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PRZEGLĄD ELEKTROTECHNICZNY, ISSN 0033-2097, R. 93 NR 5/2017 67
Andrzej ŁEBKOWSKI
Gdynia Maritime University, Department of Ship Automation
doi:10.15199/48.2017.05.13
Temperature, Overcharge and Short-Circuit Studies of Batteries
used in Electric Vehicles
Streszczenie. W pracy przedstawiono wyniki badań temperaturowych oraz zwarciowych dla najczęściej stosowanych typów akumulatorów w
pojazdach elektrycznych. W oparciu o przeprowadzone badania, przedstawiono przebiegi zmian rezystancji wewnętrznej akumulatorów kwasowych
oraz litowych w zależności od temperatury. Na podstawie przeprowadzonych badań zwarciowych wybranych typów akumulatorów litowych
stosowanych w pojazdach z napędem elektrycznym, dokonano oceny możliwości pojawienia się pożaru.
Abstract. The paper presents the results of temperature and short-circuit research of battery types most commonly used in electric vehicles. Basing
on performed tests, the plots of changing internal resistance of lead-acid and lithium batteries are shown. On the basis of conducted short-circuit
experiments of selected lithium based batteries of types used in electric vehicles, the risk of fire occurrence is made. (Badania termiczne,
przeładowania oraz zwarciowe akumulatorów stosowanych w pojazdach elektrycznych).
Słowa kluczowe: pojazdy elektryczne, akumulatory litowe, właściwości termiczne i zwarciowe, rezystancja wewnętrzna.
Keywords: electric vehicles (EV), lithium batteries (Li-Ion, LiFePO4, LTO), thermal & short-circuit behavior, internal resistance.
Introduction
The problem of properties of batteries powering the
electric powertrains in vehicles is a topic of many academic
papers. The vehicles manufacturers are offering their
products with many battery types, beginning from the
cheapest Lead-Acid (Pb-A), through nickel based batteries
(Ni-Fe, Ni-Zn, Ni-Cd, Ni-MH), lithium based (Li-Ion, LiTiO,
LiCoO, Li-MnO2 LiMn2O4, LiFePO4, LiSO2, Li-SOCl2, LTO),
up to the newest, state of the art graphene polymer
batteries.
The engineers are trying to optimize the performance of
traction batteries in order to maximize the vehicle’s
functionality (largest possible usable volume inside the
vehicle, high range) while minimizing the manufacture costs
and maximizing the battery lifetime.
The newly incoming battery types are characterized by
having few times more energy density (ca. 1000 Wh/kg [1])
than batteries used by now, and promise to revolutionize
the automotive market. The wave of electric vehicle battery
technology progress [2,3] is as of now passing through the
biggest research centers in the world. This progress is
causing some governments to consider future halting of the
possibility of registration of new, internal combustion
powered cars. Projects of such bans effective from 2025
are discussed in the Netherlands [4], and from 2030 in the
Germany [5]. These changes make one wonder, whether
the chemical batteries are a safe energy storage medium?
The contemporary traction battery types can supply the
energy at the rate of 30-fold time their rated capacity (30C),
with a charging rate of 5C, where C is the capacity of the
battery in [Ah]. The newly designed battery types offer even
higher performance levels, with discharge on the order of
100C [6,7]. The available battery types caused the available
car types to divide into segments, such as: small electric
cars with a range of 150 to 200 km, middle class cars with
range between 200 and 400 km, luxury cars with range in
excess of 400 km, utility vans (100-200 km), cargo trucks
(1200-1900 km) and urban area busses (100 to 500 km).
The introduction of new generation of graphene-polymer
batteries can blur the existing boundaries, due to the great
reduction of mass to energy capacity ratio.
The article presents the results of research on currently
used energy storage device types, which are deployed in
electric vehicles. The testing included following batteries:
prismatic type LiFePO4 with 160 Ah capacity (energy
density of 95 Wh/kg, Fig. 1-1), : prismatic type LiFePO4 with
60Ah capacity (energy density of 85 Wh/kg, Fig. 1-1),
caseless LiFePO4 with 20 Ah capacity (125 Wh/kg, Fig. 1-
2), LiFePO4 with 8 Ah capacity (energy density of 100
Wh/kg, Fig.1-3), Li-PO with 1000 mAh capacity (110 Wh/kg,
Fig. 1-4), Li-Ion with 2200 mAh capacity (energy density
of 160 Wh/kg, Fig. 1-5) and a lithium-thionyl chloride (Li-
SOCl2) primary cell with 13 Ah capacity (470 Wh/kg,
Fig. 1-6). For comparison, the tests also included a Lead-
Acid battery with 150 Ah capacity and energy density
of 50 Wh/kg (Fig. 1-7).
Fig.1. View of tested batteries: LiFePO4 160Ah and 60Ah (1),
LiFePO4 20Ah (2), LiFePO4 8Ah (3), Li-PO 1000mAh (4), Li-Ion
2200 mAh (5), Li-SOCl2 13 Ah (6),
Due to the environmental conditions in which the
batteries are normally used and their operation mode
(charge – discharge), four tests were performed: chilled
battery, heated battery, overcharged battery and short-
circuit.
Table 1 contains the basic parameters of the batteries
used in electric vehicles.
Table 1. EV traction battery parameters [6,7]
Type
Energy
density
[Wh/kg]
No of
cycles
[SOH
80%]
Charge /
Discharge
current
[C]
Working
Temp.
[°C]
Nominal
Voltage
[V]
Lead-Acid 35÷50 600 0,1 / 2 -20÷40 2,1
Ni-Cd 50÷80 500 1 / 15 -20÷50 1,2
Ni-MH 50÷100 800 1 / 5 -20÷50 1,2
Na-NiCl2 90÷110 1 500 1 / 2 245÷350 2,6
LiFePO4 90÷120 3 000 5 / 30 -20÷60 3,2
Li-PO 130÷220 500 2 / 25 -20÷60 3,7
Li-ION 160÷200 1 000 5 / 30 -20÷50 3,6
LTO 70÷80 20 000 5 / 20 -25÷55 2,4
Graphene
- polymer 1000 8000 100 / 100 -20÷60 2,3
68 PRZEGLĄD ELEKTROTECHNICZNY, ISSN 0033-2097, R. 93 NR 5/2017
The battery working temperature refers mostly to the
operational mode in which the energy is taken from the
battery. Most of the batteries including Li-Ion cannot be
charged when their temperature is lower than 0°C (32°F).
The stated number of cycles coincides with battery State of
Health (SOH) reaching the level of 80%. Most battery
manufacturers recommend replacing the battery when SOH
drops below that value, it does not mean, however, that the
battery will cease to work afterwards. Everything depends
on conditions in which the particular vehicle were operated.
For instance, if a newly manufactured vehicle could achieve
a range of 150km on one charge, that vehicle will have a
range of 120km at SOH of 80% (≥3000 charge-discharge
cycles), 105km at SOH of 70% (≥5000 charge-discharge
cycles), 90km at SOH of 60% (≥7000 cycles). Assuming
250 working days per one year, the SOH level of 80%
corresponds to 12 years of battery operation, SOH 70% -
20 years, SOH 60% - 28 years, SOH 50% - 36 years. The
situation is different in case of Li-Ion batteries, when SOH of
80% is reached after 4 years of operation, SOH 70% - 6
years, SOH 60% - 8 years, SOH 50% - 10 years. During the
research, the batteries were tested when exposed to low
temperatures and short-circuit conditions. No tests of
battery heating and overcharge were performed.
External Cooling
One of the important properties of any electric vehicle
battery is its capacity to supply energy in low temperature
conditions. Many thermal models of batteries are available
[8-18], but the described behavior does not exactly
correspond to real battery parameters, especially for
temperatures below 0°C (32°F). These parameters are the
cause of most electric vehicles poor performance,
especially reduction in range, when the ambient
temperature drops below 0°C (32°F). This phenomena is
caused by internal battery electrochemical reactions
performance being highly dependent on the temperature.
The drop in effective battery capacity can span, depending
on the battery type, from 8 to 25% each time the
temperature drops by 10°C (18°F) in relation to reference
temperature of 20°C (68°F). When discharged at too low
temperature, the battery can be irreversibly damaged by
permanent changes in its internal structure, resulting in
large drop of SOH value or even a total failure of a battery.
There are measures available, which can prevent these
problems from arising, in the form of battery heating
systems. Unfortunately, only a small group of
manufacturers is installing these conditioning systems in
their products, and then, only for vehicles destined for
operation in northern parts of Europe and North America.
There are several possible methods to employ in the
battery conditioning systems, in order to maintain the
temperature in the preset operating area. One of the
methods is to power individual battery cells with an
alternating current at high frequency [19], which increases
the internal cell temperature.
The other solution is a liquid conditioning system which,
depending on the ambient temperature, can either cool
down or heat up the battery. Another way is to harness the
air conditioning system of the vehicle in which the battery is
installed. This design uses a part of the air conditioning unit
to cool or heat the battery (heating is accomplished by a
parking heating system e.g. a Webasto) [20].
Finally, there are battery conditioning systems using
specially crafted battery boxes, containing heating mats
placed at sides and bottom of the box [21]. The heating
system is powered either by energy stored in the battery
itself, or from mains supply, when the vehicle is connected
for the duration of charging and standby. It can be argued,
that using extra energy for raising the battery temperature
increases the vehicle operation costs, but keeping in mind,
that the maintaining higher (proper) battery temperature
increases its life, as well as the vehicle range, these steps
seem well justified. An exception from this rule, are the
vehicles using the molten salt batteries, which to operate,
require a high temperature of 245÷350°C (473÷662°F), at
power consumption on the average level of 70÷90W,
supplied at all times.
Fig.2. Dependence of internal resistance versus temperature for a
LiFePO4 battery, 160Ah – load of 1C
Fig.3. Dependence of internal resistance versus temperature for a
LiFePO4, 60Ah – load of 1C
Fig.4. Dependence of internal resistance versus temperature for a
LiFePO4, 20Ah (caseless) – load of 1C
Fig.5. Dependence of internal resistance versus temperature for a
LiFePO4, 8Ah – load of 1C
PRZEGLĄD ELEKTROTECHNICZNY, ISSN 0033-2097, R. 93 NR 5/2017 69
Fig.6. Dependence of internal resistance versus temperature for a
Li-PO, 1000mAh – load of 1C,
Fig.7. Dependence of internal resistance versus temperature for a
Li-Ion, 2200mAh – load of 1C
Fig.8. Dependence of internal resistance versus temperature for a
Lead-Acid battery, 150Ah – load of 1C
Fig.9. Dependence of internal resistance versus temperature for a
Lead-Acid battery, 4Ah – load of 1C
During testing, the batteries under test were placed in
the climate chamber, which could hold a preset temperature
in the range of -30°C÷55°C (-22°F÷131°F). Preceding the
testing, the batteries were held in the climate chamber for a
period of at least 8 hours. The measurement of battery
internal resistance were conducted by the Electric Vehicle
Battery Tester [22]. Measurements were taken from the
minimal temperature of -30°C (-22°F), every 5°C (9°F), up
to the maximum temperature of °C (131°F). The results of
tests for most popular battery types is presented on Fig. 2 ÷
Fig. 9.
A set of internal resistance versus temperature plots for
tested batteries is presented in Fig. 10.
Fig.10. Dependence of internal resistance versus temperature for
lithium based batteries (LiFePO4, Li-PO, Li-Ion), and Lead-Acid
battery – load of 1C
External Heating
During operation of electric vehicle, it is possible, it will
happen in an extremely high ambient temperature
(40°÷50°C (104÷122°F)). Taking into consideration
additional heat input from internal heating due to high
battery circuit current (from e.g. fast charging, high vehicle
acceleration), the battery can overheat and become
damaged – its internal structure will be destroyed. Another
possible mode of failure is thermal runaway, caused by
temperature rise on the level of 10°C/minute or higher (Fig.
11). It is caused by an exothermic reaction occurring from
high temperature which releases large amount of energy in
a very short time. The runaway reaction usually results in
total loss of the battery, as well as swelling of the battery
enclosure from high internal pressure, or even violent
rupture of the enclosure associated with expulsion of boiling
electrolyte. To prevent the thermal runaway, cooling
systems based on liquid or air cooling (using air
conditioning system) are applied [20]. During the testing,
the batteries were heated at the rate of 10°C(18°F)/15
minutes [23,24].
Fig.11. Temperature development during external heating of Li-Ion
LiFePO4 and Li-PO batteries
Overcharge
The process of charging an electric vehicle’s battery is
an essential matter considered during engineering an
70 PRZEGLĄD ELEKTROTECHNICZNY, ISSN 0033-2097, R. 93 NR 5/2017
electric powertrain. Engineers working on the powertrain
should choose the correct battery type guaranteeing proper
vehicle reliability. Choice of the battery type results in
requirement of providing the battery with proper operating
conditions, such as: limiting the maximal level of shocks
and vibration, ensuring water-tightness by designing proper
battery enclosure and proper working temperature range by
applying a temperature conditioning system. Apart from
proper climatic conditions, the battery requires proper
charging and discharging parameters, compatible with its
requirements (Table 1). It is the purpose of supervisory
systems for charging and discharging usually called BMS
(Battery Management System), which operate together with
onboard and off-vehicle chargers (regular chargers, fast
chargers, contactless (induction) chargers, etc.) BMS
systems can be constructed as passive or active, active
systems have the capacity for controlling (balancing) the
voltage levels on individual battery cells. There exists
however, a possibility of malfunction of various system
components, of e.g. a charger, or a BMS, or a disruption of
data exchange between BMS and charger. Another
possible risk exists, which can be overlooked by vehicle
designers. When the vehicle is operating with fully charged
battery, and the regenerative braking is used, it could result
in damage to the battery from overcharging, by supplying a
large current to an already fully charged battery.
Fig.12. Overcharge of LiFePO4, Li-PO and Li-Ion batteries with
charge current of 2C
Overcharging a battery reveals in a rise in battery
temperature, its swelling due to vaporizing electrolyte or
even loss of containment and release of gases to outside
atmosphere (Fig. 12.). If the battery is not fitted with
adequate safeguards disconnecting circuit (PTC - Positive
Temperature Coefficient (temperature over 90°C (194°F));
CID - Current Interrupt Device (internal pressure over 1MPa
(145psi)); mechanical safety vent (pressure over 3MPa
(450psi))), which would sever the circuit in such case, there
is a possibility of battery fire or even explosion [23, 24] (Fig.
13).
Fig.13. View of Li-PO 1000mAh battery during overcharge test at
2C which ended with explosion and fire
Short Circuit
A very serious matter, from the point of safety of vehicle
occupants and other traffic users, is the behavior of the
vehicle’s battery when subjected to various possible short
circuit scenarios: short circuit in the main traction circuit,
short circuit from mechanical damage of the battery
(puncture, violent shock, crushing, vibration, etc.) and
external battery heating. Short circuits or general
overcurrent conditions in the main traction current can
cause rapid heating of the battery interior which would lead
to permanent damage to internal battery structure or to
spontaneous battery combustion. In case of battery being
heated, after reaching certain temperature there is a
possibility of creating a thermal runaway condition which
would lead to even quicker temperature rise and create a
fire and explosion risk. In everyday life, there are reports of
electronic devices (laptop computers, mobile phones,
tablets, electric cars, etc.) catching fire due to stressed
battery. In many of these cases, the battery itself was not
the direct reason of fire, rather the too thin wires connecting
the battery to energy consumers tend to overheat, and
ignite flames. In order to mitigate the cases when the
batteries become fire hazard from overloading or short
circuit, various protective devices are being applied in form
of protective thermal fuses, which interrupt flow of current
when they detect too high temperature.
Fig.14. The plot of current and temperature during short circuit of
LiFePO4 160Ah battery
Another danger of the safety of vehicle and its
passengers is the condition of electrical contacts (wire,
battery, inverter, motor, fuse and contactor terminals).
Loose or corroded terminals can lead to increased
resistance, localized heating and even a fire. There are
described cases of authorized vehicle service station
recommending replacement of whole battery unit, based on
computer diagnostic run which reported a failed battery.
Meanwhile a simple terminal cleaning job would suffice to
return that battery to operational status [25].
A yet different case exists when battery becomes
physically damaged as a result of vehicle collision. Then,
any thermal fuse fitted outside the battery would become
useless, and in case the battery enclosure is designed from
poor materials, the battery fire and/or explosion is likely.
The same type of batteries, as in internal resistance
test, were tested. The test was conducted by short circuiting
the battery terminals while recording the results of such
short circuit. The temperature and current levels were
registered, the results are presented on Fig. 14 ÷ Fig. 24.
PRZEGLĄD ELEKTROTECHNICZNY, ISSN 0033-2097, R. 93 NR 5/2017 71
Fig.15. The plot of current and temperature during short circuit of
LiFePO4 8Ah battery
The tested lithium iron phosphate batteries were judged
as very safe for operators. During the short circuit test the
LiFePO4 160Ah and 8Ah batteries have neither exploded
nor ignited, despite reaching high temperature and high
current values. The battery with 160Ah capacity has
endured the short circuit for 730 seconds with average
current value of 942A. A LiFePO4 160Ah battery should
supply a current of 3C in 900 seconds, while during the test
the recorded value indicated over 6C in almost 800
seconds. After 650 second mark, the battery safety vent
activated and released an intense stream of white colored
gas cloud from inside the battery (Fig. 14). It has to be
stated that vented gasses from a LiFePO4 battery are vary
noxious (they are literally boiling and decomposing
electrolyte). Apart from normally expected gasses created
during combustion of organic materials, such as CO2, CO,
H2, CH4, C2H4, C2H6, C3H6, C2H5F1 and others, other
toxic compounds like HF (hydrogen fluoride) and POF3
(phosphorous oxyfluoride) are present, derived from fluorine
used as lithium battery electrolyte [26].
Fig.16. View of LiFePO4 8Ah battery, after the short circuit test
The short circuit test of 8Ah battery went similar, with
one notable difference, when after 20 second mark a rapid
rise of case temperature was recorded, after 60 seconds
the enclosure began to swell and after 120 seconds the
vent opened (Fig. 15). Whole process of short circuit took
about 2 minutes with average current of 80A. During the
test, the battery achieved the maximal current value of
10.3C (while manufacturer allows 3C max.). The tested
LiFePO4 batteries demonstrated very good parameters
regarding the safety of operation. The neither exploded, nor
ignited and thus did not created a danger for human life and
health (Fig. 16). The plates of 160Ah LiFePO4 battery did
not ignite even when exposed to open flames (Fig. 17).
When operated in proper conditions, this type of battery can
be successfully used in electric vehicles for more than 10
years, while retaining their properties (Table 1).
Fig.17. An unsuccessful attempt of ignition of LiFePO4 battery plate
During test run of Li-PO battery, a rise in temperature
with an almost simultaneous swelling of battery case (Fig.
19) was observed after about 6s from the beginning of
terminal short. After about 14s the case seal was broken,
releasing vapors into surrounding atmosphere. Any further
activity ceased after 30s mark (Fig. 18). It is worth noticing,
that the Li-PO battery has shown a capability to supply an
enormous current of 102C (with manufacturer stated max.
of 25C) with only 1Ah total capacity. The battery did not
ignite or explode during this test.
Fig.18. The plot of current and temperature during short circuit of
Li-PO 1000mAh battery
Fig.19. View of Li-PO 1000mAh battery, after the short circuit test
Fig.20. The plot of current and temperature during short circuit of
Li-Ion 2200mAh battery
72 PRZEGLĄD ELEKTROTECHNICZNY, ISSN 0033-2097, R. 93 NR 5/2017
Fig.21. View of Li-Ion 2200mAh battery, after the short circuit test
During test run of Li-Ion battery, which is at the moment
the most common chemistry employed in electric vehicles,
a rise in temperature was noticed after 10 seconds from the
onset of short. After 32s mark the case swelling begun, and
4 seconds after that, a safety valve has opened along with a
slight emission of gasses and a squirt of electrolyte. The
duration of emission was very short (Fig. 20). During the
test, the average current achieved was 21C (4.5C max as
stated in the datasheet) for about 50 seconds, with nominal
battery capacity of 2.2 Ah. The battery did not ignite or
explode during this test (Fig. 21).
To compare the operational properties, a primary battery
using Li-SOCl2 chemistry and 13Ah capacity was also
tested. After 30 seconds from shorting of terminals, the
battery temperature began to rise. In the next 3 seconds the
case begun to swell, and after 52s from the start of the test,
the battery exploded and begun to violently emit fire
(Fig. 22, Fig. 23).
Fig.22. The plot of current and temperature during short circuit of
Li-SOCl2 13Ah battery
Fig.23. View of Li-SOCl2 13Ah battery, after the short circuit test
Fig.24. Plot of currents and temperatures during the short circuit
battery tests
Despite igniting and loosing containment, the battery
continued to supply current for next 15 seconds. During the
test, the batter was able to source current on the order of
3.9C, while the max. allowable discharge current is stated
as 0.14C. This test confirmed, that this battery type is
unsuitable for electric vehicles, due to real possibility of
explosion and fire emission during extreme stress.
Results
The conducted tests have proven, that:
• with dropping temperature, the battery internal resistance
rises, which limits the capacity to supply energy. Because of
this fact, the application of thermal conditioning systems
(heating and cooling) in electric vehicles is recommended,
both when the vehicle is moving and when it is stationary.
The battery temperature is crucial parameter, it is important
that the battery temperature should be 5°C or higher before
beginning of the vehicle operation,
• battery overheating can result in exothermic reaction and
possibly destroy the battery completely,
• battery overcharge can destroy its internal structure.
Assurance of proper BMS operation (balancing and
equalization) is of utmost importance,
• short circuit testing resulted in battery venting and release
of hot electrolyte. It has to be emphasized, that all tested
rechargeable batteries performed adequately, meaning that
none of them have ignited nor exploded. It proves that
currently produced batteries are high quality. Unfortunately,
a lot of data in the Internet contain reports of traction
batteries which exploded or ignited,
• state of charge (SOC) of the battery has impact on the
amount of heat emitted during the test. The more fully
charged a battery was, the more heat it emitted,
• in order to increase safety level for all battery types, a new
type of electrolyte could be designed, which during
conditions of overheat, overcharge or short circuit would not
emit any toxic compounds,
• correctly designed, batteries for electric vehicles should
have capacity to withstand: low and high ambient
temperature; overheating; short circuit conditions; high
pressure inside the casing; excessive charge and discharge
currents; low voltage due to greater than nominal depth of
discharge (DOD); over voltage resulting from overcharge;
shocks and impacts during collisions,
• following the proper operation procedures (maintaining
recommended temperature and voltage ranges) should
protect the user from nasty surprises while simultaneously
provide long and stress free battery life.
Author: dr inż. Andrzej Łebkowski, Akademia Morska w Gdyni,
Katedra Automatyki Okrętowej, ul. Morska 83, 81-225 Gdynia,
E-mail: andrzejl@am.gdynia.pl.
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