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Deon Furstenburg
Serval
Leptailurus serval (Schreber, 1776)
Afrikaans Tierboskat
German Servalkatze
French Serval / Chat-tigre
Swahili Mondo
isiNdebele Indlozi
isiZulu Indlozi
isiXhosa Inhlosi
seSotho Phaha / Tloli
seTswana Tadi / Letlôtse
Shona Nzudzi
Shangaan Ndloti
Venda Didingwe
Nama !Garu
Photo: Dian Furstenburg, adult serval female
IUCN Conservation Status:
Low Risk, least concern (LR/lc).
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This cat seemingly has as many names as lives! In 1781 Forster described it as “Tyger
bosh katten”, while the ancient Dutch name was “tijgerboschkat” and “bosch-kat” and
the colonial English gave it the name “tiger-cat”. Its present name is derived from the
Portuguese for the European lynx “lobo-cerval” and the Afrikaans “tierboskat” is a direct
translation of the ancient Dutch name.
The serval shares anatomical and behavioural features with the domestic house cat but
differs in size and colour. It is similar to the cheetah Acinonyx jubatus but has a
relatively small head and short tail. The ears are large and dish-shaped and resemble
those of the bat-eared fox Otocyon megalotis.
Taxonomy Kingdom: ANIMALIA
Phylum: CORDATA
Class: MAMMALIA
Supercohort: LAURASIATHERIA
Cohort: FERUNGULATA
Superorder: FERAE
Order: CARNIVORA
Suborder: FELIFORMIA
Family: Felidae
Subfamily: Felinae
Genus: Leptailurus
Species: serval
The serval was first described by Schreber in 1776 after a specimen from the Cape,
and was named Felis serval serval. A second specimen caught alive on the Cape
Peninsula was described by Forster (1781) as Felis capensis serval. The South African
Museum houses a specimen collected from Somerset West in 1898, and fossilized
prehistoric serval remains have been found at Langebaan on the Western Cape
coastline.
The serval colour pattern varies throughout its distribution range to such an extent that
Allen listed 17 sub-species in 1939. At present taxonomists remain cautious and do not
recognise any sub-speciation. The genus Felis was recently reviewed and the serval
was re-classified into a separate genus Leptailurus with only the one species,
Leptailurus serval.
Distribution
The historical distribution range of the serval has remained largely intact except where
its habitat was replaced by modern city development and urbanization. The distribution
includes a major part of sub-Saharan Africa excluding the equatorial rainforests of the
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Congo and western Africa, the arid regions of Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia, southern
Namibia, western Botswana and the Greater Karoo of South Africa. An isolated
population occurs in north-western Africa in the mountains of Morocco and Tunisia.
Fortunately, the serval tolerates agricultural development and, as it preys on rodents
alone is not considered to be a small-stock killer, unlike the bat-eared fox Otocyon
megalotis and the Cape fox Vulpes chama. Despite its wide distribution throughout
Africa the serval is one of the last of the cats to be studied scientifically due to its
secretive, solitary and largely nocturnal behaviour. The most comprehensive serval
study is that of the Dutch zoologist Aadje Geertsema in Tanzania during the early
1980’s.
In southern Africa the serval is widespread and can be found in Mozambique,
Zimbabwe, northern Botswana and north-eastern Namibia. In South Africa it is found
in Limpopo, Mpumalanga, the Eastern Cape and the western areas of KwaZulu-Natal.
In the past it was plentiful in the south-eastern coastal regions of the Cape but has been
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displaced by human development. However recent sightings were reported in George
and Port Elizabeth indicating a re-settlement of its former range. During the past few
years it has been reintroduced to the area through intensive breeding programmes on
private farms.
The serval population to the northwest of the Sahara Desert was isolated from the
southern population about 6 000 to 7 000 years BP due to the global environmental and
vegetation changes that took place after the last Ice Age.
Description
The serval has the typical body build of a cat and is elegant and slender. Its legs are
elongated and, in relation to its body size, are the longest legs of all cat species. The
tail does not contribute to balanced movement or to hunting manoeuvres as it is short
(30-35 cm), extending to just above the hind knees. Each well-muscled paw is equipped
with soft cushions and has fully retractable, hooked claws, five on the front paw and
four on the hind.
The mean body mass of the serval is 14 kg for adult males reaching a maximum of 18
kg, and 10 kg for adult females with a maximum of 12.5 kg. Both have a shoulder height
ranging from 54-62 cm. Excluding the tail, the total body length from snout to the end
of the body is 67-100 cm.
The coat colour resembles that of a tiger Panthera tigris on the back and that of cheetah,
Acinonyx jubatus on the flanks and legs. The golden brown on the back of the neck,
shoulders and back changes to yellow brown and cream white down towards the flanks
and legs. The back is marked with elongated, broken, black stripes and the flanks and
legs are overlaid by the characteristic, linear, oval black spots of different sizes. The
tail has a continuous black stripe on the dorsal surface, concentric black rings and ends
in a black tip. The thin, dark stripe running through the inner corner of the eye down to
the snout is prominent and is similar to that of the cheetah. The underside of the belly,
neck and inner thighs is cream white and the hair long and furry. In comparison to other
cats the ears are held stiffly upright and are large and rounded. They have two
prominent black patches 3-4 cm wide on the exterior and long silver hair on the interior.
The coat colour is brighter in moist, shady habitats and the young are more greyish than
yellow. Predominantly black, melanistic forms of serval are occasionally recorded.
Serval are highly specialized predators with a shortened skull and reduced dentition.
The canines are well developed but the molars are rudimentary and designed to rip
rather than chew. This is in contrast to most other predators that have molars designed
to rip and chew simultaneously.
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Spoor
The serval spoor is characteristic of cats. It has an almost round, five-cushioned print
with a large, central cushion and four digit cushions on its front perimeter. The front
prints are 42x40 mm and the hind a slightly larger 43x43 mm. The fifth digit on the
forepaw is not printed, as it is rudimentary and situated higher up the inner side of the
leg. The hind paws lack a fifth digit altogether. Claw marks do not show as the claws
are fully retractable.
Information table
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Serval information table
Characteristic Male Female
Adult body weight kg 10 – 18 8,7 – 12,5
Adult shoulder height cm 54 – 62 54 – 62
Total body length
(snout to tail end)
cm 96 – 120 97 – 123
Sexual maturity age months 18 – 24 18 – 24
Social maturity age (1st mating) months 20 – 30 20 – 30
1st Litter born at age years 2,5
Gestation period days 65 – 75
Litter size number 1 – 5
Litter interval months 10
Rutting season Year round
Birth season Year round
Weaning age months 3 – 4
Independent at age months 6 – 8
Gender ratio: entire population (natural) 1 1
Mating ratio: adults (natural) 1 1,5
Cubs birth ratio 1 1
Maximum lifespan years 15 – 17 16 – 19
Social order Solitary Solitary
Home range ha ? ?
Territory range ha 320 – 450 160 – 200
Daily food consumption (adults) kg ? ?
Maximum stocking load 4 cats per 1 000 ha
(Determined by pray animal abundance)
Minimum habitat size required ha 1 000
Annual population growth 8 15%
Trophy
Trophies are measured by adding the maximum width of the skull to the length
measured from the snout, over the top of the skull to the spine. The measurement is
directly related to age.
Serval trophy records
Rowland Ward (XXVII edition 2006):
Minimum qualifying value = 71/2" (19,05 cm) Measuring method 17
Rank
Inch cm Locality Year Source
1st 913/16" 24.92 Swartruggens, North West, RSA 1999 J.C. Taljaard
2nd 913/16" 24.92 Middelburg, Mpumalanga, RSA 2000 P.J. Fraser
3rd 93/4" 24.77 Ellisras, Limpopo, RSA 1997 L.S. Nagel
4th 93/4" 24.77 Eastern Cape, RSA 1995 G. Nel
5th 911/16" 24.61 Soutpansberg, Limpopo, RSA 1997 F. Harris
Safari Club International S.C.I.:
Not listed as a trophy animal
Confederation of Hunters Associations of South Africa CHASA:
Not listed as a trophy animal
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Habitat requirement
Higher rainfall regions of 650-950 mm per annum are preferred. Serval distribution is
associated with dense, tall grass, marshlands, reed beds and areas with abundant
rodent populations. They are also found in transitional ecotone zones on the skirts of
forests, riverine thickets and mountain grasslands. Drier habitats with an annual rainfall
of 250-350 mm are occasionally occupied if suitable cover and sufficient prey are
present.
Behaviour
Serval are the most energetic of all cat species with activities being restricted to dawn,
dusk and the early night hours. The serval can thus be regarded as nocturnal. It takes
cover during daylight hours by lying down in tall grass or by occupying the old burrows
of aardvark Orycteropus afer and porcupine Histrix africanus. Most prey is hunted at
night, especially in the early morning hours between 04:00 and 05:00. Females with
young extend their hunting into daylight in order to find sufficient food for their young.
Scats are usually dropped along frequently used paths. After defecation the serval may
give a rapid single scratch to the soil surface but, in contrast to other cat species, no
real attempt is made to cover the scat.
Visual communication is important when two or more cats come to contact. A slight,
gentle up-down nod with the head is followed by a soft growl and then a fierce display
of aggression. Unlike most large mammals there is no element of submissive retreat;
rather the weaker animal lies down on its back with claws displayed. The dominant
animal either turns away and avoids further conflict or attacks viscously. During a fight
the serval bites continuously, using the claws of the front paws to slice the opponent’s
head, face and neck area and those on the hind paws to rip the belly and body.
When a serval senses danger it pulls itself flat onto the ground then suddenly dodges
into thick vegetation where it waits for the danger to pass. If danger persists it will dart
away in long, twisting, zig-zag leaps of up to 4 m that leaves an impression of floating
above the grass.
Although most of the cat family hunt by sight, the serval hunts primarily by hearing
despite having a keen vision. It might be considered the terrestrial equivalent of an owl
or bat, picking up the wavelengths of rustling, unseen rodents on the move. The serval
approaches its prey soundlessly; creeping close enough to allow it to unleash its
characteristic arching pounce over tall grass tops to land directly on its prey. Hunting
occupies 25% of the serval’s activity.
Unlike most other cats, serval do not dislike water and hunt vlei rats and toads between
aquatic grasses and sedges to a depth of 8 cm.
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Feeding & Nutrition
The predominant prey of serval are rats and mice with the vlei rat Otomys angoniensis
and the multimammate mouse Praomys natalensis being preferred. Small birds follow
in importance, especially the finches of the genus Ploceus and Euplectes, waxbills of
the genus Estrilda and red-billed queleas Quelea quelea. Smithers notes that birds as
large as the peafowl Pavo cristatus and bustards Neotis sp can be taken by serval. It
also stalks ducks and waders between reeds and tall sedges in water.
In common with the caracal Felix caracal and leopard Panthera pardus, serval are
opportunistic and kill everything in a chicken cage. Unlike the caracal and leopard
however, the serval only feeds on one bird and may return for a second meal on the
remaining carcasses. Live bait such as chickens is required to catch serval as they do
not scavenge and cannot be lured to dead bait.
Other serval prey includes reptiles (lizards chameleons, snakes), rodents (Cape hare
Lepus saxatilis and the cane rat Thryonomys swinderiuanus), insects (grasshoppers
and crickets) and a selection of frogs, toads and fish. Serval occasionally prey on the
lambs of small buck such as the steenbok Raphicerus campestris, duiker Sylvicapra
grimmia and Cephalophus spp, grysbok Raphicerus sp and gazelle, Gazella sp.
Studies in Zimbabwe by Smithers and Wilson (1979) recorded the following different
prey ratios from serval stomach contents:
mice % rats up to 97%
birds & fow up to 15%
reptiles up to 12%
hares up to 6%
insects up to 5%
toads & frogs up to 1%.
The hunting success rate for serval is approximately 49-62% of attempted stalks. On
average it kills 16 times per 24 hour cycle and takes up to 4 000 or more rodents per
serval per annum.
Territory & Home range
Both male and female serval hold individual territories within a huge home range of an
undetermined size. Home ranges overlap those of neighbouring individuals to a great
extent but the core territory is not shared. The home range of an adult male normally
overlaps and shares that of two females. A female in oestrus tolerates a male in her
territory for the duration of mating but outside of this time will attack the male
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aggressively. Studies have shown female territories to be between 160 and 200 ha.
An average distance of 3-4 km is travelled per night as part of a serval’s routine activity.
Pre-orbital scent glands on the cheek, inter mandibular glands on the chin, inter digital
glands between the paw cushions and two anal glands are used for marking. During a
patrol, the paws leave a scented track on the ground, the boundary of a territory being
marked by smearing vegetation with saliva from the cheek and chin. An anal urine
scent is sprayed when two opponents meet each other in a close encounter.
Social structure
Both sexes are solitary and usually avoid social contact with other individuals. During
rut and mating, an adult male and female will pair-bond temporarily for several weeks
and hunt together. However, after mating the male will retreat into its own territory and
the female will behave aggressively towards him until the next rut. The female raises
the young alone. A single male will mate with 2-3 adult females bordering his territory.
Temporary family groups of females accompanied by offspring of up to 3 kg are
frequently observed.
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Reproduction
No defined breeding season exists for serval, mating taking place whenever a female
comes into oestrus. However increased mating correlates with the periodic appearance
of rodent population explosions.
A litter of 1-5 kittens is born after a gestation period of 65-75 days, mostly in dense tall
grass patches or in old burrows, dead tree trunks or even in maize fields. When
disturbed the mother will relocate the young to a new den by carrying each individually
in her mouth. She raises them alone and they are weaned between 3-4 weeks.
Independence is reached at 6-8 months after which time they leave the mother and
become nomadic until social maturity is reached at 20-30 months. They then establish
their own territories.
Information on the productivity of serval only exists for captive populations. It has not
yet been possible to predict their productivity in the wild.
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Bibliography
Bowland, JM, 1990. Diet, home range and movement patterns of serval on farmland in Natal. M.Sc thesis,
University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg.
Bowland, JM & Bowland, AE, 1991. Differential passage rates of prey components through the gut of serval
and black-backed jackal. Koedoe 34:37-40.
Bowland, JM & Perrin, MR, 1993. Diet of serval in a highland region of Natal. S. Afr. J. Wildl. Res. 28:132-
135.
Furstenburg, D, 2006. Tierboskat. Game & Hunt 12(10).
Geertsema, A, 1976. Impressions and observations on serval behaviour in Tanzania, East Africa.
Mammalia 40:13-19.
Geertsema, AA, 1985. Aspects of the ecology of the serval in the Ngorogoro Crater, Tanzania. Netherlands
J. Zool. 35:527-610.
Kingdon, J, 1979. East African Mammals, Vol. IIIA, Carnivores: An atlas of evolution in Africa. Academic
Press, London.
Nowell, K & Jackson, P, 1996. Wild Cats. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan. IUCN/SSC Cat
Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 382 pp.
Orban, B, 2001. Serval. Game & Hunt 7(10).
Smithers, RHN, 1978. The serval. S. Afr. J. Wildl. Res. 8:29-37.
Smithers, RHN, 1983. The Mammals of the Southern African Subregion. Pretoria: University of Pretoria.
Stuart, CT, 1977. The distribution, status, feeding and reproduction of carnivores of the Cape Province.
Research Report, Dept Nat. & Environ. Cons. Mammals 1977:91-174.
Van Aarde, RJ & Skinner, JD, 1986. Pattern of space use by relocated servals. Afr. J. Ecol. 24:97-101.
Ward, R, 2006. Rowland Ward’s Records of Big Game, 27tth edn. Rowland Ward Publications.
Gallery
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Photo: Dian Furstenburg, serval adult female
Photo: Dian Furstenburg, serval female youngster
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Photo: Deon Furstenburg, serval adult male