias training programs offered in several large organizations to answer two questions: 1) do the programs offer accurate information about implicit bias and 2) do the programs provide the range of knowledge and skills needed for managing and reducing implicit bias? We concluded that while all programs teach in-trapersonal skills for raising self-awareness, detecting and reducing bias, they neglect the interpersonal skills necessary for talking about bias with co-workers and clients. We provide recommendations that con-sultants can use for improving both the content and methods of bias training.
... It is expected, however, that not all clergy peer consultations will be helpful (Falcon, 2017) because not all clergy have engaged suicide in their faith community. In addition, ongoing practice is needed for the effective use of suicide prevention competencies (Nowack, 2017). ...
This study examined clergy’s use of 15 suicide prevention competencies. Four hundred ninety-eight U.S. Catholic, Jewish, and Protestant clergy responded to an online survey regarding their use of these competencies. Analysis of variance, backward stepwise regression, and principal components analysis were used to determine clergy group differences, predictors of use of competencies, and a parsimonious summary of competencies. Some respondents reported infrequent opportunities to develop these competencies. Respondents reported using general pastoral competencies more than suicide-specific competencies. Protestant clergy reported that their congregants watch over each other significantly more than Jewish clergy. Catholic and Jewish clergy reported significantly more competence in conducting suicide funerals than Protestant clergy. Contacts by suicidal people and number of hours of suicide-specific training predicted the use of more competencies. Competency components included postvention following a suicide, nonjudgmental attitudes, talking with a suicidal person, and pastoral care. Findings suggest that clergy may benefit from consultation and suicide-specific training.
Through positive leader development centered around continuous feedback for growth and leadership that facilitates positive deviant behaviors in followers, building positive relationships within the workplace, and improving individual well‐being, organizations can enact extraordinary performance and significantly impact the community. The major component in a successful leader development intervention is challenge through goal setting. Implementation of a positive leader development program will focus on continuous qualitative and quantitative feedback to enhance decision‐making and will place an emphasis on stakeholder collaboration to aid in successful planned change. The participatory action research model is a classic framework used in the field of organizational development. Leader development activities should be designed with the ACS model in mind for a successful impact. The elements of the ACS framework bring increased self‐awareness, motivation to perform, and the self‐efficacy needed to develop as an effective leader, with a focus on a positive leadership style.
Managerial feedback discussions often fail to produce the desired performance improvements. Three studies shed light on why performance feedback fails and how it can be made more effective. In Study 1, managers described recent performance feedback experiences in their work settings. In Studies 2 and 3, pairs of managers role-played a performance review meeting. In all studies, recipients of mixed and negative feedback doubted the accuracy of the feedback and the providers’ qualifications to give it. Disagreement regarding past performance was greater following the feedback discussion than before, due to feedback recipients’ increased self-protective and self-enhancing attributions. Managers were motivated to improve to the extent they perceived the feedback conversation to be focused on future actions rather than on past performance. Our findings have implications for the theory and practice of performance management.
Resistance from coachees is a problem met by executive coaches in all fields. The continued interest in executive coaching by organisations has seen coaching beginning to be used more widely. An increasing number of low and average performing managers are following theirhigh performing peers into the executive coaching room. One particular challenge facing the coaching psychologist is how to engage individuals where motivation for change is low.
This paper draws on a five-stage model for behaviour change and an approach developed in the clinical setting which can usefully be applied to executive coaching to help the coaching psychologist address some of these behavioural challenges and add to their core coachingtechniques through combining Motivational Interviewing (MI) techniques with their existing repertoire of skills.
The paper starts with a review of the development of motivational interviewing, before moving to explore the evidence for MI as an intervention, which is largely within the health sector. The paper builds on this evidence by exploring how MI may be applied within non-clinical settings, as a tool to address poor performance resulting from low motivation to change.The paper also suggests other potential uses for MI such as in health coaching around stop smoking campaigns or obesity.
In the 25+ years that the practice of 360° Feedback has been formally labeled and implemented, it has undergone many changes. Some of these have been positive (evolution) in advancing theory, research, and practice, and others less so (devolution). In this article we offer a new definition of 360° Feedback, summarize its history, discuss significant research and practice trends, and offer suggestions for all user communities (i.e., researchers, practitioners, and end users in organizations) moving forward. Our purpose is to bring new structure, discussion, and some degree of closure to key open issues in this important and enduring area of practice.
Does the structure of an adult human brain alter in response to environmental demands? Here we use whole-brain magnetic-resonance imaging to visualize learning-induced plasticity in the brains of volunteers who have learned to juggle. We find that these individuals show a transient and selective structural change in brain areas that are associated with the processing and storage of complex visual motion. This discovery of a stimulus-dependent alteration in the brain's macroscopic structure contradicts the traditionally held view that cortical plasticity is associated with functional rather than anatomical changes.
Purpose:
The primary aim of this paper is to conduct a thorough and systematic review of the empirical and practitioner research on executive, leadership and business coaching to assess the current empirical evidence for the effectiveness of coaching and the mechanisms underlying it.
Background:
Organisations are increasingly using business coaching as an intervention to improve the productivity and performance of their senior personnel. A consequence of this increased application is the demand for empirical data to understand the process by which it operates and its demonstrable efficacy in achieving pre-set goals.
Method:
This paper is a systematic review of the academic and practitioner literature pertaining to the effectiveness of business and executive coaching as a developmental intervention for organisations. It focuses on published articles, conference papers and theses that cover business, leadership or executive coaching within organisations over the last 10 years.
Conclusions:
The main findings show that coaching is an effective tool that benefits organisations and a number of underlying facets contribute to this effectiveness. However, there is deficiency and scope for further investigation in key aspects of the academic research and we identify several areas that need further research and practitioner attention. .
Grit has been presented as a higher order personality trait that is highly predictive of both success and performance and distinct from other traits such as conscientiousness. This paper provides a meta-analytic review of the grit literature with a particular focus on the structure of grit and the relation between grit and performance, retention, conscientiousness, cognitive ability, and demographic variables. Our results based on 584 effect sizes from 88 independent samples representing 66,807 individuals indicate that the higher order structure of grit is not confirmed, that grit is only moderately correlated with performance and retention, and that grit is very strongly correlated with conscientiousness. We also find that the perseverance of effort facet has significantly stronger criterion validities than the consistency of interest facet and that perseverance of effort explains variance in academic performance even after controlling for conscientiousness. In aggregate our results suggest that interventions designed to enhance grit may only have weak effects on performance and success, that the construct validity of grit is in question, and that the primary utility of the grit construct may lie in the perseverance facet.
Unlabelled:
Individuals vary widely in their tendency to seek stimulation and act impulsively, early developing traits with genetic origins. Failures to regulate these behaviors increase risk for maladaptive outcomes including substance abuse. Here, we explored the neuroanatomical correlates of sensation seeking and impulsivity in healthy young adults. Our analyses revealed links between sensation seeking and reduced cortical thickness that were preferentially localized to regions implicated in cognitive control, including anterior cingulate and middle frontal gyrus (n = 1015). These associations generalized to self-reported motor impulsivity, replicated in an independent group (n = 219), and correlated with heightened alcohol, tobacco, and caffeine use. Critically, the relations between sensation seeking and brain structure were evident in participants without a history of alcohol or tobacco use, suggesting that observed associations with anatomy are not solely a consequence of substance use. These results demonstrate that individual differences in the tendency to seek stimulation, act on impulse, and engage in substance use are correlated with the anatomical structure of cognitive control circuitry. Our findings suggest that, in healthy populations, covariation across these complex multidimensional behaviors may in part originate from a common underlying biology.
Significance statement:
Impaired cognitive control may result in a tendency to seek stimulation impulsively and an increased risk for maladaptive outcomes, including substance abuse. Here, we examined the structural correlates of sensation seeking and impulsivity in a large cohort of healthy young adults. Our analyses revealed links between sensation seeking and reduced cortical thickness that were preferentially localized to regions implicated in cognitive control, including anterior cingulate and middle frontal gyrus. The observed associations generalized to motor impulsivity, replicated in an independent group, and predicted heightened alcohol, tobacco, and caffeine use. These data indicate that normal variability in cognitive control system anatomy predicts sensation seeking and motor impulsivity in the healthy populations, potentially increasing risk for substance use disorders.
Goal pursuit is almost always conducted in concert with helpful others. People serve as instrumental means to goals, and evaluations of people are shaped by their perceived instrumentality. Assistance from another person may elicit feelings of relationship satisfaction and commitment. Assisting others in their goal pursuit is also gratifying. We present a novel goal-systemic perspective on close relationships. Our analysis suggests that satisfying relationships are achieved when partners experience mutual perceived instrumentality—when each partner feels instrumental to his or her partner’s important goals and perceives the partner as instrumental to his or her important goals. Considering relationship partners as means to goals has important implications for relationship processes including attraction, relationship maintenance, and relationship dissolution.
Control theory and other frameworks for understanding self-regulation suggest that monitoring goal
progress is a crucial process that intervenes between setting and attaining a goal, and helps to ensure that
goals are translated into action. However, the impact of progress monitoring interventions on rates of
behavioral performance and goal attainment has yet to be quantified. A systematic literature search
identified 138 studies (N �= 19,951) that randomly allocated participants to an intervention designed to
promote monitoring of goal progress versus a control condition. All studies reported the effects of the
treatment on (a) the frequency of progress monitoring and (b) subsequent goal attainment. A random
effects model revealed that, on average, interventions were successful at increasing the frequency of
monitoring goal progress (d� �= 1.98, 95% CI [1.71, 2.24]) and promoted goal attainment (d� �= 0.40,
95% CI [0.32, 0.48]). Furthermore, changes in the frequency of progress monitoring mediated the effect
of the interventions on goal attainment. Moderation tests revealed that progress monitoring had larger
effects on goal attainment when the outcomes were reported or made public, and when the information
was physically recorded. Taken together, the findings suggest that monitoring goal progress is an
effective self-regulation strategy, and that interventions that increase the frequency of progress monitoring
are likely to promote behavior change.
Successful goal pursuit requires first selecting and strongly committing to desirable and feasible goals and then effectively implementing them. These two tasks are facilitated by two self-regulatory strategies: The first one, mental contrasting, promotes expectancy-dependent committing and striving for goals, and the second one, forming implementation intentions, aids to overcome obstacles on the way to goal attainment. Despite extensive research on the effects and processes associated with mental contrasting and implementation intentions, not until recently have their underlying neurophysiological correlates been analyzed. Magnetoencephalography (MEG) data suggest that mental contrasting is indeed a purposeful problem-solving strategy that differs much from merely indulging in a desired positive future. Moreover, Electroencephalography (EEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data support the assumption that by forming implementation intentions people can strategically automate goal striving and thus facilitate goal attainment. Both mental contrasting (MC) and implementation intentions (II) have recently been integrated into a powerful behavior change intervention called MCII that qualifies as a cost- and time-effective self-regulation intervention to help people choose appropriate health-related goals and successfully implement them.
As the proverbial creatures of habit, people tend to repeat the same behaviors in recurring contexts. This review characterizes habits in terms of their cognitive, motivational, and neurobiological properties. In so doing, we identify three ways that habits interface with deliberate goal pursuit: First, habits form as people pursue goals by repeating the same responses in a given context. Second, as outlined in computational models, habits and deliberate goal pursuit guide actions synergistically, although habits are the efficient, default mode of response. Third, people tend to infer from the frequency of habit performance that the behavior must have been intended. We conclude by applying insights from habit research to understand stress and addiction as well as the design of effective interventions to change health and consumer behaviors. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Psychology Volume 67 is January 03, 2016. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/catalog/pubdates.aspx for revised estimates.
Although executive coaching has been shown to be effective, few research initiatives have attempted to understand the importance of the emergent relationship between a coach and coachee. This article explores the factors that influence coaching outcomes from both the coach and coachee's perspective and presents the results of the mediating effect that working alliance and information sharing have on coachee goal attainment and coachee insight outcomes. The authors explored these factors in both an academic coachee sample as well as an executive field sample. Results showed that coachee motivation was significantly positively related with coachee goal attainment and coachee insight in an academic sample but not in a field sample. Moreover, working alliance and information sharing partially mediated the relationship between a coach's psychological mindedness and coachee insight in an academic, but not field, sample. Another notable result was that the difficulty of the coaching goal did not impact how successful the coaching engagement was in terms of goal attainment. Implications of these findings for both research and practice are discussed.
Meditation can be defined as a form of mental training that aims to improve an individual's core psychological capacities, such as attentional and emotional self-regulation. Meditation encompasses a family of complex practices that include mindfulness meditation, mantra meditation, yoga, tai chi and chi gong 1. Of these practices , mindfulness meditation — often described as non-judgemental attention to present-moment experiences (BOX 1) — has received most attention in neuroscience research over the past two decades 2–8. Although meditation research is in its infancy, a number of studies have investigated changes in brain activation (at rest and during specific tasks) that are associated with the practice of, or that follow, training in mindfulness meditation. These studies have reported changes in multiple aspects of mental function in beginner and advanced meditators, healthy individuals and patient populations 9–14. In this Review, we consider the current state of research on mindfulness meditation. We discuss the methodological challenges that the field faces and point to several shortcomings in existing studies. Taking into account some important theoretical considerations, we then discuss behavioural and neuroscientific findings in light of what we think are the core components of meditation practice: attention control, emotion regulation and self-awareness (BOX 1). Within this framework, we describe research that has revealed changes in behaviour, brain activity and brain structure following mindfulness meditation training. We discuss what has been learned so far from this research and suggest new research strategies for the field. We focus here on mindfulness meditation practices and have excluded studies on other types of meditation. However, it is important to note that other styles of meditation may operate via distinct neural mechanisms
Research dealing with various aspects of* the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1985,
1987) is reviewed, and some unresolved issues are discussed. In broad terms, the theory is
found to be well supported by empirical evidence. Intentions to perform behaviors of different
kinds can be predicted with high accuracy from attitudes toward the behavior, subjective
norms, and perceived behavioral control; and these intentions, together with perceptions of
behavioral control, account for considerable variance in actual behavior. Attitudes, subjective
norms, and perceived behavioral control are shown to be related to appropriate sets of salient
behavioral, normative, and control beliefs about the behavior, but the exact nature of these
relations is still uncertain. Expectancy value formulations are found to be only partly
successful in dealing with these relations. Optimal rescaling of expectancy and value
measures is offered as a means of dealing with measurement limitations. Finally, inclusion of
past behavior in the prediction equation is shown to provide a means of testing the theory*s
sufficiency, another issue that remains unresolved. The limited available evidence concerning
this question shows that the theory is predicting behavior quite well in comparison to the
ceiling imposed by behavioral reliability.
When students encounter a set of concepts (or terms or principles) that are similar in some way, they often confuse one with another. For instance, they might mistake one word for another word with a similar spelling (e.g., allusion instead of illusion) or choose the wrong strategy for a mathematics problem because it resembles a different kind of problem. By one proposition explored in this review, these kinds of errors occur more frequently when all exposures to one of the concepts are grouped together. For instance, in most middle school science texts, the questions in each assignment are devoted to the same concept, and this blocking of exposures ensures that students need not learn to distinguish between two similar concepts. In an alternative approach described in this review, exposures to each concept are interleaved with exposures to other concepts, so that a question on one concept is followed by a question on a different concept. In a number of experiments that have compared interleaving and blocking, interleaving produced better scores on final tests of learning. The evidence is limited, though, and ecologically valid studies are needed. Still, a prudent reading of the data suggests that at least a portion of the exposures should be interleaved.
The relative importance of nature and nurture for various forms of expertise has been intensely debated. Music proficiency is viewed as a general model for expertise, and associations between deliberate practice and music proficiency have been interpreted as supporting the prevailing idea that long-term deliberate practice inevitably results in increased music ability. Here, we examined the associations (rs = .18-.36) between music practice and music ability (rhythm, melody, and pitch discrimination) in 10,500 Swedish twins. We found that music practice was substantially heritable (40%-70%). Associations between music practice and music ability were predominantly genetic, and, contrary to the causal hypothesis, nonshared environmental influences did not contribute. There was no difference in ability within monozygotic twin pairs differing in their amount of practice, so that when genetic predisposition was controlled for, more practice was no longer associated with better music skills. These findings suggest that music practice may not causally influence music ability and that genetic variation among individuals affects both ability and inclination to practice.
Despite the popularity of 360-degree feedback, meta-analytic findings suggest that these interventions can lead to a significant change in behavior but the effect sizes are typically modest and when done poorly may lead to both disengagement and a decline in performance. The research evidence addressing practical issues for coaches to successfully implement 360-degree feedback interventions is updated since previous review studies (e.g., Craig & Hannum, 2006; Fleenor, Taylor, & Craig, 2008). This article reviews 15 specific questions that are common to most 360-degree feedback interventions (purpose and goals, methodology and psychometric properties, and process and implementation) designed to facilitate enhanced awareness and successful behavior change in individuals and teams. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
More than 20 years ago, researchers proposed that individual differences in performance in such domains as music, sports, and games largely reflect individual differences in amount of deliberate practice, which was defined as engagement in structured activities created specifically to improve performance in a domain. This view is a frequent topic of popular-science writing-but is it supported by empirical evidence? To answer this question, we conducted a meta-analysis covering all major domains in which deliberate practice has been investigated. We found that deliberate practice explained 26% of the variance in performance for games, 21% for music, 18% for sports, 4% for education, and less than 1% for professions. We conclude that deliberate practice is important, but not as important as has been argued.
Theories of skilled performance that emphasize training history, such as K. Anders Ericsson and colleagues' deliberate-practice theory, have received a great deal of recent attention in both the scientific literature and the popular press. Twin studies, however, have demonstrated evidence for moderate-to-strong genetic influences on skilled performance. Focusing on musical accomplishment in a sample of over 800 pairs of twins, we found evidence for gene-environment correlation, in the form of a genetic effect on music practice. However, only about one quarter of the genetic effect on music accomplishment was explained by this genetic effect on music practice, suggesting that genetically influenced factors other than practice contribute to individual differences in music accomplishment. We also found evidence for gene-environment interaction, such that genetic effects on music accomplishment were most pronounced among those engaging in music practice, suggesting that genetic potentials for skilled performance are most fully expressed and fostered by practice.
Periodic prompts serve as tools for health behavior interventions to encourage and maintain behavior changes. Past literature reviews have examined periodic messages targeting specific behaviors (smoking, physical activity, diet, etc) or media (telephone, email, face-to-face, newsletter, etc) and have found them to be effective in impacting health behavior in the short term.
Our goal was to review the literature related to periodic messaging and prompts in order to explore typical characteristics, assess the role of prompt timing, identify common theoretical models used, and identify characteristics associated with the effectiveness of periodic prompts.
Electronic searches of PubMed, PsycINFO, CINAHL, and Web of Science were conducted in October 2012 and May 2013. Database search terms included variant terms for periods, prompts, interventions, media, and health behaviors.
Forty-two of the 55 included research articles found that prompts resulted in significant positive behavioral outcomes for participants. Prompts were delivered via text messages, email, mailed communications, and in a few instances via phone. Generally, the provision of feedback and specific strategies to accomplish behavior change appears to be important for the success of periodic prompts. Rationale for prompt timing was rarely provided, although some studies did organize message content around days of the week or times perceived to be high risk for particular behaviors. Smoking cessation interventions tended to be organized around quit date. Among studies using theoretical models to inform their interventions, the transtheoretical model was most common.
Periodic messaging interventions yield positive results for short-term health behavior changes. Interventions including feedback and prompts that included strategies were more likely to report significantly positive outcomes. Work remains to better understand elements that make periodic prompts successful and whether they are effective in producing long-term outcomes.
Much research focuses on producing maximal intervention effects. This has generally not resulted in interventions being rapidly or widely adopted or seen as feasible given resources, time, and expertise constraints in the majority of real-world settings. We present a definition and key characteristics of a minimum intervention needed to produce change (MINC). To illustrate use of a MINC condition, we describe a computer-assisted, interactive minimal intervention, titled Healthy Habits, used in three different controlled studies and its effects. This minimal intervention produced modest to sizable health behavior and psychosocial improvements, depending on the intensity of personal contacts, producing larger effects at longer-term assessments. MINC comparison conditions could help to advance both health care and health research, especially comparative effectiveness research. Policy and funding implications of requiring an intervention to be demonstrated more effective than a simpler, less costly MINC alternative are discussed.
We examine, in 6881 twin individuals, the psychometric properties of a new test (the Swedish Musical Discrimination Test, SMDT) that was developed to tap auditory discrimination of musical stimuli. The SMDT consists of three subtests measuring discrimination of melodies, rhythms, and single pitches, respectively. Mean test taking times for the subtests were 3.0–4.6 min. Reliability and internal consistency were good with Cronbach’s alpha values and Spearman–Brown split-half reliabilities between .79 and .89. Subtests correlated positively (r values .27–.41). Criterion validity was demonstrated in three ways: individuals that had played a musical instrument scored higher than individuals that had not (Cohen’s d .38–.63); individuals that had taken music lessons scored higher than individuals that had not (Cohen’s d .35–.60); finally, total hours of musical training and SMDT scores correlated (r values .14–.28) among those participants that had played an instrument. Lastly, twin modelling revealed moderate heritability estimates for the three sub-scales. We conclude that the SMDT has good psychometric characteristics, short test taking time, and may serve as a useful complement to existing tests of musical ability.
Executive coaching has become increasingly popular despite limited empirical evidence about its impact and wide disagreement about necessary or desired professional qualifications. This article examines the practice of executive coaching, investigating the useful underlying theories by reviewing previous research. It also provides a conceptual framework of executive coaching, integrating the literature on executive coaching and related areas such as mentoring, career success, 360-degree feedback, and training and development. The significance of this article lies in its inte-gration of the extant literature on executive coaching and the development of a conceptual framework of executive coaching and related propositions derived from the literature. The article discusses the implications for future research and for human resource development.
In two studies employing a creativity test (i.e., solving insight problems), we hypothesized and observed that mental contrasting of a desired future with present reality (Oettingen, Pak, & Schnetter, 2001) transforms positive feedback into strong performance. Participants received positive or moderate bogus feedback on their creative potential and then engaged either in mental contrasting, indulging in the desired future, dwelling on present reality, or irrelevant contrasting with respect to taking a creativity test. Mental contrasting participants who received positive feedback performed better than those who received moderate feedback. They also performed better than indulging, dwelling, and irrelevant contrasting participants, regardless of the feedback received. By manipulating expectations of success through bogus feedback, the present research adjusts for confounding variables and validates previous findings showing that mental contrasting produces expectancy-dependent goal commitments and performance. Implications for designing interventions to enhance people's creativity are discussed.
The authors summarize 35 years of empirical research on goal-setting theory. They describe the core findings of the theory, the mechanisms by which goals operate, moderators of goal effects, the relation of goals and satisfaction, and the role of goals as mediators of incentives. The external validity and practical significance of goal-setting theory are explained, and new directions in goal-setting research are discussed. The relationships of goal setting to other theories are described as are the theory’s limitations.
Habits are response dispositions that are activated automatically by the context cues that co-occurred with responses during past performance. Experience-sampling diary studies indicate that much of everyday action is characterized by habitual repetition. We consider various mechanisms that could underlie the habitual control of action, and we conclude that direct cuing and motivated contexts best account for the characteristic features of habit responding—in particular, for the rigid repetition of action that can be initiated without intention and that runs to completion with minimal conscious control. We explain the utility of contemporary habit research for issues central to psychology, especially for behavior prediction, behavior change, and self-regulation.
Rather than investigating the extent to which training can improve performance under experimental conditions (‘what could be’), we ask about the origins of expertise as it exists in the world (‘what is’). We used the twin method to investigate the genetic and environmental origins of exceptional performance in reading, a skill that is a major focus of educational training in the early school years. Selecting reading experts as the top 5% from a sample of 10,000 12-year-old twins assessed on a battery of reading tests, three findings stand out. First, we found that genetic factors account for more than half of the difference in performance between expert and normal readers. Second, our results suggest that reading expertise is the quantitative extreme of the same genetic and environmental factors that affect reading performance for normal readers. Third, growing up in the same family and attending the same schools account for less than a fifth of the difference between expert and normal readers. We discuss implications and interpretations (‘what is inherited is DNA sequence variation’; ‘the abnormal is normal’). Finally, although there is no necessary relationship between ‘what is’ and ‘what could be’, the most far-reaching issues about the acquisition of expertise lie at the interface between them (‘the nature of nurture: from a passive model of imposed environments to an active model of shaped experience’).
Purpose
– If the ideal self is the emotional driver of intentional change, the purpose of this paper is to explore the components of a person's personal vision and how it comes from their ideal self.
Design/methodology/approach
– Based on the concept of the ideal self from intentional change theory, the paper examines a variety of theoretical foundations, from psychoanalytic to positive psychology. Each views the ideal self and its components as deficiencies needing therapeutic intervention or the heights of human experience and intrinsic motivation.
Findings
– The ideal self is a primary source of positive affect and psychophysiological arousal helping provide the drive for intentional change. Many current frameworks or theories examine only portions of this model and, therefore, leave major components unaddressed. The ideal self is composed of three major components: an image of a desired future; hope (and its constituents, self‐efficacy and optimism); and a comprehensive sense of one's core identity (past strengths, traits, and other enduring dispositions).
Originality/value
– Intentional change is hard work and often fails because of lack of sufficient drive and the proper intrinsic motivation for it. This model of the ideal self creates a comprehensive context within which a person (or at other fractals, a group or system) can formulate why they want to adapt, evolve, or maintain their current desired state.
The theory outlined in the present chapter adopts a cognitive approach to motivation. In the pages that follow we describe a research program premised on the notion that the cognitive treatment affords conceptual and methodological advantages enabling new insights into problems of motivated action, self-regulation and self-control. We begin by placing our work in the broader historical context of social psychological theorizing about motivation and cognition. We then present our theoretical notions and trace their implications for a variety of psychological issues including activity-experience, goal-commitment, choice, and substitution. The gist of the chapter that follows describes our empirical research concerning a broad range of phenomena informed by the goal-systemic analysis. Motivation Versus Cognition, or Motivation as Cognition Motivation versus cognition: the “separatist program. ” Social psychological theories have often treated motivation as separate from cognition, and have often approached it in a somewhat static manner. The separatism of the “motivation versus cognition ” approach was manifest in several major formulations and debates. Thus, for example, the dissonance versus self-perception debate (Bem, 1972) pitted against each other motivational (i.e., dissonance) versus cognitive (i.e., self-perception) explanations of attitude change phenomena. A similar subsequent controversy pertained to the question of whether a motivational explanation of biased causal attributions in terms of ego-defensive tendencies (cf. Kelley, 1972) is valid, given the alternative possibility of a purely cognitive explanation (Miller & Ross, 1975). The separatism of the “motivation versus cognition ” approach assigned distinct functions to motivational and cognitive variables. This is apparent in major social psychological notions of persuasion, judgment or impression formation. For instance, in the popular dual-mode theories of
Twenty years ago, Ericsson, Krampe, and Tesch-Römer (1993) proposed that expert performance
reflects a long period of deliberate practice rather than innate ability, or “talent”. Ericsson et al.
found that elite musicians had accumulated thousands of hours more deliberate practice than
less accomplished musicians, and concluded that their theoretical framework could provide
“a sufficient account of themajor facts about the nature and scarcity of exceptional performance”
(p. 392). The deliberate practice viewhas since gained popularity as a theoretical account of expert
performance, but here we show that deliberate practice is not sufficient to explain individual
differences in performance in the two most widely studied domains in expertise research—chess
and music. For researchers interested in advancing the science of expert performance, the task
now is to develop and rigorously test theories that take into account as many potentially relevant
explanatory constructs as possible.
Presents an integrative theoretical framework to explain and to predict psychological changes achieved by different modes of treatment. This theory states that psychological procedures, whatever their form, alter the level and strength of self-efficacy. It is hypothesized that expectations of personal efficacy determine whether coping behavior will be initiated, how much effort will be expended, and how long it will be sustained in the face of obstacles and aversive experiences. Persistence in activities that are subjectively threatening but in fact relatively safe produces, through experiences of mastery, further enhancement of self-efficacy and corresponding reductions in defensive behavior. In the proposed model, expectations of personal efficacy are derived from 4 principal sources of information: performance accomplishments, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological states. Factors influencing the cognitive processing of efficacy information arise from enactive, vicarious, exhortative, and emotive sources. The differential power of diverse therapeutic procedures is analyzed in terms of the postulated cognitive mechanism of operation. Findings are reported from microanalyses of enactive, vicarious, and emotive modes of treatment that support the hypothesized relationship between perceived self-efficacy and behavioral changes. (21/2 p ref)
I: Background.- 1. An Introduction.- 2. Conceptualizations of Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination.- II: Self-Determination Theory.- 3. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Perceived Causality and Perceived Competence.- 4. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Interpersonal Communication and Intrapersonal Regulation.- 5. Toward an Organismic Integration Theory: Motivation and Development.- 6. Causality Orientations Theory: Personality Influences on Motivation.- III: Alternative Approaches.- 7. Operant and Attributional Theories.- 8. Information-Processing Theories.- IV: Applications and Implications.- 9. Education.- 10. Psychotherapy.- 11. Work.- 12. Sports.- References.- Author Index.
Research dealing with various aspects of the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1985 and Ajzen, 1987) is reviewed, and some unresolved issues are discussed. In broad terms, the theory is found to be well supported by empirical evidence. Intentions to perform behaviors of different kinds can be predicted with high accuracy from attitudes toward the behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control; and these intentions, together with perceptions of behavioral control, account for considerable variance in actual behavior. Attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control are shown to be related to appropriate sets of salient behavioral, normative, and control beliefs about the behavior, but the exact nature of these relations is still uncertain. Expectancy-value formulations are found to be only partly successful in dealing with these relations. Optimal rescaling of expectancy and value measures is offered as a means of dealing with measurement limitations. Finally, inclusion of past behavior in the prediction equation is shown to provide a means of testing the theory's sufficiency, another issue that remains unresolved. The limited available evidence concerning this question shows that the theory is predicting behavior quite well in comparison to the ceiling imposed by behavioral reliability.
When pursuing a goal, making a backup plan has many benefits, including reducing the psychological discomfort associated with uncertainty. However, we suggest that making a backup plan can also have negative effects. Specifically, we propose that the mere act of thinking through a backup plan can reduce performance on your primary goal by decreasing your desire for goal achievement. In three experimental studies, we find that individuals randomly assigned to think through a backup plan subsequently performed worse on their primary goal (Studies 1–3). We further show that this effect is mediated by study participants’ decreased desire to attain their primary goal (Study 3). This research provides a fresh perspective on plan-making, highlighting an important yet previously unexplored negative consequence of formulating plans.
Relapse prevention (RP) is an important component of alcoholism treatment. The RP model proposed by Marlatt and Gordon suggests that both immediate determinants (e.g., high-risk situations, coping skills, outcome expectancies, and the abstinence violation effect) and covert antecedents (e.g., lifestyle factors and urges and cravings) can contribute to relapse. The RP model also incorporates numerous specific and global intervention strategies that allow therapist and client to address each step of the relapse process. Specific interventions include identifying specific high-risk situations for each client and enhancing the client's skills for coping with those situations, increasing the client's self-efficacy, eliminating myths regarding alcohol's effects, managing lapses, and restructuring the client's perceptions of the relapse process. Global strategies comprise balancing the client's lifestyle and helping him or her develop positive addictions, employing stimulus control techniques and urge-management techniques, and developing relapse road maps. Several studies have provided theoretical and practical support for the RP model.
The theoretical framework presented in this article explains expert performance as the end result of individuals' prolonged efforts to improve performance while negotiating motivational and external constraints. In most domains of expertise, individuals begin in their childhood a regimen of effortful activities (deliberate practice) designed to optimize improvement. Individual differences, even among elite performers, are closely related to assessed amounts of deliberate practice. Many characteristics once believed to reflect innate talent are actually the result of intense practice extended for a minimum of 10 years. Analysis of expert performance provides unique evidence on the potential and limits of extreme environmental adaptation and learning.
Why are some people more skilled in complex domains than other people? According to one prominent view, individual differences in performance largely reflect individual differences in accumulated amount of deliberate practice. Here, we investigated the relationship between deliberate practice and performance in sports. Overall, deliberate practice accounted for 18% of the variance in sports performance. However, the contribution differed depending on skill level. Most important, deliberate practice accounted for only 1% of the variance in performance among elite-level performers. This finding is inconsistent with the claim that deliberate practice accounts for performance differences even among elite performers. Another major finding was that athletes who reached a high level of skill did not begin their sport earlier in childhood than lower skill athletes. This finding challenges the notion that higher skill performers tend to start in a sport at a younger age than lower skill performers. We conclude that to understand the underpinnings of expertise, researchers must investigate contributions of a broad range of factors, taking into account findings from diverse subdisciplines of psychology (e.g., cognitive psychology, personality psychology) and interdisciplinary areas of research (e.g., sports science).
This study presents a meta-analysis synthesizing the existing research on the effectiveness of workplace coaching. We exclusively explore workplace coaching provided by internal or external coaches and therefore exclude cases of manager–subordinate and peer coaching. We propose a framework of potential outcomes from coaching in organizations, which we examine meta-analytically (k = 17). Our analyses indicated that coaching had positive effects on organizational outcomes overall (δ = 0.36), and on specific forms of outcome criteria (skill-based δ = 0.28; affective δ = 0.51; individual-level results δ = 1.24). We also examined moderation by a number of coaching practice factors (use of multisource feedback; type of coach; coaching format; longevity of coaching). Our analyses of practice moderators indicated a significant moderation of effect size for type of coach (with effects being stronger for internal coaches compared to external coaches) and use of multisource feedback (with the use of multisource feedback resulting in smaller positive effects). We found no moderation of effect size by coaching format (comparing face-to-face, with blended face-to-face and e-coaching) or duration of coaching (number of sessions or longevity of intervention). The effect sizes give support to the potential utility of coaching in organizations. Implications for coaching research and practice are discussed.Practitioner pointsOur meta-analysis supports the positive effects of workplace coaching as an approach to employee learning and development in organizations, with a variety of criteria.Our findings indicate that coaching was more effective when conducted by internal coaches and when multisource feedback was excluded.Workplace coaching was effective whether conducted face-to-face or using blended techniques (i.e., blending face-to-face with e-coaching).
Consumers often need to decide if they want to reengage a goal, such as a goal of losing weight, a goal of saving money, or a goal of performing well on a video game. This research finds that consumers are more likely to reengage a goal when they have set a high-low range goal (e.g., lose 2–4 pounds this week) than when they have set a single number goal (e.g., lose 3 pounds this week). This effect is driven by the greater attainability and greater challenge of the high-low range goal, which then leads to a greater feeling of accomplishment. Thus, these findings suggest that in order to keep a consumer motivated over time to continue with an activity or continue using a product, that consumer should first set or be given a high-low range goal.
This article addresses how individuals can adjust to the experience of unattainable goals and protect their subjective well-being and physical health. We discuss theoretical aspects involved in the self-regulation of unattainable goals and point to the importance of general individual differences in goal disengagement and goal reengagement capacities. In addition, we review the extant literature, suggesting that goal disengagement capacities can reduce psychological distress and ameliorate patterns of biological dysregulation and physical health problems if individuals experience unattainable goals. Goal reengagement capacities, by contrast, are shown to be associated with positive indicators of subjective well-being (e.g., positive affect or purpose in life) but rarely predict psychological distress or physical health outcomes. We finally address several remaining issues that have become apparent in the extant literature and may deserve more attention in future research.
Implementation intentions have been shown to effectively change counter-intentional habits. Research has, however, almost solely been concerned with the effectiveness of a single plan. In the present research, we investigated the behavioral and cognitive implications of making multiple implementation intentions targeting unhealthy snacking habits and its underlying processes, linking multiple habitual snacking cues to healthy alternatives. Study 1 revealed that formulatingmultiple implementation intentions was not effective in decreasing unhealthy snacking, whereas formulating a single plan successfully induced behavior change. By using a lexical decision task in Study 2, it was found that when making a single plan, but not multiple plans, the healthy alternative became cognitively more accessible in response to a critical cue prime than the habitual response. However, when making additional plans in an unrelated domain, the negative effects of making multiple plans were absent. In sum, the current findings suggest that formulating multiple implementation intentions is ineffective when changing unwanted behavior. These reduced effects of multiple implementation intentions do not occur when making the plan but are rather due to interference in the enacting phase of the planning process.
When adverse life events occur, people often suffer negative consequences for their mental health and well-being. More adversity has been associated with worse outcomes, implying that the absence of life adversity should be optimal. However, some theory and empirical evidence suggest that the experience of facing difficulties can also promote benefits in the form of greater propensity for resilience when dealing with subsequent stressful situations. I review research that demonstrates U-shaped relationships between lifetime adversity exposure and mental health and well-being, functional impairment and health care utilization in chronic back pain, and responses to experimentally induced pain. Specifically, a history of some lifetime adversity predicts better outcomes than not only a history of high adversity but also a history of no adversity. This has important implications for understanding resilience, suggesting that adversity can have benefits.
This article explores the course of motivation in pursuing various goals. We distinguish between two dimensions of motivation: the motivation to attain a focal goal (outcome-focused dimension) and the motivation to “do things right” in the process of reaching that goal (means-focused dimension). We identify the conditions under which the motivation to reach a focal goal increases versus decreases over the course of goal pursuit. We then propose that the motivation to “do things right” follows a u-shaped pattern, such that it is higher at the beginning and end of goal pursuit than in the middle.
Despite common findings suggesting that lack of negative life events should be optimal, recent work has revealed a curvilinear pattern, such that some cumulative lifetime adversity is instead associated with optimal well-being. This work, however, is limited in that responses to specific stressors as they occurred were not assessed, thereby precluding investigation of resilience. The current research addressed this critical gap by directly testing the relationship between adversity history and resilience to stressors. Specifically, we used a multimethod approach across two studies to assess responses to controlled laboratory stressors (respectively requiring passive endurance and active instrumental performance). Results revealed hypothesized U-shaped relationships: Relative to a history of either no adversity or nonextreme high adversity, a moderate number of adverse life events was associated with less negative responses to pain and more positive psychophysiological responses while taking a test. These results provide novel evidence in support of adversity-derived propensity for resilience that generalizes across stressors.