Gamifying design education

Abstract

Designers are increasingly in demand in a range of context because of their ability to deal with complexity and develop innovative solutions. Educational practice, however, is not yet on par with the multidisciplinary and multi-modal learning style of today's students. Gamification offers the promise of an innovative approach to engage students and produce better learning outcomes. The challenges facing gamification designers are parallel to those of experience designers, chiefly in ensuring the solution is contextually and personal relevant to the user. Learning design thinking, however, is a complex social activity influenced by myriad contextual factors. Cultural historical activity theory, when coupled with design-based research, offers a theoretical foundation that allows for gamification to be used for expansive education. The authors present The Four Orders of Gamification and a Gamification Design System that enables design educators to develop expansive curricula for tomorrow's designers.

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This!work!is!licensed!under!a!Creative!Commons!Attribution-
NonCommercial!4.0!International!License.
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Gamifying)design)education)
Oberprieler,!Kerstinab*;!Leonard,!Simonb!and!Fitzgerald,!Robertb!!
a!ThinkPlace,!Australia!!
b!INSPIRE!Centre!for!Innovation!in!Education!and!Training,!University!of!Canberra,!Australia!
*!Corresponding!author!e-mail:!Kerstin.oberprieler@thinkplace.com.au!
doi:!79)
Designers!are!increasingly!in!demand!in!a!range!of!context!because!of!their!
ability!to!deal!with!complexity!and!develop!innovative!solutions.!Educational!
practice,!however,!is!not!yet!on!par!with!the!multi-disciplinary!and!multi-
modal!learning!style!of!today’s!students.!Gamification!offers!the!promise!of!
an!innovative!approach!to!engage!students!and!produce!better!learning!
outcomes.!The!challenges!facing!gamification!designers!are!parallel!to!those!
of!experience!designers,!chiefly!in!ensuring!the!solution!is!contextually!and!
personal!relevant!to!the!user.!Learning!design!thinking,!however,!is!a!
complex!social!activity!influenced!by!myriad!contextual!factors.!Cultural!
historical!activity!theory,!when!coupled!with!design-based!research,!offers!a!
theoretical!foundation!that!allows!for!gamification!to!be!used!for!expansive!
education.!The!authors!present!The!Four!Orders!of!Gamification!and!a!
Gamification!Design!System!that!enables!design!educators!to!develop!
expansive!curricula!for!tomorrow’s!designers.!!!
keywords:!gamification;!cultural!historical!activity!theory;!design!education!
Introduction))
Design!practice!and!design!thinking!have!emerged!in!recent!decades!as!a!means!for!
institutions,!workplaces!and!individuals!to!engage!with!and!work!within!an!increasingly!
complex,!trans-disciplinary!and!technology-enabled!world.!The!design!approach,!however,!
has!been!relatively!slow!to!penetrate!curriculum!and!pedagogical!(educational)!practice,!
even!for!the!education!of!current!and!future!designers.!Efforts!and!approaches!such!as!
problem-based!learning!are!aimed!to!introduce!design!practice!and!thinking!into!the!
educational!experience.!However,!these!tend!to!be!peripheral!rather!than!central,!and!

!
there!is!a!serious!gap!in!our!knowledge!about!what!makes!for!successful!problem-based!
learning!environments!(Jonassen,!2011).!
‘Gamification’,!like!‘serious!games’!and!‘game-based!learning’,!is!a!more!recent!design-like!
arrival!on!the!educational!landscape!with!great!promise!to!support!the!development!of!
soft!skills,!transversal!competencies!and!collaborative!production!(Engeström,!2001;!
Herrington!&!Reeves,!2011).!However,!the!approach!has!attracted!significant!criticism!due!
to!many!examples!of!the!over-application!of!very!simple!game!mechanics!and!a!reliance!
on!extrinsic!motivation.!In!this!paper!we!will!argue!that!this!limitation!of!gamification!
occurs!primarily!due!to!a!lack!of!theoretical!understanding!of!what!gamified!learning!
environments!can!and!should!achieve.!Subsequently!this!means!there!is!a!lack!of!
theoretically!informed!design!tools!for!gamified!learning!environments.!!
With!reference!to!a!case!study!from!the!literature,!and!to!our!own!work!in!designing!
gamified!learning!environments!as!part!of!an!educational!design-research!project,!the!
paper!will!contribute!to!closing!this!theoretical!gap.!In!particular,!the!paper!will!provide!a!
reflexive!discussion!on!how!cultural!historical!activity!theory!(CHAT)!can!be!used!to!inform!
the!design!of!gamified!learning!environments.!Before!doing!so,!the!paper!will!set!out!
some!basic!concepts!for!our!discussion.!!
The)expanding)use)of)design)thinking)
The!field!of!design!thinking!has!come!far!in!recent!decades.!From!John!Dewey’s!(1929)!
foundational!concepts!of!delineating!between!science,!art!and!practice,!to!Herbert!
Simon’s!(1996)!notion!of!‘sciences!of!design’!and!crafting!preferred!environments,!the!
design!process!has!grown!from!a!largely!product-!and!industrial!focus!to!one!which!
incorporates!all!manner!of!problems.!As!stated!by!Richard!Buchanan!in!his!influential!
!"#$%&'()*+,%-.'"/'0%."1/'23"/$"/1!(Buchanan,!1992):!!
0%.4"5%'%66*)5.'5*'&".#*7%)'53%'6*8/&95"*/.'*6'&%."1/'53"/$"/1'"/'53%'6"/%'
9)5.:'53%'/958)9,'.#"%/#%.:'*)'-*.5')%#%/5,;:'53%'.*#"9,'.#"%/#%.:'&%."1/'
%,8&%.')%&8#5"*/'9/&')%-9"/.'9'.8)4)"."/1,;'6,%<"+,%'9#5"7"5;='>*'."/1,%'
&%6"/"5"*/'*6'&%."1/:'*)'+)9/#3%.'*6'4)*6%.."*/9,"?%&'4)9#5"#%'.8#3'9.'
"/&8.5)"9,'*)'1)943"#'&%."1/:'9&%@895%,;'#*7%).'53%'&"7%)."5;'*6'"&%9.'9/&'
-%53*&.'1953%)%&'5*1%53%)'8/&%)'53%',9+%,='AAB8#39/9/:'CDDEFGF'
Design!thinking!is!becoming!an!increasingly!adopted!approach!beyond!the!traditional!
design!fields!and!is,!increasingly,!a!standard!for!businesses,!not-for-profits!and!
governments!worldwide!(Sobel!and!Groeger,!2013).!This!is!due!in!part!to!the!increasing!
relevance!of!wicked!problems!environmental,!social!and!economic!problems!(Buchanan,!
1992;!Dunne!and!Martin,!2006)!that!are!placing!increasing!pressure!on!organisations!to!be!
skilled!in!innovation!(Dunne!and!Martin,!2006).!The!shifts!required!include!mind-sets!and!
styles!of!work!that!are!collaborative,!iterative!and!abductive!(Dunne!and!Martin,!2006).!
These!ways!of!working!have!been!widely!referred!to!as!‘twenty!first!century’!or!
‘transverse’!skills!(Beckerman!&!Barry,!2007;!Guildford,!1967)!and!are!increasingly!seen!in!
the!curricula!of!educational!institutions!such!as!Stanford!University’s!D-School!(Melles,!
Howard!&!Thompson-Whiteside,!2012).!!

>%H'$/*H,%&1%'9/&'%<49/."7%'H9;.'*6'$/*H"/1'
Historically!knowledge!has!been!seen!as!being!disseminated!by!means!of!transferring!
possession!of!pre-existing!codified!factual!knowledge!to!students!(Burns!&!Paton,!2005).!
This!concrete!and!unidirectional!view!of!knowledge,!however,!is!not!sufficient!for!the!
twenty-first!century!student!or!worker.!New!domains!of!knowledge!are!being!created!at!
an!ever-increasing!rate!and!factual!codified!knowledge!needs!to!be!coupled!with!tacit!
performance!knowledge!(Burns!&!Paton,!2005).!This!is!particularly!so!in!design!fields!and!
is!well!summarised!by!Engeström!(2010)!when!he!argues:!
"/&"7"&89,.'9/&'*)19/".95"*/.'9)%'#*/5"/89,,;',%9)/"/1'$/*H,%&1%'9/&'.$",,.'
5395'9)%'/*5'.59+,%'9/&'&%6"/%&:')953%)'5395'9)%'%7*,7"/1'9/&'#39/1"/1='I/'
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Workplace!learning!in!the!design!fields,!therefore,!need!to!evolve!to!remain!germane!and!
to!produce!skilled!lifelong!learners!and!workers!for!tomorrow’s!economy.!This!begs!the!
need!for!theoretical!foundations!and!practical!guidance!for!design!educators!to!engage!
design!students!and!develop!relevant!tools!and!mechanisms!for!the!complex!nature!of!
modern!knowledge!generation,!transfer!and!application.!In!order!to!engage!design!
students!and!provide!them!with!the!skills,!knowledge!and!experiences!they!need!
educational!practice!needs!to!be!engaging,!relevant,!to!foster!collaboration!and!to!embed!
design!practices!as!part!of!the!learning!experience.!Gamification!is!an!emerging!
educational!approach!that!has!the!potential!to!deliver!such!a!learning!experience(Buckley!
&!Doyle,!2015;!Gibson,!Ostashewski,!Flintoff,!Grant,!&!Knight,!2015).!!!
!
J9-"6"#95"*/'9.'9/'"//*795"7%'%&8#95"*/9,'4)9#5"#%'6*)'%<49/."7%',%9)/"/1'
To!begin!our!discussion!of!gamification,!we!offer!a!new!definition!on!which!this!paper!will!
expand:!
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%/191%'8.%).'9/&'.*,7%')%9,'H*),&'4)*+,%-.L''
In!its!most!basic!form,!gamification!is!the!use!of!points,!badges!and!leaderboards!to!
reward!performance.!It!uses!social!status!and!team!spirit!to!incentivise!and!reward!
desired!behaviours.!Other!common!mechanics!and!dynamics!include!gaining!experience!
points,!levelling!up,!questing,!competition!with!other!individuals!and!teams,!chance,!and!
receiving!virtual!and!real!rewards.!!
Gamification!is!distinct!from!games!and!game-based!learning!in!subtle!yet!important!
ways.!The!first!distinction!to!make!is!that!between!‘play’!and!‘games’;!play!(paidia)!being!
free-form!behaviours!based!on!improvisation!and!expressions,!and!games!(ludus)!being!
rule-based!play!with!determined!objectives!(Kalinauskas,!2014).!Games,!both!serious!and!
for!entertainment,!are!a!form!of!activity!that!often!use!physical!objects!and!interaction!
with!other!players!(Deterding,!Dixon,!Khaled,!&!Nacke,!2011).!!Game-based!learning!is!the!
use!of!games!to!promote!learning!and!is!used!for!knowledge-!and!skill-acquisition.!In!our!
use,!the!key!distinction!of!gamification!is!the!use!of!game!mechanics!to!reward!real-world!
behaviours!–!this!need!not!involve!an!actual!game!(Deterding!et!al.,!2011).!
There!are!copious!examples!of!basic!gamification!application!to!increase!brand!loyalty,!
including!large!companies!such!as!Nike,!Samsung,!and!McDonalds!(Kuo,!2015;!Rambo,!
2011).!Gamification!is!also!!being!applied!in!other!spheres!and!is!also!being!used!in!

!
healthcare,!environmental!sustainability,!public!services!and!formal!education!settings!
(Hamari,!2013;!(Morford,!Witts,!Killingsworth,!&!Alavosius,!2014).!
Closing)the)engagement)gap))
While!still!a!nascent!field,!gamification!has!received!much!attention!in!education!due!to!its!
promise!to!close!the!‘engagement!gap’!(Towers!Perrin,!2008).!Towers!Perrin!(2008)!define!
engagement!as!the!extent!to!which!individuals!put!discretionary!effort!into!their!work!and!
contribute!energy,!creativity!and!passion,!in!addition!to!understanding!and!performing!
their!roles!and!responsibilities.!Student!engagement!in!educational!contexts!is!similarly!
linked!with!academic!performance!such!as!higher!achievement,!higher!educational!
attainment!and!decreased!dropout!rates!(Griffiths,!Sharkey,!&!Furlong,!2009).!Many!
studies!have!found!an!alarming!lack!of!engagement!in!schools!and!workplaces!(Herrington!
&!Reeves,!2011;!Towers!Perrin,!2008).!Inspired!by!the!success!of!the!video!game!industry!
in!engaging!individuals!to!perform!virtual!tasks!repetitively,!gamification!has!seen!
marketers,!organisational!psychologists!and!education!designers!borrow!elements!of!
gameplay!and!the!player!experience!and!apply!them!to!real!world!contexts.!It!is!estimated!
that!more!than!fifty!per!cent!of!organisations!will!have!at!least!one!gamified!process!and!
that!the!gamification!market!will!reach!$5.5!billion!by!2018!(MarketsandMarkets,!2013).!!
Several!psychological!theories!underpin!the!success!of!games!and!gamification!in!
education.!The!most!notable!is!behavioural!psychology’s!Self-Determination!Theory!(SDT)!
(Conway,!2014).!SDT!describes!three!core!needs!and!incentives,!namely!autonomy,!
competence,!and!relatedness.!Autonomy!is!the!player’s!level!of!choice!and!free!will;!
competence!is!the!skills!required!and!gained;!and!relatedness!it!the!feeling!of!
connectedness!to!others.!These!needs!are!more!likely!to!be!met!when!the!goals!created!in!
a!game!are!intrinsic,!or!sought!for!their!own!sake,!rather!than!extrinsic,!or!sought!as!a!
means!to!an!end!(Songer!&!Miyata,!2014).!Another!is!!Csikszentmihalyi’s!concept!of!
autotelic!flow!(Hektner!&!Csikszentmihalyi,!1996),!a!psychological!state!in!which!
individuals!are!completely!immersed!in!the!activity!to!the!point!where!they!can!lose!track!
of!time!and!physical!needs!such!as!food!and!even!sleep.!This!state!is!achieved!when!a!
player’s!competence!and!the!challenge!of!the!activity!are!aligned.!!The!principles!of!
autonomy,!competence,!relatedness!and!flow!are!well!utilised!in!games,!where!players!
are!guided!or!on-boarded!into!the!game!when!they!begin,!and!gradually!gain!competence!
as!they!aim!for!levels!within!the!game.!Each!level!becomes!increasingly!more!difficult,!and!
provides!a!new!challenge!for!the!player!as!they!become!more!skilled!and!competent!at!
the!game.!It!is!through!these!principles!and!mechanics!that!games!and!gamification!can!
engage!and!motivate!learners.!
!
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The!following!example!of!a!gamified!science!curriculum!(Kingsley!and!Grabner-Hagen,!
2015)!demonstrates!the!power!of!replacing!the!current!educational!practices!with!a!
gamified!one.!The!case!study!by!Kingsley!and!Grabner-Hagen!(2015)!is!a!4-week!
technology-based!science!unit!that!was!replaced!with!a!gamified!one!in!a!Midwestern!
metropolitan!school,!grades!5!and!6.!Instead!of!the!common!lecture!style!and!activities!
followed!by!an!exam!or!assignment!to!test!learning,!the!curriculum!content!was!designed!
as!a!quest-based!game.!!

Using!a!platform!called!3D!GameLab,!the!teacher!designed!the!content!as!a!series!of!
quests!for!students!to!complete,!who!were!rewarded!with!XP!(experience!points),!badges!
and!awards!for!completion.!The!content!was!provided!in!multi-media!format!and!included!
teacher-created!and!external!public!information,!such!as!Bill!Nye’s!‘Phases!of!Matter’!
hosted!on!YouTube.!Students!were!able!to!select!quests!based!on!their!interest!and!
ability,!instead!of!the!traditional!linear!and!fixed!progression!through!content.!Quests!
increased!in!difficulty!as!students!‘levelled!up’!based!on!their!XP.!Students!earned!badges!
for!progression!through!the!quest!levels,!which!were!named!to!reinforce!science!
vocabulary!and!concepts.!For!example,!the!first!level!of!quests!was!centred!around!solid!
matter!and!students!progressed!through!the!states!of!matter!as!they!levelled!up!through!
the!curriculum,!ending!in!sublimation.!
The!result!of!the!gamified!curriculum!was!an!increase!in!engagement!and!learning,!and!a!
greater!satisfaction!with!the!educational!experience!as!compared!with!traditional!non-
gamified!design.!Students!reported!that!the!quality!of!their!work!increased!as!a!result!of!
the!gamification!(87.2%)!and!that!the!content!was!easier!to!learn!(82.9%).!Students!also!
reported!increased!motivation!as!a!result!of!the!self-regulation!of!content,!with!one!
student!stating:!
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+;'53%'5%9#3%)N.'.#3%&8,%=L''
It!can!be!seen!that!this!gamification!design!utilises!the!principles!of!Self-Determination!
Theory!and!autotelic!flow!to!achieve!engagement.!Through!the!gamified!curriculum,!
students!approached!their!learning!as!if!it!were!a!game,!making!the!educational!
experience!both!challenging!and!fun.!Allowing!students!to!self-regulate!and!tailor!their!
pace!and!content!resulted!in!increased!motivation!and!better!learning!outcomes.!The!
process!of!transforming!the!curriculum!into!a!gamified!one!is!a!design!process!itself.!The!
curriculum!is!now!a!user-centred!one,!that!empowers!students!and!engages!them!in!a!
manner!congruent!with!their!desires!and!expectations.!!
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The!chief!question!then!becomes!how!gamification!can!be!used!to!create!engaging!
curricula!for!design!students.!Several!challenges!in!developing!gamified!learning!need!to!
be!addressed.!The!first!of!these!is!that,!despite!its!increasing!popularity!and!application,!
gamification!does!not!have!a!shared!and!evidence-based!framework!or!process.!Much!like!
the!field!of!design!ten!to!twenty!years!ago,!gamification!is!undergoing!academic!and!
practical!debate!regarding!its!definition,!application,!and!process!for!creating!desired!
futures.!!
Secondly,!an!important!consideration!and!criticism!is!the!over-application!of!simple!
mechanics,!such!as!points!and!badges,!which!focus!on!extrinsic!motivation!(Conway,!
2014).!An!over-reliance!on!these!simple!extrinsic!motivators!can!have!a!crowding-out!
effect!of!intrinsic!motivators,!leaving!players!without!internal!motivation!to!pursue!the!
target!behaviour!and!activity!!(Hamari,!2015).!The!danger!this!creates!is!that!the!player!
focuses!on!the!achievement!and!consumption!of!signs,!such!as!more!points!or!a!new!level,!
instead!of!the!transformation!of!learning.!This!results!in!the!cessation!of!the!behaviour!if!
the!extrinsic!motivator!is!removed.!!
As!well!as!ensuring!a!mix!of!intrinsic!and!extrinsic!motivators,!gamification!designers!also!
need!to!ensure!the!design!provides!motivation!for!a!range!of!user!or!player!types.!

!
Different!players!achieve!this!state!of!flow!under!different!conditions!and!for!different!
intrinsic!motivations.!This!is!the!notion!of!player!types,!or!classifications!of!how!players!
tend!to!interact!with!their!real!or!virtual!world.!The!most!well-known!classification!is!the!
Bartle!Test,!which!classifies!players!into!four!main!types!based!on!their!motivation!and!
predilections!(Kim,!2015).!While!there!is!some!debate!about!the!generalisation!of!Bartle’s!
four!player!types!to!different!games!and!gamification!(Dixon,!2011),!the!concept!of!
understanding!and!designing!for!different!player!types!is!critical!to!all!game!and!
gamification!design.!
Design!educators!can!be!tempted!to!simply!overlay!existing!behaviours!with!points!and!
badges!in!attempt!to!use!the!power!of!gamification!to!create!engaging!learning!
experience.!However,!the!challenge!in!gamified!curricula!is!to!ensure!the!experience!is!
relevant!and!tailored!to!the!specific!learning!context!and!for!all!actors!in!the!system.!The!
core!challenge!therefore!becomes!how!to!design!a!gamified!learning!experience!that!is!
contextually-relevant,!caters!for!various!learning!styles,!and!produces!meaningful!learning!
outcomes!for!design!students.!
!
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Just!like!other!educational!design,!gamification!design!needs!to!follow!a!process!rooted!in!
design-based!research!to!ensure!the!design!is!contextually!relevant!and!achieves!the!
desired!outcomes.!Learning!design!thinking!skills!is!complex!and!as!such!requires!an!
expansive!view!of!learning.!Cultural-historical!activity!theory!and!cognitive!ecology!offer!
such!a!perspective.!
Learning!environments!consists!of!myriad!of!internal!and!external!resources!and!
interactions!that!can!be!likened!to!a!biological!ecosystem!(Hutchins,!2010).!Researchers!in!
the!nascent!field!of!cognitive!ecology!have!demonstrated!that!human!cognitive!processing!
and!learning!are!embodied!and!enacted;!developing!through!goal-orientated!action!and!
interactions!between!the!human!organism!and!its!environment!(Hutchins,!2010;!
Rueschemeyer!&!Bekkering,!2009).!It!follows,!they!argue,!that!individual!learning!happens!
as!part!of!the!environment,!not!in!isolation!from!it.!Learning!is!influenced!and!determined!
by!the!structure!of!the!cognitive!ecosystem!surrounding!the!individual!and!learning!occurs!
as!a!dynamic!formation!of!particular!practices!within!the!ecosystem!(Hutchins,!2010).!This!
interaction!between!the!learner!and!his!or!her!context!results!in!the!simultaneous!
learning!and!creation!of!new!forms!of!activity,!known!as!expansive!learning!(Engeström,!
1995).!Expansive!learning!argues!against!this!limited!view!of!learning!to!be!about!the!
acquisition!of!skills!and!knowledge!that!have!already!been!mastered!and!codified!
(Engeström!&!Sannino,!2010!).!
Similarly,!cultural-historical!activity!theory!(CHAT)!emphasises!the!criticality!of!the!
environment!in!human!learning!and!consciousness!(Gustavsson,!2009).!Pioneered!by!
Vygotsky!in!1920’s,!CHAT!is!becoming!an!increasingly!accepted!theory!in!educational!
design!because!of!its!acknowledgement!and!embracing!of!the!complexities!of!human!
learning(Roth!&!Lee,!2007!).!CHAT!emphasises!that!learning!is!culturally!mediated!through!
artefacts,!tools,!and!language.!It!states!that!consciousness!and!learning!are!mediated!
through!the!use!of!artefacts!and!are!oriented!towards!goals!or!objects,!as!well!as!being!
strongly!situated!in!the!local!cultural,!social!and!historical!context.!Cognition!is!therefore!
embedded!in!and!inextricable!from!activity!and!local!practice.!Key!elements!of!an!activity!

system!include!the!object,!an!entity!or!a!goal!which!is!continually!evolving;!the!activity,!a!
form!of!doing!that!is!directed!to!an!object,!is!goal-orientated!and!targeted!to!a!need;!
mediating!artefacts!such!as!tools,!signs!and!language;!subjects,!the!human!actors!or!
participants!in!the!system;!community!which!consists!of!subjects!that!share!an!interest!
and!involvement!with!the!same!object;!division!of!labour,!the!roles!within!the!community,!
including!division!of!power!and!resources;!and!rules,!which!regulate!the!subject’s!actions!
and!interactions!within!the!system.!!
An!activity!or!learning!system!can!be!mapped!on!the!CHAT!triangle!model,!which!provides!
a!framework!and!method!with!which!to!understand!the!unique!factors!and!interaction!of!
the!particular!context!in!question,!particularly!when!combined!with!a!design-based!
research!approach!(Anderson!&!Shattuck,!2012;!Yamagata-Lynch,!2007).!The!CHAT!
approach!embraces!and!organises!the!particular!components!of!the!learning!context,!and!
in!this!way,!can!map!the!richness!and!multi-factored!nature!of!activity!systems.!This!
richness!of!understanding!is!the!key!differentiator!and!value!of!using!CHAT!in!the!
understanding,!evaluation!and!design!of!learning!systems.!
!
!
R"18)%'C'S8,58)9,QT".5*)"#9,'M#5"7"5;'23%*);'5)"9/1,%''
Developing)CHAT-based)gamified)design)education))
CHAT!understands!learning!to!be!expansive,!complex!and!social,!thereby!providing!design!
educators!with!a!non-linear!understanding!of!learning.!This!expansive!view!of!learning!
allows!design!educators!to!reframe!the!learning!experience!as!a!series!of!interactions!and!
dynamics,!and!incorporate!these!into!the!gamified!design!curriculum.!This!activity!system!
approach!to!gamified!design!curricula!requires!a!deliberate!design!decision!about!the!
extent!to!which!gamification!should!be!used.!!
Mediating
artefacts
Community Division of la bourRul es
Subject Object Sense
meaning Outcome
Produ ction
Consu mp tion

!
U%6,%#5"*/.'6)*-'9/'*/1*"/1'.58&;'
The!following!conceptual!models!and!frameworks!presented!here!are!part!of!an!ongoing!
design-research!project!that!is!investigating!gamification’s!application!to!collaborative!
learning!environments!to!foster!high-order!behaviours!such!as!knowledge!sharing,!
collaboration!and!building!team!culture.!As!this!paper!is!a!largely!theoretical!contribution,!
the!details!of!the!study!will!be!presented!only!briefly!here.!
The!study!takes!a!mixed-methods!and!design-based!research!approach!with!the!
methodology!detailed!elsewhere!(Oberprieler!&!Leonard,!2015).!Building!on!Yamagata-
Lynch’s!(2007)!work,!this!study!incorporates!design-based!research!with!CHAT!analysis!as!
both!a!theoretical!basis!and!a!practical!research!tool.!The!immersive!and!iterative!
approach!of!this!methodology!has!the!unique!strength!of!enabling!locally-relevant!and!
timely!changes!to!the!design!that!can!more!quickly!lead!to!improved!environments.!In!
addition,!the!design!principles!and!lessons!learnt!throughout!the!process!can!be!
generalised!and!add!to!existing!theory.!
The!study!is!being!conducted!in!strategic!design!consultancy,!ThinkPlace!Australia,!and!
uses!a!gamified!experience!to!incentive!and!reward!particular!behaviours!in!employees.!
These!range!from!daily!irritants,!such!as!tidying!the!office!and!submitting!timesheets,!to!
higher!order!and!important!business!activities!such!as!writing!proposals!for!project!and!
sharing!knowledge.!These!activities!are!framed!as!daily!and!weekly!quests!to!complete,!
and!employees!are!rewarded!with!points!that!count!towards!their!team,!and!can!be!
exchanged!for!goods.!Other!mechanics!include!badges!for!achieving!milestones,!weekly!
team!rankings,!team!breakfasts!for!office-wide!achievements.!!!
The!findings!to!date!have!shown!a!distinct!change!in!behaviours!since!the!gamification!
introduction.!When!the!gamification!is!in!play,!timesheets!and!cleanliness!increase!
significantly.!One!of!the!most!significant!changes!in!behaviour!and!culture!is!the!active!use!
of!the!company’s!knowledge!sharing!platform,!Bloomfire.!This!platform!is!important!for!
building!and!sharing!knowledge!and!intellectual!property.!Prior!to!the!gamification,!
employees!were!slow!to!take!up!the!use!of!this!new!platform,!and!finding!IP!and!examples!
of!work!was!difficult!and!relied!heavily!on!verbal!corporate!knowledge.!Sharing!and!
engaging!with!new!content!was!gamified,!and!the!platform!is!now!part!of!the!daily!activity!
of!employees,!used!in!the!company’s!offices!in!several!countries,!and!it!is!a!key!resource!
for!new!employees!as!part!of!the!induction!process.!The!number!of!weekly!uploads!and!
the!percentage!of!overall!engagement!(includes!reading,!commenting,!downloading)!is!
significantly!improved!from!less!than!20%!to!58%.!From!a!social!and!behavioural!
perspective,!this!practice!has!now!become!part!of!the!discourse!between!employees,!who!
now!use!the!name!of!the!platform!is!used!as!a!verb.!For!example,!if!an!employee!speaks!
about!a!useful!product!or!article,!another!employee!will!often!ask!‘Have!you!“bloomfired”!
it?’.!
While!this!study!is!ongoing,!it!demonstrates!the!potential!of!gamification!to!change!
behaviours!and!social!interactions.!This!is!for!administrative!tasks,!but!more!importantly,!
for!behaviours!such!as!creating,!sharing!and!engaging!with!new!knowledge.!The!emerging!
evidence!of!this!study!is!that!gamification!can!lead!to!expansive!learning!experiences!that!
meaningfully!change!behaviour.!!

V;.5%-"#'19-"6"#95"*/'
Developing!a!gamified!design!curriculum!can!be!viewed!as!a!design!activity,!because!it!
uses!design!thinking!principles!and!methods!to!create!improved!social!and!learning!
environments.!Like!design!thinking,!gamification!can!be!applied!to!a!range!of!contexts!and!
to!varying!levels!of!complexity.!Based!on!Richard!Buchanan’s!four!orders!of!design!
(Buchanan,!1992),!the!authors!present!the!Four!Orders!of!Gamification.!This!model!
provides!gamification!designers!with!a!framework!with!which!to!understand!the!type!and!
extent!of!the!gamification!they!are!intending!to!design.!!
!
Ascension!from!first!to!fourth!order!is!based!on!the!complexity!of!the!learning!behaviour!
being!gamified,!the!duration!of!gameplay,!and!the!integration!between!the!gamified!and!
real!world.!This!increasing!complexity!between!orders!also!requires!increased!
sophistication!in!the!gamification!design!and!mechanics.!Design!educators!can!use!this!
framework!to!construct!the!mechanics!and!dynamics!of!their!curriculum!based!on!the!
order!at!which!they!wish!to!gamify!learning.!!
The!criteria!for!each!order!is!based!on!the!following!categories.!!
• W+X%#5"7%:!The!behaviour!the!gamification!design!is!aiming!to!influence!and!
change,!including!the!complexity,!sociality!and!duration!over!time.!!
• U8,%.:!The!boundaries!and!challenges!for!the!behaviours,!ranging!from!simplicity!
and!immediacy!to!complexity!of!interaction!and!sustained!effort!required.!
• U%H9)&:!The!nature!of!the!feedback!to!players,!including!scores,!levelling,!
currency!and!prizes.!
• I/5%1)95"*/:!The!amount!of!integration!of!the!gamified!system!with!its!contexts,!
such!as!other!people,!other!systems,!and!real!world!consequences.!
!
First)order:)Playful)design)
• W+X%#5"7%:!Application!of!game-like!mechanics!to!attract!attention,!engage!and!
have!fun!for!a!brief!amount!of!time.!)
• U8,%.:!None!or!very!few.!!
• U%H9)&:!Immediate!and!limited!to!engagement!for!a!short!period!of!time.!
• I/5%1)95"*/:!There!is!limited!integration!or!effect.!!
Examples!include!visually!designed!objects,!such!as!augmented!reality!posters!and!visual!
design!that!uses!game!mechanics!to!engage!the!viewer.!The!reward!is!instant!and!limited!
to!being!engaged!sufficiently!to!attend!to!the!content!for!a!few!minutes.!Examples!include!
The!World’s!Deepest!Bin!and!Piano!Stairs.!
!
Second)order:)Basic)gamification)
• W+X%#5"7%:!!Use!of!gamification!mechanics!to!incentivise!and!reward!simple!real-
world!behaviours.!The!behaviours!targeted!are!relatively!simple!or!uni-
dimensional,!and!can!largely!be!done!individually,!with!social!interactions!such!
as!sharing!and!commenting.!
• U8,%.:!Focused!on!frequency!of!simple!behaviours,!such!as!completing!simple!
tasks.!
• U%H9)&:!Simple,!predominantly!in!the!form!of!points,!badges!and!leaderboards,!
and!some!form!of!virtual!or!real!reward.!!

!
• I/5%1)95"*/:!Some!level!of!integration!exists,!for!example,!ability!to!purchase!
items!outside!of!the!gamified!system,!and!connecting!on!other!platforms,!such!
as!social!media!sharing.!!
Examples!include)Nike+,!Chore!Wars!and!Zombies,!Run!encourage!real!life!activities!and!
behaviour!through!points,!badges,!leaderboards.!
)
Third)order:)Interactive)gamification)
• W+X%#5"7%:!!Change!or!generate!complex!behaviours!through!gamification,!
including!social!interactions!and!multi-faceted!tasks.!
• U8,%.:!Include!collaboration!with!others!and!tasks!that!require!cognitive!and!
emotional!effort,!such!as!knowledge!creation.!!
• U%H9)&:!Virtual!and!real!rewards,!as!well!as!significant!real-life!benefits,!such!as!
habits,!learning!and!building!relationships.!
• I/5%1)95"*/:!Integrated!with!other!systems!in!the!environment!that!impact!the!
user’s!real!world!experience!outside!of!the!gamified!world.!!
Examples!of!ongoing!gamified!experiences!that!address!complex!behaviour!is!limited.!
SuperBetter!is!one!example,!which!creates!healthy!habits!by!helping!individuals!to!self-
reflect!and!identity!key!behaviours!they!want!to!engage!in!on!a!regular!basis.!!!!
)
Fourth)order:)Systemic)gamification)
• W+X%#5"7%:!!Change!and!create!complex!behaviour!patterns!that!involve!multiple!
interactions!with!others!and!the!environment!in!which!the!gamification!is!
situated.!
• U8,%.:!Emphasize!challenging!behaviors!and!working!with!others!to!complete!
difficult!tasks!that!take!weeks,!months!and!years!to!complete.!
• U%H9)&:!Extend!to!real-world!rewards!with!significant!impact!on!the!individual.!!
• I/5%1)95"*/:!Substantially!or!fully!integrated!with!the!environment.!
Examples!here!are!also!rare.!The!Kingsley!and!Grabner-Hagen!(2015)!gamified!curriculum!
presented!earlier,!exemplifies!fourth!order!gamification!because!it!replaced!the!traditional!
school!curriculum!with!a!gamified!world.!Instead!of!grades,!exams!and!teacher-directed!
lessons,!students!completed!learning!quests,!collaborated!and!learned!from!others,!and!
levelled!up!based!on!reaching!self-driven!competency!attainment.!As!the!field!of!
gamification!progresses!and!matures,!systemic!gamification!will!become!more!
commonplace!for!education,!career!pathways!in!workplaces!and!more.!!
!
Fourth!order!gamification!requires!an!understanding!and!embracing!of!learning!
environments!as!activity-!and!artefact-mediated!ecosystems.!It!requires!gamification!
designers!to!understand!the!complex!behaviour!patterns!and!interactions!of!the!students!
in!this!ecosystem.!The!mechanics!should!be!focused!on!higher!order!behaviours!and!how!
these!change!over!time,!i.e.!months!and!years.!The!mechanics!and!rewards!should!be!
integrated!substantially!or!fully!with!the!environment,!with!rewards!extending!to!the!real-
world!and!significantly!impacting!on!the!individual’s!learning!and!growth.!It!is!in!fourth!

order!gamification!design!that!meaningful!and!transformative!learning!experiences!can!
occur.!!
CHAT!provides!the!means!which!with!to!understand!and!visualise!fourth!order!or!systemic!
gamification.!A!fully!integrated!gamification!design!is!one!in!which!all!interactions!in!the!
system!are!gamified.!Gamification!therefore!changes!the!activity!system!by!changing!the!
interaction!between!the!elements!in!that!system.!For!example,!in!a!non-gamified!learning!
system!the!exchange!between!the!student!(subject)!and!her!peers!(community)!can!occur!
naturally!through!conversation!and!individual!motivation!to!interact!and!collaborate.!In!a!
gamified!learning!system!that!encourages!and!rewards!collaboration,!the!exchange!can!
occur!more!frequently,!with!more!deliberation,!and!with!more!individuals!as!they!are!all!
rewarded,!say!through!points!or!progression!towards!a!collective!goal!or!‘mission’.!!
Using!the!CHAT!triangle!throughout!the!gamification!design!process!allows!design!
educators!to!map!the!learning!experience!and!interactions;!initially!to!understand!the!
uniqueness!of!the!context,!then!to!design!the!gamified!system!to!target!the!interactions,!
and!finally,!to!measure!the!changes!in!learning!behaviours!and!outcomes!through!changes!
in!the!interactions.!Figure!2!shows!the!blue!activity!system!overlaid!with!the!orange!
gamified!interactions,!and!how!a!fully!integrated!gamification!design!interacts!with!and!
changes!all!dynamics!within!the!system!to!achieve!both!a!learning!and!a!game!outcome.!
!
!
R"18)%'E'R*8)53'*)&%)'19-"6"#95"*/'9.'8/&%).5**&'53)*813'S8,58)9,QT".5*)"#9,'M#5"7"5;'23%*);''
!
Mediating
artefacts
Platforms, real w orld
tools and objects,
mechanics
Community
Other players
and teams
Division of la bour
Game roles
Rul es
Game
mechanics
Subject
Player Object
Win state
Sense
meaning Outcome
Produ ction
Consu mp tion
Outcome

!
()"/#"4,%.'9/&'19-"6"#95"*/'-%#39/"#.'6*)'%<49/."7%',%9)/"/1'
Systemic!gamification!design!requires!a!deliberate!and!careful!selection!of!gamification!
mechanics!to!produce!a!meaningful!and!expansive!learning!experience!for!design!
students.!The!mechanics!and!dynamics!selected!need!to!promote!goal-orientated!activity!
for!individuals!in!the!learning!system,!and!work!together!to!provide!a!holistic!learning!
experience!that!achieves!learning!objectives.!The!game!components!that!require!
consideration!include!content!and!skills,!mechanics,!visual!aesthetic!design,!narrative!
design,!incentive!system,!and!musical!score,!if!required (Plass,!Home!and!Kinzer,!2015).!
Principles!and!mechanics!to!achieve!expansive!learning!in!systemic!gamification!can!be!
defined!into!four!categories.!
Situatedness
The!foremost!requirement!for!systemic!gamification!is!that!the!curriculum!be!relevant!for!
the!uniqueness!of!the!learning!environment!or!activity!system!as!defined!by!CHAT!
(Engeström,!2010).!This!socio-cultural!placement!of!the!gamified!learning!increases!
relevance!and!meaning!for!the!students!(Plass,!2015).!In!their!meta-analysis!on!effective!
game-based!learning,!Crocco!et!al!(2016)!found!deep!learning!occurred!when!learning!
outcomes!and!game!objectives!and!mechanics!were!aligned.!The!CHAT!and!design-based!
research!methodology!(Barab!&!Squire,!2009;!Yamagata-Lynch,!2007)!provides!educators!
with!the!approach!and!tools!to!understand!the!learning!context!and!design!a!gamified!
curriculum!that!aligns!with!it.!This!includes!selecting!content,!narrative,!incentive!and!
visual!design!that!aligns!the!learner’s!values,!desires!and!motivations.!!
Adaptivity)
Plass!et!al!(2015)!state!that!adaptivity!is!the:!
K#949+","5;'*6'53%'19-%'5*'%/191%'%9#3',%9)/%)'"/'9'H9;'5395')%6,%#5.'3".'*)'
3%)'.4%#"6"#'."5895"*/='23".'#9/'+%')%,95%&'5*'53%',%9)/%).N'#8))%/5',%7%,'*6'
$/*H,%&1%:'5*'#*1/"5"7%'9+","5"%.:'5*'53%',%9)/%).N'%-*5"*/.:'*)'5*'9')9/1%'*6'
*53%)'79)"9+,%.=L'Y'491%'EZ[!
This!principle!is!critical!to!ensure!a!learner-driven!experience!and!is!supported!by!the!self-
determination!theory!need!for!autonomy!(Conway,!2014).!Allowing!design!students!to!
choose!their!own!content,!difficulty!level,!customise!an!avatar!and!select!rewards!are!
beneficial!mechanics!to!engage!and!allow!organic!interaction!in!the!learning!system.!!
Socio-cultural)interactions)
The!social!interaction!between!learners!during!the!learning!process!has!been!found!to!
increase!retention!of!knowledge!(Plass,!Homer!&!Kinzer,!2015).!Encouraging!discussion,!
collaboration,!seeking!and!giving!help!in!the!gamified!learning!context!enhances!learner’s!
affective,!cognitive,!behavioural!and!sociocultural!engagement!(Plass,!Homer!&!Kinzer,!
2015).!Mechanics!include!social!sharing,!team!quests,!and!gifting!between!design!
students.!!
Meaning)
Successful!systemic!gamification!requires!a!strong!narrative!and!for!the!content!to!be!
reinforced!through!the!mechanics!and!dynamics.!The!content!needs!to!be!integrated!with!
the!narrative!and!the!learning!outcome!(Crocco,!Offenholley!&!Hernandez,!2016).!

Mechanics!include!a!narrative!and!visual!design!that!reinforce!the!content!being!learned,!
including!badges!and!rewards!that!relate!to!the!learning!and!level!of!the!player.!!
The)gamification)design)process))
Design!educators!need!to!employ!these!principles!and!mechanics!when!designing!fourth!
order!systemic!gamified!curricula.!A!process!and!methodology!is!needed!to!embrace!the!
complexities!of!the!learning!context!and!use!them!in!gamification!design!for!expansive!
learning!outcomes.!!Gamification!is!in!essence!the!design!of!an!experience,!using!game!
mechanics!and!other!game!elements!to!elicit!particular!behaviours.!It!therefore!employs!
principles!and!tools!used!by!experience!designers.!These!include!a!user-focus,!design!
based!research!and!user!ethnography,!immersion!in!the!context,!prototyping!and!working!
iteratively.!
The!Gamification!Design!System!presented!by!the!authors!here!takes!inspiration!from!the!
five!phases!in!the!ThinkPlace!Design!System!and!is!adapted!for!the!specifics!needed!for!
gamification!design!(ThinkPlace,!2016).!It!is!an!early!prototype!of!a!gamification!
methodology!being!developed!as!part!of!the!aforementioned!study.!!
!
!
R"18)%'\'J9-"6"#95"*/'0%."1/'V;.5%-''
The!Gamification!Design!System!takes!a!five-phased!approach!to!the!gamification!
challenge.!The!process!is!characterised!by!a!transition!from!divergent!to!convergent!
thinking,!beginning!with!exploration!of!alternatives!and!asking!questions,!and!converting!
to!critical!thinking!and!choosing!between!alternatives!to!arrive!at!the!final!design!
(Guilford,!1967).!!
• Phase)1)Intent!is!about!defining!the!desired!future!state!for!the!behavioural!and!
cultural!change,!and!how!this!aligns!with!the!learning!and!educational!
objectives.!
• Phase)2)Explore!clarifies!the!target!learning!behaviours!and!activities!being!
gamified!through!design-based!research!and!capturing!the!current!cultural-
historical!activity!system.!

!
• Phase)3)Make-Test-Learn!takes!Lean!Start!Up!Methodology!(Ries,!2011)!
approach!to!creating!a!concept!for!the!gamified!solution,!including!choosing!the!
best!gamification!mechanics,!dynamics!and!components!to!reward!the!target!
learning!behaviours.!This!involves!mapping!the!gamification!CHAT!triangle,!and!
iterating!the!design!as!using!immersive!and!iterative!design-based!research!
methods,!as!well!as!usability!and!play-testing.!
• Phase)4)Launch!includes!preparing!the!students!for!the!introduction!of!
gamification,!and!building!engagement!and!excitement.!!
• Phase)5)Evolve)is!about!monitoring!and!evaluating!the!gamification!solution!for!
effectiveness!and!experience.!Depending!on!the!scope!and!duration!of!the!
gamification,!it!can!also!include!introducing!new!features.!!
!
M'.591%&'4)*#%..'6*)'53%'19-"6"#95"*/'*6'%<49/."7%'&%."1/'%&8#95"*/'
The!gamification!design!process!is!staged!and!question-driven,!and!supported!by!various!
design-based!and!CHAT-based!research!methods!and!techniques!not!presented!here.!The!
following!process!is!an!early!version!of!a!larger!piece!of!work!currently!being!undertaken.!!
The!Intent!phase!encompasses!key!questions!about!the!objective!and!learning!outcomes!
of!the!curriculum.!
• What!are!the!learning!outcomes!for!the!design!students?!What!knowledge,!skills!
and!experience!are!required?!
• What!learning!barriers!and!challenges!exist!in!the!current!design!curriculum!that!
we!want!to!address?!
• What!are!the!success!criteria!for!the!gamified!curriculum?!!
!
Phase!2!Explore!uses!design-based!research!to!understand!the!students!and!the!
uniqueness!of!their!particular!learning!context.!The!context!is!visualised!using!the!CHAT!
triangle!to!make!visible!the!unique!interactions!and!design!variables!of!this!environment.!!
• Who!are!our!users,!including!demographics,!player!type,!engagement!
preferences?!
• Which!learning!or!design!behaviours!is!the!gamification!targeting!and!why?!
• What!order!of!gamification!are!we!aiming?!For!example,!a!simple!gamified!design!
of!content!or!an!integrated!and!transformed!gamification!curriculum?!
• What!challenges!or!constraints!are!we!designing!within!in!this!particular!learning!
context?!Which!cultural!or!multi-cultural!aspects!do!we!need!to!consider?!
!
Phase!3!Make-Test-Learn!is!an!iterative!phase!of!hypothesis-driven!prototyping!and!
testing.!The!gamification!mechanics!and!dynamics!are!prototyped!at!increasing!levels!of!
fidelity.!!
• Which!CHAT!interactions!is!our!gamified!design!targeting,!and!how?!
• Which!mechanics,!dynamics!and!components!will!be!used!to!achieve!the!desired!
student!behaviours?!
• What!narrative,!visual!and!incentive!design!will!resonate!most!with!these!design!
students?!

• Which!are!core,!important!and!peripheral?!(musts,!coulds,!shoulds)!
• How!will!players!be!onboarded!and!learning!scaffolded?!
• What!are!the!feedback!channels!and!what!will!be!measured!to!understand!
effectiveness?!
• Which!behaviours!are!being!more/less!enacted?!Are!there!any!parts!being!
‘gamed’?!
• If!fourth!order!gamification,!how!well!are!the!principles!of!situatedness,!
adaptivity,!socio-cultural!interactions!and!meaning!being!applied?!
Phase!4!Launch!occurs!once!the!gamification!design!has!been!converged!on,!and!focuses!
on!preparing!design!students!for!the!change!in!their!learning!experience.!!
• How!will!the!in-real-life!(IRL)!benefits!be!communicated!to!design!students?!
• What!support!is!required!by!the!teacher!in!delivering!the!gamified!curriculum?!
• Who!else!needs!to!be!engaged!and!involved!during!the!gamified!experience?!
!
The!final!phase!Evolve!is!about!monitoring!and!evaluating!the!effectiveness!of!the!
gamification!intervention!in!achieving!the!design!learning!outcomes.!
• How!has!the!gamified!curriculum!changed!the!learning!experience!in!
comparison!to!the!traditional!curriculum?!
• Using!the!CHAT!triangle!method,!which!behaviours!and!interactions!changed!
and!how?!
• If!continuing!the!gamified!curriculum!over!a!long!period!of!time,!which!new!
behaviours!and!activities!should!be!added!and!when?!
Conclusion))
Gamification!offers!an!innovative!approach!to!creating!expansive!learning!experiences!for!
the!next!generation!of!designers.!Design!educators!using!gamification!face!several!
challenges!when!developing!a!gamified!curriculum,!chiefly,!how!to!create!meaningful!
experiences!that!go!beyond!basic!game!mechanics!and!results!in!deep!learning.!Taking!an!
expansive!and!cultural-historical!activity!system!view!of!learning!provides!design!
educators!with!a!framework!with!which!to!understand!and!create!for!engaging!learning!
experiences.!This!systemic!gamification!requires!a!deliberate!design!approach,!which!is!
presented!at!a!high!level!here.!The!gamification!design!process!introduced!in!this!paper!
requires!further!development!and!refinement,!including!the!integration!of!theoretical!
frameworks!and!practical!tools.!These!frameworks!and!tools!also!require!application!to!
various!contexts!in!order!to!provide!evidence!and!evaluate!its!effectiveness.!While!
gamification!for!education!is!still!nascent,!it!holds!promise!for!design!educators!to!provide!
an!expansive!and!contextually-relevant!learning!experience!for!tomorrow’s!designers.!!!
!
!
!
!)

!
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!
!
About!the!Authors:!

!
Kerstin)Oberprieler!is!a!user-centred!designer!for!ThinkPlace,!
lead!gamification!designer!for!PentaQuest,!and!studying!her!
Masters!by!research!at!the!University!of!Canberra,!Australia.!
Her!focus!is!on!applying!gamification!to!complex!and!social!
environments!to!create!meaningful!change.!!
Associate)Professor)Simon)Leonard’s!work!is!on!learning!
sciences!and!education!policy,!focusing!on!scalable!and!
sustainable!implementation!of!innovation.!Roles!include!
‘Educator!in!Residence’!at!Questacon,!Head!of!Teacher!
Education!at!the!University!of!Canberra,!and!Associate!Head!
of!the!INSPIRE!Centre!for!Innovation!in!Education!and!
Training.!!
Professor)Robert)Fitzgerald!leads!the!INSPIRE!Centre!for!
Innovation!in!Education!and!Training!at!the!University!of!
Canberra.!!Robert’s!current!work!brings!together!design!
thinking,!educational!design!research!and!technology!
enhanced!active!learning!to!addressing!problems!of!practice!
in!diverse!settings.!
!
!
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intrinsic!motivations!in!adolescents.!In.!
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()*+,%-Q+9.%&'a%9)/"/1:'G(2),!95-112.!!
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Oberprieler,!K.!A.,!&!Leonard,!S.!(2015).!4=4C'd-9)1"/_'[=[4<'[=[4<'[=[4<'[=[4<e'6*/5_'
CE=[4<'f2"-%.'>%H'U*-9/fe'-"/Q3%"135_'CG=[4<g'
4=4E'd-9)1"/_'[=[4<'[=[4<'[=[4<'[=[4<e'6*/5_'Cb=[4<'f2"-%.'>%H'U*-9/fg'
.49/=.C'd6*/5_'CE=[4<'f2"-%.'>%H'U*-9/fg'
'
'
'
M'-*&%,'6*)'8."/1'9#5"7"5;'53%*);'"/'%&8#95"*/'&%."1/_'9'19-"6"#95"*/'%<9-4,%.!Paper!
presented!at!the!Australian!Association!for!Research!in!Education,!Perth,!Australia.!!
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Activity!Theory!In!(Vol.!77,!pp.!186-232):!Review!of!Educational!Research.!
Rueschemeyer,!S.-A.!L.,!Oliver!van!Elk,!Michiel,!&!Bekkering,!H.!(2009).!Embodied!
cognition:!The!interplay!between!automatic!resonance!and!selection-for-action!
mechanisms.!In!(Vol.!39,!pp.!1180-1187):!European!Journal!of!Social!Psychology.!
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!