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Genetic Resource Policies in International Collaborative Research for Food and Agriculture: A Study of USAID-Funded Innovation Labs
Abstract
Reduction of global food insecurity depends upon the mobilization of genetic diversity for agricultural research and innovation. Yet increased regulation of genetic materials is profoundly affecting the way agricultural research is conducted, particularly international research that requires access to diverse germplasm. This study draws from an international survey of researchers in USAID Feed the Future Innovation Labs to understand how regulations affect access, exchange and use of genetic material within an international collaborative research environment. Although the effects of regulation depend on the research context – crop, sector, collaborative relationships, country and institutional source – transaction costs are increasing and researchers are changing strategies to access genetic material. The new regulatory environment is merging a traditional informal exchange system, perceived to be more open, with a more formal system that sets rules on access and use of genetic materials to address social, economic and environmental goals.
... Notably, the opinion diverges on bequest (Issue 1). Similar to most previous studies (Deplazes-Zemp, 2019;Deplazes-Zemp et al., 2018;Nijar et al., 2017;Rourke, 2018;Welch et al., 2017), the system may have a negative impact on research and development (Issue 5). However, it is worth noting that 20% of the participants answered that PIC can have a moderately positive impact on research and development. ...
... The negative impacts on research and development were repeatedly mentioned not only for developed countries but also for developing countries (Deplazes-Zemp, 2019;Deplazes-Zemp et al., 2018;Fusi et al., 2019;Martyniuk et al., 2017;Nijar et al., 2017;Rourke, 2018). For example, an NP can create barriers for international collaboration (Rourke, 2018;Welch et al., 2017) and discourage it, including raising concerns about losing opportunities for collaboration between the Global North and the biodiversity-rich countries in the Global South and explaining how this could worsen global injustice rather than mitigating it (Deplazes-Zemp et al., 2018). ...
... While the growing concern for the negative impacts on research and development has already been indicated in prior studies (Deplazes-Zemp, 2019;Deplazes-Zemp et al., 2018;Nijar et al., 2017;Rourke, 2018;Welch et al., 2017), this study further revealed the three paths through which the negative impacts on research and development further negatively affect bequest, that is, slackening the identification of important genetic resources and ecosystems to conserve, disincentivizing biodiversity conservation for genetic resource use, and dampening ex-situ conservation efforts. Furthermore, the relative importance of issues as a policy concern shows that policymakers must be particularly attentive to bequest and research and development to create a virtuous cycle. ...
This study attempted to predict the effectiveness of prior informed consent (PIC) as a mechanism under the Nagoya Protocol (NP) through the case of Japan, a developed country with a wealth of genetic biodiversity. The NP to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) aims at creating a virtuous cycle between biodiversity conservation and the utilization of genetic resources through fair and equitable benefit sharing. As PIC is a crucial component of the NP for promoting fair and equitable sharing, this study investigated whether introducing PIC creates a virtuous cycle. Considering the limitations of empirical data, this study adopted a policy Delphi comprising experts in an iterative group communication process that used consecutive questionnaires to reveal diverse issues as input for policymaking. We identified six related issues that were evaluated for the case of introduction and three for the case of no introduction of PIC. Their relative importance as a policy concern was measured through best–worst scaling to narrow down policy-relevant issues. This study revealed that contrary to the NP's intent, the overall contribution to the virtuous cycle is limited. In designing PIC mechanisms, policymakers must pay particular attention to bequest and research and development. This study identified three paths through which the negative impacts on research and development further negatively affect bequest, that is, slackening the identification of important genetic resources and ecosystems to conserve, disincentivizing biodiversity conservation for genetic resource use, and dampening ex-situ conservation efforts.
... These regulations address multiple issues including threats of bioterrorism, biopiracy, bioethics, conservation of biodiversity and intellectual property (Esquinas-Alcázar, 2005;Rosendal, 2006a, b;Ten Kate and Laird, 1999;Toledo and Burlingame, 2006). Although the various policies respond to important stakeholder demands, they have the potential to significantly alter the ways in which individual scientists engage in research and innovation by constraining or limiting the sharing of biological materials (Atlas, 2003;De Greef, 2004;Grajal, 1999;Jinnah and Jungcurt, 2009;Martinez and Biber-Klemm, 2010;Welch et al., 2013;Welch et al., 2017). ...
... Institutional fragmentation. Observers of the regulatory environment have noted that the exchange of research material has become increasingly difficult resulting in delays and stoppages of research (De Greef, 2004;Welch et al., 2017). The difficulty in obtaining materials is due in part to the fragmented, uncoordinated constituents that have legitimate stakes and authority to regulate biological materials (Greenwood et al., 2011, p. 337;Pache and Santos, 2013). ...
Academic scientists who access and use biological materials are embedded in an increasingly complex arrangement of conflicting scientific, commercial, regulatory and ethical institutional logics. This paper examines how scientists navigate and respond to these conflicting institutions. Using in-depth interviews with 40 academic scientists in four fields (marine biology, entomology, agricultural studies, ecology), we undertake a grounded theory approach to identify key categories of individual responses and the drivers of those responses. We find that scientists adopt one or more of five strategies in response to regulatory pressures: acquiescence, compromise, avoidance, defiance, and manipulation. We then leverage the institutional work literature to 1) propose a scientist response framework for understanding how individuals respond to competing logics and changing regulations and 2) demonstrate how individual cognition and effort by academic scientists reconciles (or not) conflicting institutions. We outline implications for policy and practice and conclude with a discussion of future research opportunities.
https://authors.elsevier.com/a/1ZdOg5Ce0rZiN3
... There have also been a number of delays in risk-assessment decisions (Adenle et al. 2018). The protocol is also felt to have made it more difficult to share genetic materials across borders, affecting what research can be carried out and how it can be carried out, (Welch et al. 2017). ...
... Since the adoption of the Protocol, there have also been issues related to the harmonisation of national biosafety regulations, with fragmentation of the policy environment increasing the complexity of conducting publically-funded agricultural research using genetic materials (Welch et al. 2017). The Protocol tries to balance the needs of individual countries to retain their national sovereignty, while at the same time attempting to establish harmonised global biosafety regulations in GMO trade (Jaffe 2005). ...
... Perhaps most concerning for nation-states wanting to directly benefit from ABS regulations, were the insights from a 2016 survey of 209 researchers involved in the US Agency for International Development (USAID) Feed the Future Innovation Laboratory Network, who were using genetic resources for food and agriculture research ). The majority of respondents from the US were accessing genetic resources from US university or government collections (53 percent) or existing personal collections (18 percent) ( Welch et al. 2017, fig. 1, 36). There was a different response distribution for non-US respondents, but they too were accessing most of their genetic resources from non-state sources, including more than a fifth from the collections of the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research ( Welch et al. 2017, fig. 1, 36). ...
... The majority of respondents from the US were accessing genetic resources from US university or government collections (53 percent) or existing personal collections (18 percent) ( Welch et al. 2017, fig. 1, 36). There was a different response distribution for non-US respondents, but they too were accessing most of their genetic resources from non-state sources, including more than a fifth from the collections of the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research ( Welch et al. 2017, fig. 1, 36). ...
Many scientists in the biological disciplines require access to genetic resources to conduct research. In 1992 the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) affirmed that genetic resources, previously deemed the ‘common heritage of humankind’, are in the sovereign domain of nation-states. In accordance with the CBD and its Nagoya Protocol, scientists who previously enjoyed relatively unfettered access to genetic resources must now enter into access and benefit-sharing (ABS) agreements with the providing nation to use their genetic resources. The overarching objective of ABS is to channel the benefits of research and development to provider nations and to encourage the conservation and sustainable use of genetic resources. Unfortunately, ABS has not delivered substantial benefits and has had the unintended consequence of impeding scientific research. This article addresses the barriers encountered by non-commercial research scientists who are likely to apply to use minute quantities of genetic resources. Scientists typically pose no existential threat to the genetic resources they wish to study, yet they are often expected to meet the same regulatory requirements as bioprospectors with commercial intent. There is growing evidence that, as a result, academic scientists are altering their research practices to accommodate or avoid ABS regulations. It is reasonable to expect that those who generate profits from research activities share those benefits with the nations providing essential genetic inputs. However, the international ABS regime as it is currently organized is inefficient at sharing benefits and discourages scientific research. It is time to consider more efficient models of benefit-sharing that reduce the legal barriers to accessing genetic resources for non-commercial research purposes.
http://www.sciencepolicyjournal.org/uploads/5/4/3/4/5434385/rourke.pdf
... In contrast, Walsh et al. (2007) suggested that material transfer agreements hinder access to biological material and restrict their use. More recently, Welch et al. (2017) reported that scientists perceive regulative institutions to reduce their ability to access biological material and conduct research. ...
... Respondents may over-or under-report the actual barriers resulting in some measurement bias. Nevertheless, perceived efficacy of obtaining material is an important determinant of scientists' behavior: those who register difficulty in accessing biological material are more likely to encounter higher costs to research, and are more likely to stop a research project or switch research topics (Welch et al. 2017). Additionally, while we consider both national regulation and regional and organizational constraints, we have limited information about the content of local, state and national regulation, organizational policies and the forms of regional collaboration. ...
In recent years, international and national policies have intensified monitoring and control over the access, exchange and use of biological materials. New regulative institutions addressing concerns about ownership and safety, as well as fairness and equity, are increasingly intermingled with informal practices and norms of exchange, raising the barriers to access that scientists face. Drawing from unique survey-based ego-centric network data collected from U.S. and non-US scientists engaged in international collaborative research at the USAID Feed the Future Innovation Labs, this paper investigates how regulative institutions, organizational and regional norms (meso-level institutions), and inter-personal networks facilitate or challenge access to biological materials for research. Our results show that while regulative institutions hinder access, meso-level institutions are important access facilitators in an international context. Network ties reduce the delays and blockages to access of biological material, but they do not eliminate them. 3
... Liu et al., 2023), China's industrial restructuring exhibits a pattern of de-agriculturalization while maintaining the basic stability of the proportion of manufacturing industry. When industrial rationalization is below a specific level, national laboratories promote agricultural productivity and the transfer of surplus rural labor (Welch et al., 2017), thus promoting regional specialization. After industrial rationalization reaches a certain value, under limited resources, an excessive pursuit of balanced allocation of production factors among industries leads to resource misallocation, appearing that national laboratories play an insignificant role (Andes et al., 2014). ...
With the domestic trend of value chains becoming increasingly apparent, innovation-driven growth is crucial for a higher position in various industries. This study analyzes the effect of building national laboratories on the national value chains’ position (the average propagation length) by employing an interregional input-output table of 42 industrial sectors in China’s 31 provinces and applying the fixed-effects model and the intermediary effect model. Empirical findings suggest that building national laboratories positively influences the national value chains’ position. Influence channels indicate that national laboratories advance national value chains via the innovation chain (i.e. innovative platforms, R&D investment, sci-tech achievements, and innovation performance). Industrial upgrading (industrial rationalization, industrial advancement, and industrial ecology) has the intermediary and threshold effect between national laboratories and the national value chains’ position. Lastly, the positive effect is higher in high-tech manufacturing, regions with more state key laboratories, forward linkages, southern regions, and better business environments.
... The adaptation of irrigation, managing scarce water resources through irrigation scheduling, and other crop-specific characteristics are essential for the production and productivity improvement of tomatoes, in addition to controlling the problem of recurrent drought and water scarcity. However, its response to irrigation level was different in different soil conditions, management and agro ecology [24]. Therefore, it is essential to determine the impact of irrigation level on tomato crop in the agroecology and soil condition of Jimma and similar agroecology. ...
Tomato ( Solanum Lycopersicum ) is a staple vegetable and important cash crop in Ethiopia. However, extreme weather events and recurrent droughts affected the yield and quality of tomatoes and their marketability. Irrigation can mitigate the negative impacts of drought in a water-scarce area. Since water is scarce, it needs effective management for water productivity improvement and sustainable production. Effective management of water could be attained by irrigation scheduling, i.e, giving the required amount of water at the right time (when and how much) for the crop. Therefore, the objective of the current study was to determine the optimal depletion level of tomato for irrigation scheduling to effectively manage irrigation in a control environment under a rain shelter. The experiment was conducted at the Jimma Agricultural Research Center on the tomato Galilama variety under a rain shelter. Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with three replications was used. Five treatments of different depletion levels were randomized in the plots. All agronomic and crop management practices were applied to all treatments in accordance with the recommendations made for the crop. Tomato yield and growth parameters data were recorded, and the treatments were compared based on yield and growth parameters using the SAS 9.2 software. The result reveals that, the plant height, biomass, and tomato yield were not affected statistically (p > 0.05) due to the depletion level of water under the rain shelter. However, the maximum plant height and maximum yield were recorded at 60% of the available soil moisture depletion level, and the maximum biomass was recorded at 120% of the available soil moisture depletion. The different levels of depletion significantly influenced the root length, biomass, and water productivity of tomatoes. The statistical analysis result showed that the maximum root length of 31.05 cm was recorded at a 120% available soil moisture depletion level (ASMDL4). The maximum agricultural water productivity was obtained at 60% available soil moisture depletion level (ASMDL1). It could be recommended that 60% of the available soil moisturedepletion level was the best for yield improvement, water productivity and water management under the rain shelter for tomato production.
... Por ejemplo, se plantea la posibilidad de que las agencias federales exploren alternativas para permitir el uso de créditos de compensación privada de carbono u otras formas de compensación de mercado para financiar proyectos de soluciones basadas en la naturaleza (Olander et al., 2022, p. 26). Adicionalmente, es un hecho que las regulaciones de Estados Unidos en materia de diversidad genética son favorables a la mercantilización, en línea con el régimen internacional (Linarelli, 2004;Welch et al., 2017) ...
Este artículo explora la protección jurídica de la biodiversidad a nivel internacional, europeo y estadounidense, con el fin de evaluar si los enfoques adoptados priorizan una verdadera restauración de la naturaleza o bien podrían seguir fomentando dinámicas de mercantilización de los recursos naturales. Así, se analiza el régimen de protección de la biodiversidad tanto en el ámbito del derecho internacional como en el de los marcos establecidos por el Pacto Verde Europeo (European Green Deal) y el Nuevo Pacto Verde de Estados Unidos (Green New Deal). Ello incluye un análisis, entre otros, de la Estrategia de la UE sobre Biodiversidad para 2030 y del Reglamento UE sobre la Restauración de la Naturaleza, así como de la Hoja de Ruta de Soluciones basadas en la Naturaleza y la Guía para la Evaluación de Cambios en Servicios Ambientales y Ecosistémicos en el Análisis de Costo-Beneficio de Estados Unidos. Los Pactos Verdes, aunque proponen la restauración de ecosistemas, combinan inversiones públicas con el incentivo de mercados verdes, reflejando una continuidad con el modelo económico de crecimiento expansivo actual. Para abordar la crisis climática y de biodiversidad de manera efectiva, los Pactos Verdes deberían comprometerse no solo a la disminución de las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero, sino también a la reducción de la extracción y el consumo de recursos naturales, a fin de asegurar la capacidad de la naturaleza para sostener la vida en el planeta.
... This is by far below the world average 34.84 ton/ha which is due to poor management practice in Ethiopia. The response of tomato crop to irrigation level was found to be different in different agro-climatic and soil conditions [14]. It is therefore imperative to test the performance of irrigation level in conjunction with mulch in Ambo condition that is characterized by different soil and climate. ...
Ethiopia produces far fewer tomatoes than the world average due to poor management techniques. It was found that the soil moisture and agroclimatic conditions affected how tomatoes reacted to water management during irrigation. In order to assess the impacts of irrigation level and mulch types on the yield, yield components, water productivity, and economic return of drip irrigated tomato production, a field experiment was carried out at the Ambo Agricultural Research Center Farm Site in 2021–2023. The experiment was a two-factor factorial experiment arranged in a randomized complete block design. The two factors were the four irrigation levels (55%ETc, 85%Etc, 70%ETc and 100%ETc) and three mulch types (no mulch, wheat straw mulch, and white plastic mulch). The two-year data on fruit yield, yield components, and water productivity were subjected to analysis of variance using SAS 9.4 software with a significance level (p≤ 0.05). least significant difference test was applied for statistically significant parameters to compare means among the treatments. The best soil moisture depletion levels, as determined by statistical analysis, are 100% ETc, 85% ETc, and 70% ETc, with marketable fruit yields of 56,405 kg/ha, 45,331 kg/ha, and 41,769 kg/ha, respectively. As for mulch types, the best practices are wheat straw mulch and white plastic mulch, with marketable fruit yields of 45,721 kg/ha and 44,514 kg/ha, respectively, for the study area. However, the results of the partial budget analysis results showed that, with net incomes for onion production in the research region of 1,350,930 ETB/ha and 1,367,071 ETB/ha, respectively, 85% ETc and wheat straw mulch are the economically optimal methods.
... International agreements focused on access and benefit sharing, like the Nagoya Protocol and discussions concerning digital sequence information, are being shown to dampen scientific and germplasm exchange, particularly for developing countries [10]. These agreements have tended to increase exchange costs and slow future gains in productivity. ...
... The 1993 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and particularly its third objective, fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources has resulted in a wide array of reactions from impacted sectors. These include commercial (Michiels et al. 2021) and non-commercial research (Rourke 2018), primary production agriculture for food (Commission on genetic resources for food and agriculture 2016; Welch et al. 2017) and medicine (Schindel et al. 2015), biodiversity and conservation (Neumann et al. 2018;Prathapan et al. 2018) and pest management using classical biological control. ...
The third objective of the Convention on Biological Diversity, the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the use of genetic resources was further developed when the Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit Sharing came into effect in 2014. Interpretation of how this agreement is being implemented is wide-ranging and there are implications for biological control. A survey of biological control workers indicated that while some countries have facilitated access to biological control genetic resources, requirements in other countries have impeded biological control implementation. There was consensus that benefits to provider countries should be in the form of supporting local research communities. There was also agreement that the free use and exchange of biological control genetic resources has provided benefits to the global community, including to both providers and recipients of the agents. It is recommended that consideration of the free use and exchange principal should be a key element of Access and Benefit Sharing measures for the future.
... As a result, the processes for gaining access and sharing the benefits from these resources have become increasingly complex. Welch et al. (2017) reported on a survey indicating that ABS regulations may be inhibiting the exchange of genetic resources since the NP, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA), and other such treaties entered into force. Two explanations were proposed: (1) that the increased complexity of the regulatory environment has created new barriers, and (2) difficulty in understanding and navigating regulations ultimately results in reduced access to material. ...
The USA has been actively involved in classical biological control projects against invasive insect pests and weeds since 1888. Classical (importation) biological control relies upon natural enemies associated through coevolution with their target species at their geographic origin to also provide long-term, self-sustaining management where the pest/weed has become invasive. Biological control agents are a form of genetic resources and fall under the purview of the 1993 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and its Nagoya Protocol (NP), which entered into force in 2014 to address equitable sharing of benefits arising from utilization of genetic resources. Safe and effective classical biological control agents have historically been shared among countries experiencing problems with invasive species. However, a feature of the Nagoya Protocol is that countries are expected to develop processes governing access to their genetic resources to ensure that the benefits are shared equitably—a concept referred to as “access and benefit sharing” (ABS). Although the USA is not party to the CBD nor the NP, US biological control programs are affected by these international agreements. Surveying, collecting, exporting and importing of natural enemies may be covered by new ABS regulatory processes. Challenges of ABS have arisen as various countries enact new regulations (or not) governing access to genetic resources, and the processes for gaining access and sharing the benefits from these resources have become increasingly complex. In the absence of an overarching national US policy, individual government agencies and institutions follow their own internal procedures. Biological control practitioners in the USA have been encouraged in recent years to observe best practices developed by the biological community for insect and weed biological control.
... Studies such as Welch et al. (2017) suggest that scientists-for example, plant breeders, molecular biologists, and geneticists-may bear the burden of the uncertainty and complexity in this changing landscape. Scientists may choose to limit the scope of their collaboration to only those colleagues who can effectively deal with regulatory requirements. ...
During the past two decades, a series of global policy changes affecting genetic resource conservation, use, and exchange have entered into force: the 2004 International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA), and more recently, the 2014 Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit Sharing (NP), a follow-on to the 1993 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). This paper characterizes the changing policy landscape governing international exchanges of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture (PGRFA). Emphasis is placed on understanding how global and national policy changes associated with the CBD and ITPGRFA are significantly associated with the movement of genetic resources to draw lessons about the potential effects of the NP. We examine crop-specific historical trends in genebank acquisitions, changes in germplasm exchange networks over time, and correlates of such exchanges for seven crops that are important to food security in many developing countries. We observe sharp declines in genebank acquisitions in 1993 (when the CBD came into effect) followed by reductions in germplasm exchange network sizes. These trends and patterns change after 2004 (when the ITPGRFA came into effect), but only for some crops. We also find that a country’s membership in the CBD is closely associated with reductions in genetic resource flows, while ITPGRFA membership has an opposite association. Despite important crop and country variations, results suggest the considerable influence of both the CBD and ITPGRFA, further suggesting that the NP may affect global PGRFA flows in a potentially negative and unintended manner.
... One survey of breeders working in national programs in developing countries conducted in 2008 through the national information sharing mechanism on Global Plan of Action implementation of the FAO (2010, see Fig. 1) found that the main sources are public organizations 1 from developing or developed countries followed by private sector and genebanks from the Consultative Group of International Agronomic Research Centers (CGIAR). This diversity of sources is supported by other studies that have shown similar levels of distribution (Welch et al., 2017). ...
... One survey of breeders working in national programs in developing countries conducted in 2008 through the national information sharing mechanism on Global Plan of Action implementation of the FAO (2010, see Fig. 1) found that the main sources are public organizations 1 from developing or developed countries followed by private sector and genebanks from the Consultative Group of International Agronomic Research Centers (CGIAR). This diversity of sources is supported by other studies that have shown similar levels of distribution (Welch et al., 2017). ...
Different norms, rules and practices (referred as institutions) organize the
exchange of germplasm to address broader global challenges such as
advancement of science and innovation, food security, sustainable agriculture
and global equity. Some of these institutions are now embedded in various
treaties and national regulations. This chapter demonstrates that these
regulations are not as successful as they could be because they only partially
integrate the complexity of the germplasm exchange environment. In order
to better understand how germplasm exchange could be improved, it is
important to go beyond the often-employed legalistic approach to examine
the social contexts in which exchange takes place.
Motivated by the foresight studies and scenario building using team learning and collaboration, this study explores the possibilities of applying Lego® Serious Play™ for framing different models of the future university based on collaboration among stakeholders in innovation laboratories. This paper draws on theoretical insights on scenario building and foresights techniques to re-imagine the future of higher education. Findings from the four workshops show a set of models of the future university. Representations focus on business models, open innovation, and delivery of on-demand learning in the digital era. The study concludes by outlining policy implications for education in GCC.KeywordsHigher educationForesightsEducation policySmart universityGCC
In this study, 54 soybean germplasms of different seed coat colors originated from America, China, Japan, and Korea were cultivated in Korea and analyzed for the contents of total oil, total protein, total phenolic, five fatty acids, and five isoflavones, and antioxidant activities using three assays. The soybeans showed significant variations (p < 0.05) of metabolite contents and antioxidant activities. Origin and seed coat color exhibited a slight or insignificant effect on total protein and total oil contents. In contrast, origin and seed coat color significantly affected the concentration of individual and total isoflavones, and total phenolics, with few exceptions. Whereas fatty acids were significantly affected by origin, seed coat color provided better information regarding the variations in antioxidant capacities. Together, multivariate and correlation analyses revealed important associations between biosynthetically-related metabolites. In general, origin and seed coat color differently influenced the concentration of different classes of metabolites and antioxidant activities.
This article explores the use of blockchain for agrobiodiversity (B4A) with a specific focus on (i) providing an overview of the existing regulatory challenges that result in sub-optimal research and innovation with agrobiodiversity conserved in situ, (ii) investigating how a blockchain-based solution may help overcome these challenges, and (iii) illustrating how incentive mechanisms can help to overcome shortcomings in existing intellectual property regimes that prevent effective conservation, research and innovation (CRI). Our research identifies (i) lack of channels for transparent and equitable sharing of know-how and materials (ii) lack of incentives, (iii) lack of trust among stakeholders, and (iv) lack of traceability options as main hindering reasons for in situ CRI with agrobiodiversity. Further, we find that blockchain solutions may empower data providers, including small farmers, to collectively track, control and monetize the use of data and assets shared while minimizing fraudulent activities. Transaction costs may also be lowered by removing complex and expensive interaction processes. However, further research and development are necessary to design an ethical and sustainable blockchain-based solution to incentivize in situ conservation, research and innovation with agrobiodiversity. Some future directions of research are recommended.
Although innovation laboratories offer creative and distinct physical spaces for mediating and directing innovation processes, research on their applicability for co-creative learning during serious play, particularly through Lego Serious Play (LSP) workshops remains limited. Previous studies suggest that serious play workshops tend to focus on scenarios, problem solving and reflective processes, with limited considerations for joint co-creation and learning potentials within innovation laboratories. Motivated by the creative prospects of metaphoric representations and shared stories, this study explores the possibilities of harnessing LSP for co-creative learning in innovation laboratories. This case study draws theoretical insights and practical relevance from a co-creative learning workshop involving three learning scenarios within a Middle Eastern and emerging economy context. Findings from the workshop show variability in representations, interactions and reflections, shaping possibilities for co-creative learning in innovation laboratories. Representations focus on systems, solutions and problems during fragmented, model-supported, model-mediated and integrated interactions that underpin a range of instance-based, variance-based, convergence-based and divergence-based reflections. These insights contribute to co-creation literature that views value creation as an amalgamation of open, collaborative and user innovation. The study concludes by discussing its theoretical implications, practical applications, and methodological limitations, which serve as the basis for future research directions.
In the global infectious-disease research community, there has long been uncertainty about the conditions under which biological resources may be studied or transferred out of countries. This work examines the reasons for that uncertainty and shows how global biomedical research has been shaped by international disputes over access to biological resources. Bringing together government leaders, World Health Organization officials, and experts in virology, wildlife biology, clinical ethics, technology transfer, and international law, the book identifies the critical problems - and implications of these problems - posed by negotiating for access and sharing benefits, and proposes solutions to ensure that biomedical advances are not threatened by global politics. Written in accessible, non-technical language, this work should be read by anyone who sees global health and biomedical research as a priority for international lawmakers.
In the global infectious-disease research community, there has long been uncertainty about the conditions under which biological resources may be studied or transferred out of countries. This work examines the reasons for that uncertainty and shows how global biomedical research has been shaped by international disputes over access to biological resources. Bringing together government leaders, World Health Organization officials, and experts in virology, wildlife biology, clinical ethics, technology transfer, and international law, the book identifies the critical problems - and implications of these problems - posed by negotiating for access and sharing benefits, and proposes solutions to ensure that biomedical advances are not threatened by global politics. Written in accessible, non-technical language, this work should be read by anyone who sees global health and biomedical research as a priority for international lawmakers.
https://research-repository.griffith.edu.au/handle/10072/382736
In 2007 the Indonesian government cited the United Nations’ Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) when it claimed sovereignty over influenza viruses isolated from within its territory, denying the World Health Organization (WHO) access to physical samples of H5N1 influenza virus. In response, WHO Member States adopted the Pandemic Influenza Preparedness Framework (PIP Framework) for the sharing of influenza viruses with human pandemic potential. This ended the political stalemate between Indonesia and the WHO, but the international community never addressed the broader legal issue at the core of Indonesia’s claim: do countries have sovereign authority over viruses isolated from within their territories? Answering this question is the starting point of this thesis and is crucial to creating legal certainty for international virus sharing and defending global health security. Genetic resources were largely treated as global public goods under international law until the entry into force of the CBD in 1993. This binding and widely-adopted convention situates genetic resources within the sovereign domain of the Nation State, allowing national governments to regulate access to genetic resources pursuant to their own environmental policies. The domestic laws and policies implemented in the wake of the CBD have created a diverse and complicated regime for accessing genetic resources and sharing benefits associated with their utilisation, referred to as ‘access and benefit-sharing’ (ABS). Until the present research, it has not been clear how these rules apply to viruses outside the narrow remit of pandemic influenza viruses under the PIP Framework. Virus samples are essential for ecological, agricultural and medical research and are vital inputs for the production of vaccines and antivirals. Most viruses are still accessed freely from the environment and shared informally between networks of scientific colleagues without regard to the domestic ABS policies of originating Nation States. This is starting to change as States begin to restrict access to virus samples to exchange them for monetary or non-monetary benefits. This trend is likely to impact scientific research and the development of novel biotechnologies, but it has the most disturbing consequences in the field of public health, where international negotiations over access to pathogenic virus samples can delay outbreak response efforts. This research examines the legalities of claiming sovereignty over viruses under international law and represents the first systematic effort to situate viruses within the international ABS regime. This research aims to: (1) clarify the status of viruses under international ABS law, (2) examine the facets of the international ABS regime that will shape future virus sharing practices, and (3) determine the impact of virus ABS on virological research. It draws together the key themes of law, scientific research and viruses. The legal question originally posed by Indonesia in 2007 and restated here as the first aim of this research is addressed by means of a textual analysis of the CBD and its Nagoya Protocol. Chapter 2 (published in the European Intellectual Property Review) demonstrates that all viruses are unequivocally ‘genetic resources’ within the remit of these international instruments. This finding clarifies the previously ambiguous status of all viruses as sovereign genetic resources under international law and forms the theoretical basis for the preponderance of this research. In effect, influenza viruses with human pandemic potential are regulated by the PIP Framework and all other viruses are subject to regulation under the CBD and Nagoya Protocol. Four chapters of this thesis address the second aim of this research, examining the facets of the current international ABS regime that will shape future virus sharing arrangements. Chapter 3 (published in the Journal of Law and Medicine) analyses temporality and the conceivable extension of sovereign rights to virus isolates collected before the entry into force of the CBD on 29 December 1993, using the ex situ repositories of smallpox virus held by the United States of America and the Russian Federation as a case study. Chapters 4 and 5 (published in the Journal of Law and Medicine and the Journal of World Intellectual Property respectively) are the first published papers to examine how provisions of the CBD and Nagoya Protocol relating to ‘traditional knowledge associated with genetic resources’ apply to viruses. These chapters provide proof of principle that Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities could possess virus-associated traditional knowledge that can be subject to benefit-sharing obligations. Chapter 6 (published in The Milbank Quarterly) critiques the ABS provisions of the PIP Framework as the only international virus-specific de facto ABS instrument. The Nagoya Protocol creates the flexibility to adopt specialised instruments outside of the default bilateral ABS system created by the CBD and Nagoya Protocol. Chapter 6 demonstrates that while the PIP Framework may be considered a multilateral ABS agreement, it secures just the access side of the ABS ‘grand bargain’ enshrined by the CBD. Chapter 6 cautions against the current proposals to expand the scope of the PIP Framework to include other pathogens. Chapter 7 (published in the Journal of Science Policy and Governance) addresses the third aim of this research by examining how ABS measures have impacted scientific research in the biological disciplines. It shows how domestic legislative, administrative and policy measures implementing the CBD and Nagoya Protocol create legal barriers to accessing genetic resources for biological research and can limit scientific innovation. It demonstrates that ABS policies will have a cooling effect on biotechnological research utilising viral genetic resources if countries start to impose similar legal barriers to accessing virus samples. Chapter 8 concludes that the international ABS regime already fetters virus sharing with unforeseen adverse impacts on global health security. Scientists require access to virus samples for research and development, and timely access to viruses that can cause diseases in humans, plants and animals is critical. As countries start to exercise their sovereign authority over viruses and restrict access to virus samples in order to influence benefit-sharing negotiations, it is ever more important that the international community comprehends the form and structure of virus ABS. This thesis fills the literature void as the first published research to explore the legal and practical issues of accessing virus samples and sharing the benefits associated with their use under the CBD and Nagoya Protocol. Given the deficiencies of the current ABS regime, this research forms the basis for an international debate about alternative models for regulating access to viruses and sharing the associated benefits. During public health emergencies, legal ambiguities around who can control access to viruses and at what price can delay the public health response and ultimately cost lives.
The global movement and use of genetic resources remain vital to sustaining humankind. An enclosure or re-appropriation of these resources requiring regulated access and benefit sharing is evolving under the United Nations' Convention on Biological Diversity and related instruments. The potential to replace the physical materials with information about those materials, including genetic sequence data, has fractured the carefully negotiated benefit sharing regulation complex. This article re-engages with this original grand bargain of access in exchange for benefit sharing, and the imperatives of transferring financial resources and technology from the technologically advanced countries of the North to the biodiversity-rich countries of the South. Public access database terms and conditions (as opposed to public domain) and collecting societies are some of the elegant legal solutions and mechanisms to address concerns about dematerialization under the current contractual approach to benefit sharing. This article concludes, however, that the tension between enclosure of information as the genetic resource and legal information sharing requirements needs more nuanced forms of benefit sharing such as taxes or levies. This is necessary to facilitate movement of not only the physical materials but also information in the access and benefit sharing bargain.
Over the years, researchers in public institutions and universities have accessed genetic materials from a variety of sources, freely exchanged them with fellow researchers and institutions and shared their research results with foreign and local collaborators. The 2010 Nagoya Protocol regulating access to genetic resources is set to change this scenario. This treaty requires country parties to put in place enhanced ABS measures regulating access to their genetic resources and to provide for the sharing of benefits arising from their utilization. These measures include minimum access standards, mandatory prior informed consent of indigenous and local communities, compliance with the domestic laws or requirements of the provider country and monitoring the utilization of genetic resources. This is aimed at commercial research. Non-commercial public research which contributes to the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity is encouraged, particularly in developing countries, through simplified measures. There are undoubtedly practical challenges in operationalizing this provision without impeding research in the sector most potentially affected by ABS measures. This article presents the results of a survey of the practices of such researchers in one developing country, namely Malaysia. It examines the potential implications for the national implementation of the Protocol. Given country specificities, this study highlights and shows the importance of increasing knowledge about existing practices for an efficient design and implementation by developing countries of a complex legislation such as the Nagoya ABS Protocol.
Likert questionnaires are widely used in survey research, but it is unclear whether the item data should be investigated by means of parametric or nonparametric procedures. This study compared the Type I and II error rates of the t test versus the Mann-Whitney-Wilcoxon (MWW) for five-point Likert items. Fourteen population distributions were defined and pairs of samples were drawn from the populations and submitted to the t test and the t test on ranks, which yields the same results as MWW. The results showed that the two tests had equivalent power for most of the pairs. MWW had a power advantage when one of the samples was drawn from a skewed or peaked distribution. Strong power differences between the t test and MWW occurred when one of the samples was drawn from a multimodal distribution. Notably, the Type I error rate of both methods was never more than 3% above the nominal rate of 5%, even not when sample sizes were highly unequal. In conclusion, for five-point Likert items, the t test and MWW generally have similar power, and researchers do not have to worry about finding a difference whilst there is none in the population. Likert scales are widely used in various domains such as behavioral sciences, healthcare, marketing, and usability research. When responding to a Likert scale, participants specify their level of agreement to statements with typically five or seven ordered response levels. Likert item data have distinct characteristics: discrete instead of continuous values, tied numbers, and restricted range.
Significant developments in the scientific front and international policy arena have affected the use and exchange of genetic resources, and the management of intellectual property. These developments are now reshaping public agricultural research and development (R&D) in developing countries, especially in the access, generation, and dissemination of research outputs. Three of the most important international treaties and conventions that are important in this context are the World Trade Organization's Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (WTO-TRIPS), the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), and the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA). Already, majority of the developing countries are signatories to these treaties and could be expected to exploit them for their own advantage. On the other hand, non-member countries, despite their non-participation, must find alternative scenarios to be able to effectively address issues concerning IPR, agricultural biotechnology, and plant genetic resources. As the main source of innovation in public agricultural research, national agricultural research extension systems (NARES) need to be enlightened on the various aspects of these treaties and agreements and the impact on their respective research and extension activities. It may be necessary, for example, to tailor capacity-building initiatives on the IPR, agbiotech, and PGR aspects of international treaties to specific countries or regions since policy and enforcement mechanisms among NARES vary according to the availability of human and logistical resources, research priorities, and technology transfer objectives. This paper takes a look at the critical aspects of TRIPS, CBD, ITPGRFA, and other agreements, and studies their implications on public agbiotech R&D among NARS; compares initiatives by several Asian developing countries to comply with the provisions of these treaties and agreements; highlights PhilRice's initiatives to help its national government comply with its obligations under these treaties; and assesses and recommends a plan of action on the capacity-building of NARES institutions on IPR, agbiotech, and PGR management.
This study uses a sample of Japanese university scientists in life and materials sciences to examine how academic entrepreneurship has affected the norms and behaviors of academic scientists regarding sharing scientific resources. The results indicate that high levels of academic entrepreneurship in a scientific field are associated with less reliance on the gift-giving form of sharing (generalized exchange) traditionally recommended by scientific communities, and with a greater emphasis on direct benefits for givers (direct exchange), as well as a lower overall frequency of sharing. These shifts in sharing behavior are observed even among individual scientists who are not themselves entrepreneurially active, suggesting a general shift in scientific norms contingent on institutional contexts. These findings reflect the contradictions inherent in current science policies that simultaneously encourage open science and commercial application of research results, and suggest that the increasing emphasis on commercial activity may be fundamentally changing the normative structure of science.
"This study argues that ‘regime complexes’ and ‘policy coherence’ are two faces of the same integrative process. The development of regime complexes co-evolves with the pressures on decision makers to coordinate their policies in various issue-areas. Conceptually, we introduce a typology of policy coherency (erratic, strategic, functionalistic, and systemic) according to its procedural and substantive components. Empirically, by triangulating quantitative and qualitative data, we use this typology for the case of the genetic resources’ regime complex to illustrate the links between regime complexes and policy coherency. Our results suggest that a coherent policymaking process favours integrated regime complexes, while greater exposure to a regime complex increases the pressure to have a coherent policymaking. This study fills a gap in the literature on regime complexes by providing a micro-macro model linking structure to agency. "
Biodiversity conservation, access and benefit sharing (ABS), and protection of intellectual property rights (IPR) linked to biotechnologies are all internationally agreed—but not necessarily compatible—objectives. The Convention on Biological Diversity aims for a balance between the needs and interests of owners of genetic resources and technology owners. Can current proposals for handling existing IPR legislation, such as disclosure of origin and certificates of legal provenance, contribute to finding a balance between the interests? Will the growing concern for legitimacy in international transactions with genetic resources be helpful to countries providing genetic resources for technological innovation or are the benefits too few? The article concludes that the success of establishing a multilateral system for access and benefit sharing still depends on compatible legislation in user and provider countries to counterbalance strengthened patent protection systems worldwide. Moreover, it is necessary to overcome the old schism between wildlife conservation and access issues in agricultural biodiversity to boost overall implementation efforts.
Food composition provides an important link for biodiversity and nutrition. Biodiversity at three levels—ecosystems, the species they contain and the genetic diversity within species—can contribute to food security and improved nutrition. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) are leading a new international initiative on biodiversity for food and nutrition under the umbrella of the Convention of Biological Diversity. The overall aim is to promote the sustainable use of biodiversity in programmes contributing to food security and human nutrition, and to thereby raise awareness of the importance of this link for sustainable development. Further research is needed to increase the evidence base by filling our knowledge gaps with better inventories and more data on composition and consumption. If nutrient analysis and data dissemination of the various food species and intra-species diversity are systematically undertaken, national information systems for food and agriculture will be strengthened and can be used to form the basis for priority setting and national policy making. For nutrition, this will mean introducing more compositional data on biodiversity in national food composition databases and tables; developing and using dietary assessment instruments that capture food intake at the species and variety/breed level; and allowing food labelling that encourages awareness of food plant varieties and food animal subspecies. Nutrition and biodiversity feature directly the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs): halve the proportion of people who suffer from hunger; and ensure environmental sustainability. In combination, a nutrition and biodiversity initiative provides the very foundation for achieving these MDGs.
Reviewers of research reports frequently criticize the choice of statistical methods. While some of these criticisms are well-founded, frequently the use of various parametric methods such as analysis of variance, regression, correlation are faulted because: (a) the sample size is too small, (b) the data may not be normally distributed, or (c) The data are from Likert scales, which are ordinal, so parametric statistics cannot be used. In this paper, I dissect these arguments, and show that many studies, dating back to the 1930s consistently show that parametric statistics are robust with respect to violations of these assumptions. Hence, challenges like those above are unfounded, and parametric methods can be utilized without concern for "getting the wrong answer".
As the rules for foreign access to biological resources are being negotiated, academic researchers and organizations should make their opinions known.
Global food security will remain a worldwide concern for the next 50 years and beyond. Recently, crop yield has fallen in many areas because of declining investments in research and infrastructure, as well as increasing water scarcity. Climate change and HIV/AIDS are also crucial factors affecting food security in many regions. Although agroecological approaches offer some promise for improving yields, food security in developing countries could be substantially improved by increased investment and policy reforms.
this paper are those of the authors and should not be attributed to the Gallup Organization or Washington State University. Comments should be directed to dillman@wsu.edu.
The free exchange of microbial genetic information is an established public good, facilitating research on medicines, agriculture, and climate change. However, over the past quarter-century, access to genetic resources has been hindered by intellectual property claims from developed countries under the World Trade Organization's TRIPS Agreement (1994) and by claims of sovereign rights from developing countries under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (1992). In this volume, the authors examine the scientific community's responses to these obstacles and advise policymakers on how to harness provisions of the Nagoya Protocol (2010) that allow multilateral measures to support research. By pooling microbial materials, data, and literature in a carefully designed transnational e-infrastructure, the scientific community can facilitate access to essential research assets while simultaneously reinforcing the open access movement. The original empirical surveys of responses to the CBD included here provide a valuable addition to the literature on governing scientific knowledge commons.
International agricultural research has historically been an example par excellence of open source approach to biological research. Beginning in the 1950s and especially in the 1960s, a looming global food crisis led to the development of a group of international agricultural research centers with a specific mandate to foster international exchange and crop improvement relevant to many countries. This formalization of a global biological commons in genetic resources was implemented through an elaborate system of international nurseries with a breeding hub, free sharing of germplasm, collaboration in information collection, the development of human resources, and an international collaborative network. This paper traces the history of the international wheat program with particular attention to how this truly open source system operated in practice and the impacts that it had on world poverty and hunger. The paper also highlights the challenges of maintaining and evolving such a system over the long term, both in terms of financing, as well the changing ‘rules of the game’ resulting from international agreements on intellectual property rights and biodiversity. Yet the open source approach is just as relevant today, as witnessed by current crises in food prices and looming crop diseases problem of global significance.
This book, the first in a new series that focuses on treaty implementation for sustainable development, examines key legal aspects of implementing the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) at national and international levels. The volume provides a serious contribution to the current legal and political academic debates on biosafety by discussing key issues under the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety that affect the further design of national and international law on biosafety, and analyzing recent progress in the development of domestic regulatory regimes for biosafety. In the year of the fifth UN Meeting of the Parties to the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, at the signature of a new Nagoya-Kuala Lumpur Protocol on Liability and Redress, this timely book examines recent developments in biosafety law and policy.
Realpolitik Ideology presents path-breaking research on the Indonesian military (TNI) going beyond traditional scholarship on the TNI's dual function or dwifungsi which has been one of the dominating fields of analysis in Indonesian studies since the 1970s. Addressed to political scientists, sociologists, historians, anthropologists and defence practitioners, this book interprets security policy in terms of its social roots asserting that the realpolitik behaviour of the TNI has strong "socio-cultural" undertones, which in turn shape the development of military doctrine. The argument made in the book is that only through a better understanding of the doctrines that reinforced the military's significant presence in Indonesian affairs and their subsequent restructuring can Indonesia's policy-makers attempt meaningful reform of the TNI. Readable, accessible and yet exhaustively researched, Realpolitik Ideology examines the origins and development of ideas on security from the point of view of the TNI and explains why civil-military relations are still fraught with uncertainty, and why the recent changes in military ideology, removal of military posts in the legislature, ongoing divestment of its business, and other measures still do not guarantee that the military will not intervene in the affairs of state. Among its many valuable contributions, this book details: The background to Indonesian concepts of national security. Internal operations and the weak infrastructural power of the state, with an excellent discussion on the intelligence agencies. Concepts for external defence, according to the TNI, including Indonesia's important but little-known contribution to UN peacekeeping missions. Defence and national security planning. The most recent laws relating to national security and the role of the military in Indonesia. Realpolitik Ideology offers suggestions about how to redefine concepts of national security to increase civil and democratic space and accountabilities and redress the historic imbalances between the civilian government and the military in Indonesia. © 2006 Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore. All rights reserved.
Advances in agriculture and developments in the international policy arena reshape the environment for players in agricultural research systems in the developing countries, particularly the public research and development (R&D) institutions. Three of the most important international treaties and conventions that affect these institutions are the World Trade Organization's Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (WTO-TRIPS), the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA). These agreements deal with intellectual property rights (IPR), modern agricultural biotechnology (agbiotech) and plant genetic resources (PGR) management. They pose new rules and standards, giving special challenges and opportunities for public agricultural R&D. This paper takes a close look at the important provisions of TRIPS, CBD and ITPGRFA that affect agricultural research and analyzes the implications of these intergovernmental agreements on the public agriculture R&D sector. The paper presents a framework that can help these institutions analyze the impacts of these treaties on their agbiotech operations. It also offers institutional options for public sector R&D such as that from the Philippines that help survive the challenges of the treaties.
Scholars have expressed concern that the Nagoya Protocol (NP) might hinder academic research by constraining the exchange and use of genetic resources (Jinnah and Jungcurt, 2009). This paper investigates current genetic resource exchange and use practices as a first step to better understand how the Protocol might affect US agricultural research. The paper addresses three main questions: (1) Who are the main actors sharing genetic resources in the US?; (2) What pathways exist for the exchange and how can they be characterized?; and (3) What consequences are expected to occur as a result of the potential implementation of the NP? Analysis of data from a 2011 national survey of government and university researchers shows that while many of the surveyed researchers are actively involved in exchange of genetic resources, few exchange large quantities of material. Pathways are best described as informal and based on expected reciprocity, and few report paying for genetic resources. While the use of material transfer agreements is low, use is associated with higher levels of expected reciprocity and intellectual property outcomes on projects. Conclusions discuss the implications of the findings for the implementation of the Nagoya Protocol and reflect on possible directions for future research.
This article looks at regime complexes from a state policymaking perspective. It develops a theoretical model in which regime complexes become denser over time while governmental policy making becomes more coherent. Under this model, interactions between global regime complexes and national policymaking are twofold. On the one hand, greater policy coherence generates negotiated mandates asking for regime connections and complex density. On the other hand, regime-complex density creates more cohesive audiences, which increase incentives for national policy coherence. This co-adjustments model brings states into the discussion of institutional interactions and critically questions the desirability and feasibility of recent calls for joined-up government and whole-of-government approaches.
In this authoritative and comprehensive volume the authors explain the provisions of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) on access and benefit-sharing, the effect of national laws to implement these, and aspects of typical contracts for the transfer of materials. They provide a unique sector-by-sector analysis of how genetic resources are used, the scientific, technological and regulatory trends and the different markets for products using biotechnology.
Plant genetic resources constitute the biological basis for plant breeding and future agricultural development. Their transfer from developing to developed countries over centuries has sometimes been viewed as an example of exploitation, if not ‘biopiracy’. Modern gene flows are different in character and magnitude from historic exchanges, however. This article examines current patterns and finds that developing countries are major net recipients of germplasm samples from CGIAR centres, particularly if ‘improved materials’ are considered. Potentially problematic, intellectual property rights do not currently present major barriers to the availability and use of genetic resources by developing countries. Proposals to restrict flows and redress perceived injustices may reduce the benefits accruing at present to developing countries from germplasm exchanges.
The article examines interaction between multilateral agreements and the assessment of implementation efforts. The first aim is to portray how regulations emanating from different international regimes are developed and implemented in an interdependent manner. The second main theme concerns the assessment of implementation measures in a situation of interaction. The focus here is on the high level of interaction between regulations pertaining to genetic resources and technological utilisation of these through bioprospecting. Particular attention is given to where authority stems from in this context of multiple and interacting institutions. What is the most legitimate framework for making authoritative decisions on the use of genetic resources? Empirical evidence suggests a dual development. First, norm diffusion through international institutions increasingly plays a legitimising role in international transactions with genetic resources. At the same time, there is a high correlation between dominating countries and key economic interests in the global economy of life sciences, and these interests wield their authority and power through a different set of institutions.
Global food production must increase by 50% to meet the projected demand of the world’s population by 2050. Meeting this difficult challenge will be made even harder if climate change melts portions of the Himalayan glaciers to affect 25% of world cereal production in Asia by influencing water availability. Pest and disease management has played its role in doubling food production in the last 40 years, but pathogens still claim 10–16% of the global harvest. We consider the effect of climate change on the many complex biological interactions affecting pests and pathogen impacts and how they might be manipulated to mitigate these effects. Integrated solutions and international co-ordination in their implementation are considered essential. Providing a background on key constraints to food security, this overview uses fusarium head blight as a case study to illustrate key influences of climate change on production and quality of wheat, outlines key links between plant diseases, climate change and food security, and highlights key disease management issues to be addressed in improving food security in a changing climate.
Agricultural biodiversity is critical for food security throughout the world. At the genetic, species, and farming systems levels, biodiversity provides valuable ecosytems services and functions for agricultural production. How can the erosion of agrobiodiversity be halted? How can it effectively be conserved and enhanced?
This article highlights key principles, policies, and practices for the sustain-able use, conservation and enhancement of agrobiodiversity for sustaining food security. After clarifying the serious threats from the global loss of agrobiodiversity, the article summarizes practical guidelines and lessons for biodiversity management in farming systems and landscapes. Such strategies build upon valuable local experiences and knowledge in traditional farming practices, and they also take advantage of recent scientific findings in agroecology and ecosystem health. There is an urgent need to adopt an agroecosytems approach, beyond a focus on genetic resource conservation alone, to implement other biodiversity-enhancing methods in farms, such as integrated ecological pest and soil management. Conflicting agricultural politics that promote monocultural industrial farming models and uniform technology packages need to be eliminated. In addition, the protection of intellectual property rights is vital for those who have knowledge of the values and uses of such biodiversity, particularly for indigenous peoples and small farmers. The approaches reviewed in this analysis show effective ways to conserve, use and enhance biodiversity that will encourage sustainable food security.
Are the national laws regulating access to genetic resources that countries have enacted in exercise of their sovereign rights
accorded by the Convention on Biological Diversity jeopardising food security by failing to take into account the distinctive
features of genetic resources for food and agriculture? If so what can be done about it? What are the obstacles to doing so?
And how can they be overcome, especially in the context of the present ongoing negotiations for an international regime on
access and benefits sharing under the biodiversity convention? This article examines the impact of the national access laws
and other instruments on the free access and exchange of these genetic resources and hence on the maintenance of agricultural
biological diversity upon which food security hinges so critically. It highlights the obstacles that stand in the way of developing
countries facilitating access to their genetic resources and proposes a multilateral non-market-orientated approach to overcome
them.
KeywordsBiodiversity–Developing countries–Food security–Genetic resources for food and agriculture–Regulating access and benefit sharing
Climate change is a reality and will affect the poor in developing countries in many ways. The effectiveness of global change research could be substantially improved by linking International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP) study with Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) centres based in the tropics. These centres are carrying interdisciplinary research and development on how to achieve food security and reduce rural poverty through the innovative management of natural resources. A CGIAR intercentre working group on climate change (ICWG-CC) identified joint opportunities that take advantage of the comparative advantages of both institutions. CGIAR centres will focus on adaptation and mitigation research in developing countries. A natural resource management research approach is suggested, which consists of six steps: (1) identifying and quantifying the extent of food insecurity, rural poverty and resource degradation; (2) conducting technological and policy research on economic and environmental functions; (3) optimising the trade-offs between global environmental benefits and private farmer benefits; (4) extrapolating and disseminating results, including research on policy implementation; (5) assessing impact and (6) providing feedback.
Biodiversity research generates critically important knowledge for the implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)’s goals. However, academic noncommercial scientists intending to study biodiversity experience obstacles caused by restrictive access conditions legislated by the countries that provide access to their genetic resources. Currently, a legally binding protocol on Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS) is being negotiated within the CBD without adequate involvement of the academic community. The ABS regulations were originally designed for commercial uses that generate monetary benefits from the utilization of genetic resources. Noncommercial research should expeditiously assert its interests and state its needs in the ABS negotiations. Academia has failed to market to policy makers its special dual role as user of genetic resources and as generator of essential knowledge for the benefit of the CBD and society at large.
The United States National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS), one of the largest national plant germplasm systems, currently safeguards more than 466,000 accessions of more than 11,300 plant species. Most of those accessions were acquired internationally at a time when genetic resources were often exchanged informally, free of charge or other restrictions, and were viewed as abundant and part of humanity's common heritage. During the last 20 years, several national and international trends shifted the norms for germplasm exchange. Access to and exchange of plant genetic resources have become increasingly formal and sometimes more restricted. Acquiring new samples for the NPGS from domestic and international sources became increasingly complicated and in some cases problematic. In contrast, acquiring samples from the NPGS in general became easier because of computerized databases and communication, and more reliable and rapid long-distance transport. Consequently, the volume of NPGS samples distributed annually expanded steadily, to a current average of about 120,000 per year, free of charge or restriction. About 1/4 of total distributions are exported from the U.S. The current ratio of six NPGS samples exported internationally for every new sample imported by the NPGS will likely increase as research programs that use plant genetic resources grow in other nations. More of the samples conserved and distributed by the NPGS will be genetic stocks generated by large-scale genomics and biotechnology research projects, and elite, previously proprietary, varieties and hybrids that move into the public domain when their limited-duration intellectual property rights expire. Additional changes in NPGS holdings may occur in the future as the norms for international exchange of genetic resources evolve in concert with national and international trends in scientific research, and the evolution of access and benefit-sharing regimes.
Can a treaty concerning all of life on Earth make a practical difference to scientists? As countries implement the Convention
on Biological Diversity (CBD) work programs, apply its guidelines, and execute national strategies, its influence on science
is likely to grow. CBD-compliant national laws and policies already set priorities for research and affect the way in which
scientists can access and use genetic resources. Scientists and scientific organizations are urged in this
Policy Forum
to weigh in when the Conference of the Parties to the CBD meets in The Hague in April to discuss conservation and sustainable
use of biodiversity.
Fear that terrorists can use biological agents as weapons of mass destruction is significantly impacting the conduct of microbiological research. Abundant new funds are available for biodefence research, and many researchers are racing to enter the field. There are some concerns, however, that a large emphasis on this issue could skew the microbiology research agenda. Furthermore, new responsibilities for safely conducting research with biothreat agents and concern that information might be misused could drive some researchers away from the field.
Nature Biotechnology journal featuring biotechnology articles and science research papers of commercial interest in pharmaceutical, medical, and environmental sciences.
Crop genetic diversity - which is crucial for feeding humanity, for the environment and for sustainable development - is being lost at an alarming rate. Given the enormous interdependence of countries and generations on this genetic diversity, this loss raises critical socio-economic, ethical and political questions. The recent ratification of a binding international treaty, and the development of powerful new technologies to conserve and use resources more effectively, have raised expectations that must now be fulfilled.
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