Content uploaded by Nor Wahiza
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Nor Wahiza on Sep 09, 2017
Content may be subject to copyright.
European Journal of Training and Development
Promoting protean career through employability culture and mentoring: career
strategies as moderator
Siew Chin Wong, Roziah Mohd Rasdi, Bahaman Abu Samah, Nor Wahiza Abdul Wahat,
Article information:
To cite this document:
Siew Chin Wong, Roziah Mohd Rasdi, Bahaman Abu Samah, Nor Wahiza Abdul Wahat, (2017)
"Promoting protean career through employability culture and mentoring: career strategies as
moderator", European Journal of Training and Development, Vol. 41 Issue: 3, pp.277-302, https://
doi.org/10.1108/EJTD-08-2016-0060
Permanent link to this document:
https://doi.org/10.1108/EJTD-08-2016-0060
Downloaded on: 20 June 2017, At: 01:18 (PT)
References: this document contains references to 71 other documents.
To copy this document: permissions@emeraldinsight.com
The fulltext of this document has been downloaded 213 times since 2017*
Users who downloaded this article also downloaded:
(2015),"Predictors of protean career and the moderating role of career strategies among
professionals in Malaysian Electrical and Electronics (E & E) Industry", European Journal
of Training and Development, Vol. 39 Iss 5 pp. 409-428 <a href="https://doi.org/10.1108/
EJTD-02-2015-0009">https://doi.org/10.1108/EJTD-02-2015-0009</a>
(2015),"Are you a protean talent? The influence of protean career attitude, learning-goal orientation
and perceived internal and external employability", Career Development International, Vol. 20
Iss 7 pp. 753-772 <a href="https://doi.org/10.1108/CDI-04-2015-0056">https://doi.org/10.1108/
CDI-04-2015-0056</a>
Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by emerald-
srm:394461 []
For Authors
If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald
for Authors service information about how to choose which publication to write for and submission
guidelines are available for all. Please visit www.emeraldinsight.com/authors for more information.
About Emerald www.emeraldinsight.com
Emerald is a global publisher linking research and practice to the benefit of society. The company
manages a portfolio of more than 290 journals and over 2,350 books and book series volumes, as
well as providing an extensive range of online products and additional customer resources and
services.
Emerald is both COUNTER 4 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the
Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for
digital archive preservation.
Downloaded by Universiti Putra Malaysia At 01:18 20 June 2017 (PT)
*Related content and download information correct at time of download.
Downloaded by Universiti Putra Malaysia At 01:18 20 June 2017 (PT)
Promoting protean career through
employability culture
and mentoring
Career strategies as moderator
Siew Chin Wong
HELP University, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, and
Roziah Mohd Rasdi, Bahaman Abu Samah and
Nor Wahiza Abdul Wahat
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
Abstract
Purpose –The purpose of this paper is to examine the effects of organizational-related variables and the
moderating role of career strategies on protean career among employees.
Design/methodology/approach –Research data are gathered from a sample of 306 employees in 18
electrical and electronics multinational corporations (MNCs) in Malaysia. Partial least squares structural
equation modeling (PLS-SEM) is used to examine the inuences of organizational-related factors and the
moderating role of career strategies on protean career.
Findings –The results demonstrate that organizational-related variables, namely, employability culture
and mentoring are viewed as potential predictors of protean career. There are signicant moderating effects of
career strategies on the relationship between both employability culture and mentoring toward protean career
among employees.
Research limitations/implications –This paper provides an empirical framework to explain protean
career based on the review of career-related literatures.
Practical implications –The ndings provide implications to both organizations and human resource
development practitioners on new career trends of protean career. Practical interventions are suggested to
assist individuals and organizations toward protean career development.
Originality/value –This paper offers new insight into the predicting factors of protean career and its
moderating role on career strategies.
Keywords Mentoring, Protean career, Organizational, Career strategies, Employability culture,
Moderator
Paper type Research paper
Introduction
The pace of innovation, the advancement of technology, the turbulence of economics and
market globalization have had an enduring impact on the organizations nowadays. To meet
increasingly market competitiveness, most organizations have exercised massive
restructuring and downsizing to achieve organizational efciency and exibility (Park and
Rothwell, 2009). Resulting from these changes, many employees have experienced
involuntary job loss (i.e. retrenchment practices) and career interruptions in their workplaces
(Eby et al., 2003). An emerging career pattern, namely, the protean career is becoming
increasingly important to one’s career development in the dynamic business environment at
present. It replaces the traditional organizational career development programs. Employees
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available on Emerald Insight at:
www.emeraldinsight.com/2046-9012.htm
Promoting
protean career
277
Received 2 August 2016
Revised 12 February 2017
Accepted 17 February 2017
European Journal of Training and
Development
Vol. 41 No. 3, 2017
pp. 277-302
© Emerald Publishing Limited
2046-9012
DOI 10.1108/EJTD-08-2016-0060
Downloaded by Universiti Putra Malaysia At 01:18 20 June 2017 (PT)
are actively managing their own career development instead of relying on organizational
career development programs (Reitman and Schneer, 2008).
Despite the prominence of the protean career in the workplace presently, Ballout (2009)
highlighted that organization-related factors are still remain important in providing
opportunities for employees to achieve career advancement, specially to pursue protean
career. Organizations are increasingly focused on cultivating and using employees’ skills
and expertise to produce better organizational performance. Hence, the purpose of this study
is to examine the inuence of organizational-related factors on protean career of employees.
Wright and Belcourt (1994) and Tremblay et al. (2014) explained that an individual’s career
goals should integrate with long-term organizational strategies. For instance, the
organization might identify the employees who have the characteristics necessary to hold
middle and upper management positions as part of their career goals. Once identied, these
individuals would be trained and developed through a variety of programs: special project
assignments, position in international divisions, executive training programs and others.
Every employee works in a manner which is aligned with organizational goals and which
ensures that the employee reaches his or her maximum potential on the job (Aminuddin,
2014). In a similar vein, those programs are important to support long-term business
strategies implementation as well as individual’s career goals (Gomez-Mejia et al., 2016). In
this situation, the organization acts to reduce employee uncertainty and helps them to
develop their career via employee learning programs (Granrose and Portwood, 1987;Neves
and Eisenberger, 2014). Hence, it is important to investigate the impact of organizational
factor toward protean career specically.
It is noteworthy to emphasize that by acquiring the required skills and competencies from
the organizational training and development programs, employees will become more
self-reliant in managing their careers and assume the “ownership” of career development.
They acquire and develop a demonstrable set of portable skills and knowledge which fosters
adaptability in any environments instead of depending on the traditional organizational
career development practices (Park and Rothwell, 2009).The learning process is part of
human resource development (HRD) practices which shift the focus from training to
learning. Learning is a process that focuses on developing individual and organizational
potential and building capabilities for the future including career development (Sloman,
2005). Previous studies (Reitman and Schneer, 2008;Ballout, 2009;Gomez-Mejia et al., 2016)
have found that individuals who gained organizational support for learning opportunities
were more likely to achieve career growth and higher job satisfaction with their
organizations. They develop protean career path to navigate their own career (Reitman and
Schneer, 2008). Protean career path explains an individual’s career path that based on
various learning experiences, self-value driven as well as self-directed career moves (Hall,
2002).
Career development among employees plays a central role in ensuring a competitive
workforce. Many organizations considered that career perspective assessment is an
important element of performance appraisal criteria (Gomez-Mejia et al., 2016). Employees’
career development support is viewed as a key HRD strategy and part of business strategies
if they intend to survive in an increasingly competitive business environment. Organization
always compete more their employee’s knowledge, skill and innovation levels than on the
basis of manufacturing capacity (Gomez-Mejia et al., 2016). Most of organizations usually
conduct performance appraisal for employees development purposes, which are geared
toward improving employee’s performance and strengthening their job skills and knowledge
which is essential for their career development. (Gomez-Mejia et al., 2016).
EJTD
41,3
278
Downloaded by Universiti Putra Malaysia At 01:18 20 June 2017 (PT)
To date, few studies (Gould and Penley, 1984; Chay and Aryer, 1999; King, 2004;Ronn,
2010) critically discussed the impacts of career strategies in career development. For
instance, King (2004) explained that appropriate career strategies are important to achieve
career advancement. Earlier study conducted by Chay and Aryee (1999) asserted that career
strategies played as a moderator to inuence the relationship between self-managed career
development and career attitudes. Their ndings suggested that career strategies inuenced
and interacted with career attitudes in the career development process. When the
respondents used career strategies more often, they are more likely to achieve career success.
Nabi (2003) and Greenhaus et al. (2010) also added on that career strategies are career
management interventions that enabling an individual to take charge of own career
development. Therefore, those ndings further emphasized the potential proximal
contextual factor (i.e. career strategies as an interventions) is critical in affecting protean
career (King, 2004). In essence, the social cognitive career theory (SCCT) model (Lent et al.,
1994) asserts that proximal contextual inuences are those factors that affect active, current
choice behavior, particularly to moderate the paths from interests to goals, and from goals to
actions. Lent et al. (1994) described that career networking, organizational climate, job
natures and social support would moderate the relative strengths of career action. Thus, in
this present study, career strategies are identied as a contextual factor proximally affecting
the relationship between organizational-related variables with regards to protean career.
Career strategies reect part of wider career management process in which individuals use
career enhancing activities to facilitate achievement of career development and progression
goals (Greenhaus et al., 2010). The detailed explanation for this moderating variable is
discussed further in the later session. Moreover, the ndings are supported by SCCT (Lent
et al., 1994, p. 107) which identied:
[…] certain contextual factors or events may exert direct or potential impact on career choice
implementation as those factors serve to facilitate, restrict, or override personal volition in the choice
process.
Notably, previous empirical studies have been conducted to explore the potential factors in
inuencing protean career. Most of these studies however have only concentrated on
individual-related variables when addressing career development practices. Less focus has
been paid on the impact of organizational factors on protean career (Nauta et al., 2009;Kroth
and Christensen, 2009;Ramaswami et al., 2014;Wong and Roziah, 2015). Especially, there is
still lack of empirical studies in investigating employability culture and mentoring in
predicting protean career (Nauta et al., 2009;Kroth and Christensen, 2009). Besides, the
protean career literature has not adequately examined the moderating role of career
strategies on the relationship between organizational variables and protean career. Hence,
this study aims to address the above-mentioned empirical gaps. Specically, the study
examines the predictability of organizational-related factors on a protean career and the
moderating role of career strategies on the relationships between the organizational factors
and protean career. The study extends existing knowledge of career management,
particularly in the aspect of identifying the potential impact of organizational-related factors
on protean career.
The paper is organized as follows: The paper begins by reviewing the denitions of a
protean career, followed by presenting related empirical studies in the association between
organizational factors and protean career. The next section describes the methods used in
this research, followed by research ndings and discussion. Finally, the implications of the
study for research and management practices, the limitations and directions for future
studies are discussed.
279
Promoting
protean career
Downloaded by Universiti Putra Malaysia At 01:18 20 June 2017 (PT)
Dening a protean career
Traditionally, careers taking place within a bureaucratic context and on continuous vertical
advancement through the organizational hierarchy (Wilton, 2011). The individual develops
his/her career through climbing up organizational “ladder”, with increases in income, status
and power at each rung. Hence, careers tend to be structured around well-trodden paths or
ladders which link a sequence of jobs resulting in the achievement of predetermined goals
which are objectively dened in the organization (Wilton, 2011).
By the end of 1980s, Arthur et al. (1989) revealed a new conceptualization of career as “the
evolving sequence of a person’s work experiences over time”. This scope is enhanced with
broader denition as compared with the previous denition in 1950s. Arthur et al. (1989)
viewed career from the individual’s perspective as a career paid work activities over a
lifetime. Hence, career theorists emphasize the attribute of self-directedness as a means of
understanding how individual attempts to manage their employability in the workplace
(Taber and Briddick, 2011).
For the recent past decade, employees continue to acquire and demonstrate the
necessary skills and attend training for seeking employment (e.g. employability) (Gubler
et al., 2013). This turned on the spotlight on protean career development and was viewed
as an important career orientation to achieve employees’ subjective career objectives
(Hall, 2004;Hall and Chandler, 2005;Park, 2009). The protean career is an emerging
perspective of career in the twenty-rst century (Greenhaus et al., 2010). The word
“protean” is derived after “Proteus”, the Greek sea-god who could change and transform
in many shapes or substances at will (Hall, 1976). Protean career is dened as a career
where the individual is experiencing greater responsibility for their career choices and
opportunities. The individual values freedom and self-growth and denes career success
in terms of psychological factors (e.g. job satisfaction, self-actualization, personal
accomplishment and sense of self-fulllment) as compared with traditional career (Hall
and Chandler, 2005). It encompasses core value of self-growth by focusing on identity
changes and continuous learning in career development (Hall, 2004). Briscoe and Hall
(2006) added that protean career emphasizes on value-driven and self-directedness
dimensions. Value-driven dimension is generating and evaluating career goals based on
one’s internal values rather than other’s standards, whereby self-directed dimensions is
developing the career through independent career management strategies instead of
relying on others. It is important to identify an individual’s personal value, before
shaping a career that satises these values (Hall, 2002). Briscoe and Hall (2006)
emphasized that being value driven is one of the dimensions which affect a protean
career. It is aligned with the individual career management concept (Hall, 1976)asan
on-going process of preparing, implementing and monitoring career plans undertaken
by an individual. In a similar vein, employees must be able to be their own career
managers, as well as their own futurist, constantly trying to discern trends that will
affect their skills and employment, and keep themselves constantly equipped with new
knowledge and skills that makes them attractive to employers (Hall and Moss, 1998).
Notably, the intrinsic values are viewed as an internal motivator for protean career
development. The protean careerist is more likely to use their self-dened standards and
values to determine subjective career success (e.g. recognition, self-fulllment and
satisfaction) instead of following external standard such as number of promotions obtained,
raises in salary and monetary related recognition (Briscoe and Hall, 2006). In particularly,
protean careerists tend to have learning and employability rather than performance and job
security orientation (Briscoe and Hall, 2006).
EJTD
41,3
280
Downloaded by Universiti Putra Malaysia At 01:18 20 June 2017 (PT)
Gubler et al. (2013, p. 34) redened protean career concepts by including two additional
crucial aspects of identity and adaptability. Identity is “the simultaneous existence of
stabilizing forces” and adaptability is:
[…] the capability to adapt easily to changes in the environment. Both newly dened dimensions are
important as long as individual has pursued particular career path based on own identity, values,
adaptability, and self-direction.
Nevertheless, Granrose and Portwood (1987);Hall (2004) and Rasool et al. (2012) highlighted
the important role of organizations for individual career success. Organization provides an
instrumental role for individual career development and yield positive outcomes to both
parties. The organizational inuences such as organizational culture, formal training and
development programs, peers socialization and cross-functional job assignment are
remaining to be crucial in affecting employee’s career growth (Hall, 2004). Gubler et al. (2013)
suggested that the combination of organizational career support programs and employees’
protean career is a win–win approach for both employers and employees. Employees work
toward organizational goals attainment while pursuing own career goals. The inuence of
organizational-related factors on protean career is discussed in the following section.
Organizational predictors of professional employees’ protean career
The review of past career-related literature reveals that organizational-related factors
contributed signicantly to individual career development. The organizational-related
variables were deduced from the SCCT (Lent et al., 1994). SCCT highlights the importance of
contextual variables in predicting career choice action and career development. The
contextual affordances are described as more distal in nature and inuence individuals’
interests and self-cognitions (Lent and Brown, 2006). SCCT also identies contextual factors
consist of the real and perceived opportunity structure of career plans which are developed
and implemented. Opportunity structure is viewed as:
[…] the environment/context which offers, provides, and or furnishes something to the organism as
long as the organism can perceive “it” as such. Certain contextual factors or events may exert direct
or potential impact on career choice implementation as those factors serve to facilitate, restrict or
override personal volition in the choice process (Lent et al., 1994, p. 107).
An individual actively interacts and interprets the contextual inputs in guiding his or her
behavior. They further explained that the stronger the individual who perceive benecial
external environmental to them, the stronger the positive association between interest to
choice goals and goals to action. The contextual affordances are described as more distal in
nature because they precede and therefore inuence interests and self-cognitions (Lent and
Brown, 2006). The model proposes that individuals are more likely to take actions to achieve
their goals if they have access to environmental (organizational) support and resources to
pursue the goals (Lent and Brown, 2006).
Employees are motivated to use external contextual factors that are useful to satisfy their
career growth needs. The external factors are integrated and internalized into one’s sense of
self career development and individuals in accepting full responsibility of managing their
respective careers. In recent decades, competitive organizational strategies had changed the
career landscape, which may serve either as support or barrier to an individual’s career
success (Briscoe and Hall, 2006). Distal contextual factors such as organizational structures,
cultures and processes are essential inputs for career development in the workplace (Baruch,
2004). Ballout (2009) further highlighted that organization-related factors are important in
assuring employment security and career advancement among employees.
281
Promoting
protean career
Downloaded by Universiti Putra Malaysia At 01:18 20 June 2017 (PT)
In the increasingly competitive global marketplace, organizations are expected to invest
in their employees to yield better business performance and produce more highly skilled
employees. As a result, such an organizational context would have an inuence on career
development among employees (Kanter, 1989). In a similar vein, SCCT model also asserts
proximal contextual elements to moderate the paths from interests to career goals and from
career goals to actions. The proximal contextual inuences are those factors that affect
active, current choice behavior. In the present study, career strategies are identied as a
proximal contextual factor that moderates the relationship between organizational-related
factors and protean career. Individuals use career strategies to facilitate career development
and career goals progression under a specic organizational environment and system
(Greenhaus et al., 2010).
Therefore, the major concern of this study is to determine whether organizational factors
such as employability culture and mentoring affect an employee’s protean career. The study
also examines the career strategies as a proximal contextual element to inuence the
relationship between organizational-related factors and protean career. The organizational-
related factors (i.e. employability culture and mentoring) and career strategies are discussed
in the following section.
Employability culture
Kanter (1989) dened employability culture as the knowledge of the work currently that
enhance a person’s value in terms of future opportunities because it is concerned with
employees’ involvement in work activities and personal growth achievement. Nauta et al.
(2009) addressed employability from an organizational perspective, whereby employability
has been related to organizational functional exibility. Rapid changes in business
globalization as well as competition and technological changes have required organizations
to become more adaptive to the changing demands. The rms can become more adaptive by
increasing employees’ employability through possession of broader skill sets and expertise,
and a willingness to switch freely between tasks (Van Dam, 2004). Whereas, De Vos et al.
(2011) considered employability as individual competencies and their capabilities to
accomplish, acquire or create new task, which leads to positive career outcomes of this
potential. The organization which is successful in implementing an employability culture is
likely to have employee with positive attitudes toward job change and challenging tasks. In
addition, employee commitment to the ongoing development of skills and abilities is
important so that he or she is able to improve job performance in the future. Highly
employable employees enable organizations to have rapid response to external
environmental changes. Most organizations believe that organizational support toward
employees career management is essential if they are preparing employees to assume the
important roles ranging from operational to strategic purposes (Van Dam, 2004).
Earlier studies supported a positive relationship between employability culture and
career development (Fugate et al., 2004;Van Dam, 2004;Nauta et al., 2009;De Vos et al., 2011).
Employability is important for individuals who strive for career development.
Employability is explained as “continuous fullling, acquiring or creation of work through
the optimal use if one’s competences” (Van der Heijde et al., 2006, p. 453). Konrad and Mangel
(2000) found that employability culture helps to motivate the employees to manage their own
careers and seek work that helps in achieving their career goals.
Similarly, a cross-sectional research on 702 employees in health care and welfare
institution in The Netherlands indicated that employability culture is positively related to
employability orientation among respondents (r⫽0.42). Employability orientation is
reected as a general positive attitude toward external mobility in an individual’s career
EJTD
41,3
282
Downloaded by Universiti Putra Malaysia At 01:18 20 June 2017 (PT)
development. They believe that the organizational employability culture enables them to
enhance their skills and broaden their competencies which are important for them to be ready
to take charge of their own career in future. The ndings revealed that an employability
culture stimulates employees’ engagement for career development opportunities (Nauta
et al., 2009).
In a similar vein, Rasool et al. (2012) also indicated that there was signicant relationship
between organizational employability culture and employee’s career development (r⫽0.50,
p⬍0.05). Hence, the reviews of the above results supported the prominence of employability
culture as a predictor of a protean career among professional employees.
Based on these empirical studies, the study proposes:
H1. Employability culture has a positive relationship with protean career.
Mentoring
Mentoring relationship usually takes the form of senior or experienced employee taking a
supporting role in the development of a new or young employee. Kram (1985) explained that
mentoring functions are divided into two broad categories known as career functions and
psychological functions. Career functions are those aspects of a relationship that enhance
learning ropes and preparing for advancement in organization. They serve primarily to
provide career support to the protégé. On the other hand, psychological functions are those
aspects of a relationship that enhance a sense of competence clarity of identity and
effectiveness in a professional role. They help in building self-worth inside and outside the
organization (Kram, 1985). Mentoring is part of range of talent management activities which
organizations engage in to identify, develop, engage, retain and deploy the most talented
individual (Warren, 2006).
Over the years, substantial studies have supported the important role of mentoring in
inuencing individual’s career development (Higgins, 2001;Lankau and Scandura, 2002;
Godshalk and Sosik, 2003). Mentoring is a process through which an individual receives
advice from a more experienced employee with respect to job performance and career
development (Allen et al., 2004;Eby et al., 2008). Noe’s (1996) study on 182 employees,
involving a formal mentoring program, found that the program produced benecial
psychosocial outcomes and career development to protégés. A successful mentoring
relationship requires high commitment from both mentors and protégés.
Pinho et al.’s (2006) qualitative research found that formal mentoring programs are
important in assisting a protégé’s career development. The mentoring programs which
include social, role modeling and vocational support are more likely to affect
self-directedness behavior toward their jobs and career development. Similarly, Ensher et al.
(2001) revealed that vocational support is an important factor predicting one’s perception
toward their career growth. Persons being mentored perceived that the reciprocal
relationship would have assisted them in maneuvering their career development.
Based on the discussion, the following hypothesis was proposed in the current study:
H2. Mentoring has signicant and positive relationships with protean career.
Career strategies as a moderating variable
An individual pursues a particular career strategy that is based on the expectation that it will
provide them with the greatest opportunity of attaining personal and professional success.
Theoretically, the relational-based career strategies provide individuals the opportunities for
personal and professional growth through interdependence (e.g. learning from mentor to
achieve task accomplishment) and reciprocity (e.g. developing expectation, motivation and
skills to help each other) process. Penley and Gould (1984) identied seven career strategies
283
Promoting
protean career
Downloaded by Universiti Putra Malaysia At 01:18 20 June 2017 (PT)
as creating career opportunities, extending work involvement, self-normination/self-
presentation, seeking career guidance, networking, opinion conformity and other
enhancement which have impacted individual career development.
Individuals apply different career strategies in pursuing career goals in different career
stages. The extent to which such aspirations are met will inuence the subjective career
success as highlighted in protean career (Hall, 2004). Based on SCCT model (Lent et al., 1994),
career strategies were viewed as a moderator which asserts contextual inuence proximal to
protean career (i.e. choice behavior). Thus, career strategies usage would elevate subjective
career success by assisting individual to achieve his or her aspirations. Organizational
support programs which reected in job structure are likely to facilitate subjective career
success by invoking career strategies (Nabi, 2003). Employees who actively engage in career
strategies would have a sense of control over their careers and help them to move toward
career goal accomplishment (i.e. self-directness). The supportive organizational contexts (e.g.
mentoring, learning opportunities and self-nomination for challenging task assignment)
enable employees to take a more proactive approach to career development through the use
of career strategies (Nabi, 2003).
Substantial studies have been conducted to examine the relationship between career
strategies and career development (Gould and Penley, 1984;Noe, 1996;King, 2004;
Greenhaus et al., 2010). However, what has been lacking are studies examining career
strategies as a moderator variable in the protean career, particularly in identifying
moderating effect of career strategies on the relationship between organizational-related
factors (i.e. employability culture and mentoring) and a protean career. In this study, career
strategies were identied as a moderator to affect the relationships between organizational-
related factors and protean career.
Ronn’s (2010) study on 311 employees from a South African organization supported the
moderating effect of career strategy between organizational-related factors and individual
career management (i.e. protean career). The ndings explained that the relationship
between employability culture and career development depends on the level of usage of
career strategies. For instance, one could generally expect that an individual who is in high
level usage of career strategies is more likely to display a high need for competencies and
skill development, to a larger extent will appreciate career management initiatives from their
employer (e.g. supportive employability culture) than those who score low on this dimension.
Notably, individuals who have a higher level of using career strategies are also expected
to have more engagement in protean career after having inuenced by employability culture.
They have the chances of fullling self-aspirations and needs for change and development.
In contrast, when the level of usage of career strategies is low, the same level of employability
culture will lead to less involvement in protean career, as the individuals have limited
strategies to explore career opportunities and less condence to take initiative for protean
career development.
In a similar vein, the Kraimer et al.’s (2011) study on 512 exempted employees from the US
manufacturing industry found that employees’ perception toward career opportunities
exploration (i.e. career strategies) moderates the magnitude of the positive relationship
between employees’ perception of organization support for development and job
performance. In other words, the relationship is stronger when perceived career opportunity
exploration is high (r⫽0.21, p⬍0.01). The employees may perceive that high in career
opportunities exploration would lead to better job performance and achievement in career
development. When they perceive career opportunities exploration as low, employees are not
motivated to exert extra effort to improve job performance and low in career goals
attainment. Thus, employment of career strategies is vital in pursuing career development.
EJTD
41,3
284
Downloaded by Universiti Putra Malaysia At 01:18 20 June 2017 (PT)
Thus, a moderating effect of the usage of career strategies on the relationship between
organizational-related factors and a protean career behavior is established.
Hence, the above discussion leads to the following hypotheses:
H3. Career strategies moderate the relationship between organizational-related factor
(i.e. employability culture) and protean career. Specically, this positive relationship
will be stronger when the level of career strategies used is high than when the level
of career strategies used is low.
H4. Career strategies moderate the relationship between organizational-related factors
(i.e. mentoring) and protean career. Specically, this positive relationship will be
stronger when the level of career strategies used is high than when the level of career
strategies used is low.
Research framework
Based on reviews of related literature, we proposed a research framework of protean career.
Organizational factors help to foster positive relationships based on employability culture
and mentoring, which are important to promote protean career development, particularly in
the context of Malaysian electrical and electronics (E&E) industry. Figure 1 depicts the
research framework and the hypothesized relationships in the study.
Methodology
Population and sample
The sampling frame comprised multinational corporations (MNCs) in the E&E industry. The
sampling units were employees from different departments. In this study, probability
sampling was used to select the MNCs. The cluster random sampling procedure was used to
select the MNCs in the selected states in Malaysia, and random selection was used to select
the subjects from each selected MNCs. Based on G*Power analysis and sample size
recommendation in partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) which
build on the properties of ordinary least squares regression-based method, the sample size
required for this study is 350 as suggested by Lei and Lomax (2005) and Hair et al. (2010). The
sample size of 350 explains the statistical power of 80 per cent for detecting R
2
values of at
least 0.10 at 95 per cent level of condence (Hair et al., 2014, p. 21). The questionnaires were
hand-picked by the enumerators based on the agreed time by the respondents. As a result,
306 questionnaires were received and used for analysis which represented about 87 per cent
of response rate. For this study, a descriptive analysis and a frequency distribution were
used to discover any missing or inconsistencies in the data. According to Little and Rubin
(2002) missing data analysis, p⫽0.288 (p⬎0.05), data are MCAR which is an assumption
that must be satised prior to replacing missing values with various imputation techniques.
The missing data are replaced by using estimation maximization technique.
Independent Variables Moderator Dependent Variable
H1 H3 H4
H2
Employability
culture
Career Strategies
Protean
Career
Mentoring
Figure 1.
Research framework
for predicting protean
career
285
Promoting
protean career
Downloaded by Universiti Putra Malaysia At 01:18 20 June 2017 (PT)
This study involved 46.7 per cent male and 53.3 per cent female employees from MNCs in
E&E industry. The size of the selected MNCs was ranged from 5,000 to 8,000 employees. The
employees were from different levels of position, either managerial or technical areas of
expertise. They were more likely to be affected by the impact of organizational changes on
their careers as compared to employees from public sector (Nambiar, 2009). Basically, the
respondents involve directly (primary) and indirectly (secondary) in terms of organization
value chain activities. Notably, the highlight was that all the involved MNCs are practicing
in-house mentoring program as part of HRD programs. Majority of 67 per cent of
respondents were willing to accept voluntary separation scheme (VSS) exercise in their
current organization should there be restructuring and delayering of managerial levels in
practices of cost reduction strategies. According to Opalyn (2012), many MNCs in E&E
industry executed VSS exercise wisely to their employees to protect the corporate’s
reputation. Typically, the number of VSS was trivial in numbers and spread through the
months as not to exaggerate any anxiety to the industry. The next section presents the
assessment of the goodness of measure of the constructs in terms of their validity and
reliability of the research.
Instrumentation
Babbie (2007) supported that operationalization will clarify the meaning of relevant
variables in the context of study which is important to develop appropriate measurement
tools. All instruments were adopted from previous studies and were modied to measure the
study’s variables. Items reported below factor loading of 0.5 were removed for better average
variance extracted (AVE) and composite reliability (CR).
Protean career
The eight items scale was adapted based on the work of Briscoe and Hall (2006). All items
were measured using a ‘ve-point Likert-like scale with values ranging from 1 ⫽“to little or
no extent” to 5 ⫽“to a great extent”. A sample item was: “I am responsible for my success or
failure in my career”. The CR in this study was 0.89.
Employability culture
Employability culture adapted from Nauta et al. (2009). Each item was rated on a ve-point
Likert scale ranging from 1 ⫽“strongly agree” to 5 “strongly disagree”. A total of six items
were removed from the measurement model because the outer loadings were less than 0.70.
Sample items were “My organization encourages employees to broaden their skills” and “My
organization gives employees the opportunity to perform very different activities”. The CR
for this construct was 0.81.
Mentoring
Mentor functions questionnaire (MFQ-9) was used to measure the mentoring variable
(Scandura and Williams, 2001). However, only nine questions (of 15 questions) were used
that are relevant to private setting. The items were scaled from 1 ⫽“strongly agree” to 5 ⫽
“strongly disagree”. Sample items were “My mentor has taken a personal interest in my
career” and “I have shared personal problems with my mentor”. In this study, the CR for
employability culture was 0.92.
Career strategies
This construct was measured using career strategies inventory (Gould and Penley, 1984).
The measurement was adopted and adapted which involves a ve-point Likert scale ranging
from 1 ⫽“to a very little extent” to 5 ⫽“to a very great extent”. The original 26 item of career
EJTD
41,3
286
Downloaded by Universiti Putra Malaysia At 01:18 20 June 2017 (PT)
strategies inventory consists of seven strategies, namely, creating opportunity,
self-nomination, extended work involvement, seeking career guidance, opinion conformity,
networking and other enhancement dimensions. A total of 15 items were deleted after pilot
study because they are irrelevance to the present study. A sample item was: “Developing
skills which may be needed in future career position”. The CR found in this study was 0.88.
Data analysis
PLS-SEM was used in this study. PLS-SEM is the second generation of multivariate
technique of combining conrmatory factor analysis (CFA), multiple linear regression and
path analysis. It focuses on explaining the variance in the dependent variable when
examining the structural model (Hair et al., 2010). Chin et al. (2003) emphasized that
PLS-SEM is appropriate if the phenomenon is relatively new, and prediction is more
important than parameter estimation. In this study, no researches have investigated the
predictability of organizational-related factors, namely, employability culture and
mentoring on protean career (Briscoe and Hall, 2006;Chan and Ong, 2014). The study is
considered as added and new contribution to the existing SCCT model and career theoretical
framework. Specically, this is the case of an incremental study, which is initially based on
a prior model (e.g. SCCT), but new measures and structural paths are then introduced into the
model.
Hair et al. (2010) added that face and content validity must be established prior to any
theoretical testing when using reective or formative measurement models in PLS-SEM. In
this study, two corporate practitioners from two well-established MNCs provided their
judgment of appropriateness and meaningfulness of the questions. The questions were
further modied based on their feedbacks. Especially to avoid jargons used, the questions
were translated to Malaysian language which were relevant to the local context of research.
Hair et al. (2017) explained that hypothesis tests involving the structural relationship
among constructs will be only as reliable and valid, as the measurement models are
explaining how these constructs are measured. PLS-SEM model assessment focuses on the
measurement models which enable the researchers to evaluate the reliability and validity of
the constructs measures. Specically, multivariate measurement involves using several
variables (i.e. multi-items) to measure a construct. For this study, internal consistency (CR),
convergent validity and discriminant validity were examined as explained in following
session.
Convergent validity
Convergent validity of each variable was tested using CFA. Convergent validity is the degree
to which a set of indicators (items) that presume to measure a construct ts the theories (Hair
et al., 2010). The strength of the relationships between items was predicted in a single latent
construct. Based on Hair et al. (2010), factor loadings, CR and AVE (i.e. the sum of the squared
loadings divided by the number of indicators) were used to examine convergent validity. As
shown in Table I, the loadings for all items were greater than the recommended value of 0.5
(Hair et al., 2010). CR indicated that the latent constructs ranged from 0.81 to 0.92 which
exceeded the recommended value of 0.7 (Hair et al., 2010). Subsequently, the AVE (which
measures the variance captured by the indicators relative to measurement error) for
respective constructs was above the recommended value of 0.5 (Hair et al., 2010). Thus,
convergent validity requirement was fullled in this study.
Discriminant validity
Discriminant validity explains the extent to which a construct is truly distinct from other
constructs. As shown in Table II, the correlations for each construct were less than the square
287
Promoting
protean career
Downloaded by Universiti Putra Malaysia At 01:18 20 June 2017 (PT)
root of AVE for the indicators measuring that particular construct, indicating adequate
discriminant validity. In total, the measurement model demonstrates adequate convergent
and discriminant validity in this study.
Hypothesis testing
This section provides the research results for each hypothesis. Table III shows that both
independent variables have signicant correlations with the protean career with r⫽0.40
(employability culture) and r⫽0.35 (p⬍0.01).
Table IV and Figure 2 provide further details on the path analysis to testing the four
postulated hypotheses. The R
2
value indicates that 42.5 per cent of the variance in the
protean career is explained by employability culture and mentoring. Further analysis shows
that employability culture (

⫽0.30, p⬍0.01) and mentoring (

⫽0.21, p⬍0.01) were
positively related to protean career. Thus, H1 and H2 were supported. The ndings
Table I.
Result of measurement
model
Construct Item Loading AVE CR
Protean career PCSD2 0.752 0.506 0.889
PCSD3 0.794
PCSD4 0.801
PCSD5 0.799
PCSD6 0.720
PCSD8 0.590
PCVD9 0.589
PCVD14 0.602
Employability culture EC2 0.763 0.525 0.813
EC3 0.826
EC4 0.574
EC6 0.712
Mentoring MEN1 0.712 0.568 0.922
MEN2 0.753
MEN3 0.812
MEN4 0.824
MEN5 0.606
MEN6 0.833
MEN7 0.724
MEN8 0.688
MEN9 0.802
Career strategies CR1 0.671 0.541 0.876
CR2 0.684
CR3 0.730
CR4 0.796
CR5 0.770
CR6 0.752
Table II.
Discriminant validity
Result of measurement model Employability culture Mentoring
Employability culture 0.725
Mentoring 0.505 0.754
Note: Diagonals represent the square root of the AVE, while the off-diagonals represent the correlations
EJTD
41,3
288
Downloaded by Universiti Putra Malaysia At 01:18 20 June 2017 (PT)
explained the predictability of organizational-related factors on protean career. The
relationship between employability culture and protean career was stronger as compared to
the relationship between mentoring and protean career.
Moderation effect
Two stages of analysis were conducted to response to the hypotheses of present study. The
rst stage will be PLS path model estimation of the reective individual construct. The
second stage is to develop and access the measurement model whereby all constructs are
simultaneously incorporated into a path program and nally to identify the structural model
to test hypotheses on individual path or regression weight (Hair et al., 2017). A two-stage PLS
(Henseler and Chin, 2010) was used to investigate the moderation effect of career strategies
on the relationship between organizational-related variables and protean career (all
constructs were measured by reective indicators). Latent variable scores (LVS) of
employability culture, mentoring and career strategies (i.e. moderating variable) were used
as independent variables. LVS of protean career was treated as the dependent variable
within PLS path modeling. The path model is modied to become a single indicator
measurement model (Henseler and Chin, 2010) as shown in Figures 3 and 4.
Table V indicates that all the path coefcients of the hypothesized interaction
relationship, H3 and H4, were signicant. The interaction relationship between
employability culture and career strategies on protean career (

⫽0.211 p⬍0.05) was
signicant. Similarly, the ndings also indicated that the interaction relationship between
mentoring and career strategies toward protean career (

⫽0.118 p⬍0.05) was signicant.
Thus, H3 and H4 were supported. Both Figures 3 and 4show that both interaction terms of
employability culture ⫻career strategies and mentoring ⫻career strategies have positive
association toward protean career. The effect sizes for employability culture and mentoring
were 0.24 and 0.21, respectively. Both moderating effects have medium effect sizes toward
protean career. Chin et al. (2003) suggest that moderating effect with effect size of 0.02 are
regarded as weak, effect sizes from 0.15 as moderate and effect sizes above 0.35 as strong.
Chin et al. (2003) stated that a low effect size (f
2
) does not necessarily imply that the
underlying moderator effect is negligible: “even a small interaction effect can be meaningful
under extreme moderating conditions, if the resulting beta changes are meaningful, then it is
important to take these conditions into account” (Chin et al., 2003, p. 211). The study provides
empirical ndings that career strategies moderate the relationship between employability
Table III.
Mean, standard
deviation and
correlation coefcient
of research variables
Discriminant validity Mean SD 1 2 3
Protean career 2.48 0.50 1.00
Employability culture 4.06 0.58 0.40** 1.00
Mentoring 3.62 0.42 0.35** 0.50 1.00
Note: ** p⬍0.01
Table IV.
Summary of the
structural model
Relationship Path coefcient SE t-value Decision
Employability culture ¡Protean career 0.30 0.06 4.67** Supported
Mentoring ¡Protean career 0.21 0.07 2.85** Supported
Note: ** p⬍0.01
289
Promoting
protean career
Downloaded by Universiti Putra Malaysia At 01:18 20 June 2017 (PT)
culture and protean career. There is stronger positive relationship when the level of
strategies employed is high as compared with low level of career strategies used.
The plot of the interaction effects between employability culture and career strategies is
shown in Figure 5. We followed the procedures recommended by Aiken and West (1991) and
graphed the signicant interaction effects to facilitate interpretation. Simple slope analysis
(Aiken and West, 1991) was performed by taking into consideration high (one standard
deviation above the mean) and low (one standard deviation below the mean) levels of the
moderator (i.e. career strategies). The ndings suggested that the stronger the employability
culture, the greater is the tendency of employees to engage in a protean career, for the group
with high career strategies than employees with low career strategies. Our ndings depicted
that the moderation effect is stronger for the group with high level usage of career strategies.
As indicated in Figure 4, the level of protean career is greater when both employability
culture and career strategies are high. On the other hand, a protean career is lower when both
employability culture and career strategies are low.
Similarly, in Figure 6, the level of protean career is greater when both mentoring and
career strategies are high. Employees who are actively engaged in mentoring programs are
more likely to develop protean career. The tendency is more signicant in the group with
Table V.
Summary of the
interaction effect on
protean career
Relationship Path coefcient SE t-value Decision
Employability culture ⫻Career strategies ¡Protean career 0.211 0.05 2.281* Supported
Mentoring ⫻Career strategies ¡Protean career 0.118 0.06 2.145* Supported
Note: *p⬍0.05
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
Low Employability Culture High Employability Culture
Protean Career
Low Career
Strategies
High career
Strategies
Figure 5.
Moderation path
model between
employability culture
and career strategies
on protean career
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
Low Mentoring High Mentoring
Protean Career
Low Career
Strategies
High career
Strategies
Figure 6.
Moderation path
model between
mentoring and career
strategies on protean
career
293
Promoting
protean career
Downloaded by Universiti Putra Malaysia At 01:18 20 June 2017 (PT)
high usage of career strategies level than the group with low usage of career strategies level.
The positive relationship between mentoring and protean career is stronger (steeper slope)
when career strategies are at high level than when career strategies are at low level (atter
slope).
Discussion
The research ndings revealed that employability culture is signicantly related to protean
career. The nding is supported by earlier studies which found that employability inuence
individual career development (Konrad and Mangel, 2000;Nauta et al., 2009;Rasool et al.,
2012). Consistent results were obtained by Rasool et al.’s (2012) study who found that
employability culture is positively related to protean career. The context of E&E industry
may have been the reason for the presence of the relationship in such unique industry
environment. The E&E industry is characterized by rapid and dynamic changes in its
business nature and organizational restructures resulting from external environment
factors. This unique business environment is different from other private industries, as there
are direct effects and inuence from advancement of technologies, changes in governmental
policies, localization of MNCs as well as effect from the global nancial crisis in 1998 and
2008. Many MNCs in E&E industries implemented cost reduction strategies to improve their
competitive edges. Subsequently, workforce reduction and elimination of organizational
career development program were commonly practiced to reduce operational cost (Nambiar,
2009). Employees experiencing strong employability culture at their workplace were more
likely to emphasize learning new skills to improve self-employability in labor market,
decision-making ability and job performance. They were more pro-active and creative in
developing own career path (Yamamoto, 2006).
Organizations continue to invest and evaluate in their employees because employability
development produces better business performance from the skilled and trained employees.
Many employees are encouraged to involve in employability enhancement programs when
organizations really invest in fostering on-the-job learning opportunities and task changes
opportunities in the workplace. The involvement is considered as part of the requirement of
performance appraisal activities (Gomez-Mejia et al., 2016). Alternatively, employees
perceived that it is normal to change jobs and tasks on a regular basis and to continuously
invest in keeping knowledge and skills up–to-date (Nauta et al., 2009). Therefore,
employability culture is important to prepare employees to embark on their protean career.
Our ndings also showed that mentoring programs were related to protean career.
Notably, it is explained that all the respondents involved in formal and informal mentoring
program. The nature of mentoring program practiced is a form of altruistic behavior (e.g.
willing to assist junior colleagues to adjust to the work environment) by providing coaching,
friendship and role modeling to the younger and less experienced protégé. It also seeks to
assist the career development of junior employees. Thus, the appropriate level of mentoring
support activities will increase the likelihood of protean career development among
employees. The nding supported a previous local study on 150 academic staffs in
Malaysian private universities, which indicated that mentoring was positively correlated to
career advancement development (Lawrence et al., 2011). Ensher et al. (2001) further
explained that mentoring programs inuence protégé’s attitude toward career development.
They suggested that career-related mentoring activities make complementary contribution
to career accomplishments and prospects. Certain career-related mentoring activities such as
exposure and increased visibility are functions to career mobility and career path
opportunities, which directly enhance career prospects.
EJTD
41,3
294
Downloaded by Universiti Putra Malaysia At 01:18 20 June 2017 (PT)
Noteworthy to highlight that most of the involved MNCs provide short-term formal
mentoring program to new employees. The main purpose of the mentoring program is to
smooth out the socialization process among newly recruited employees. It is a systematic
process by which organizations bring new employees into its workplace culture and
practices (Greenhaus et al., 2010). The programs providing the social knowledge and
skills needed to perform organizational roles and task successfully, for instance, the
familiarization of workplace rules and regulation, job-related procedures and practices
and shared norms of organizational culture (Robbins and Judges, 2013). The duration of
mentoring program varies depending on the organizational HRM policies. It ranges from
3 to 12 months program during the probation period. Mentors and mentees are focusing
on how to improve understanding of business practices and job performance. There is
also discussion, guidance and coaching on employees’ career development perspective
during the mentoring period.
This study showed that career strategies acts as a moderator enhancing the relationship
between employability culture and protean career. The nding further acknowledged Lent
et al.’s (1994) SCCT theory that career strategies is viewed as a proximal contextual factor
inuencing the relationship between employability culture and a protean career. The
existence of a strong employability culture enables organizations to be more adaptive.
Employees’ employability could be increased through possession of broader skills and
expertise, willingness to accept challenging tasks and improved job performance (Van Dam,
2004). Generally, employees who use relevant career strategies are more likely to be openness
in gaining new experience and, thereby, display a high need for continuous professional
development as compared to employees with less usage of career strategies. In contrast,
limited usage of career strategies hinders willingness in exploring career opportunities and
in acquiring relevant career guidance. If career strategies are neglected by employees, they
may face difculties to harness their capabilities and knowledge for better job performance
and career management (Yamamoto, 2006). According to Gould and Penley (1984), the
greater the number of career opportunities a person has (by using appropriate career
strategies), the more likely it will be that individual will achieve career goals under
supportive employability culture environment.
The ndings also postulated that career strategies moderated the relationship between
mentoring and protean career among employees. Employees who practice appropriate usage
of career strategies such as networking, establishing trust relationship and developing good
communication could reduce the conict between mentor and mentee. Subsequently,
supportive mentoring relationships are more likely to assist mentee in receiving career
information and career development opportunities. Obviously, high level of career strategies
would improve mentoring relationship and enable the mentee master the necessary skillset
and competencies for protean career engagement (Lawrence et al., 2011).
Inversely, employees with low level of interpersonal career strategies tend to demonstrate
avoidance and rejection attitude in a mentoring relationship. As such, the hostile relationship
would affect employees’ job satisfaction and performance, resulting in reduction of
condence and pro-activeness in pursuing protean career. In a similar vein, previous studies
also concluded that employees who work under supportive organizational mechanism (i.e.
mentoring) are more likely to practice relevant career strategies to create expertise
development opportunities and manage their career voluntarily (Noe, 1996;Park and
Rothwell, 2009). It was found that the interaction between high level usage of career
strategies and supportive organizational system (i.e. employability culture and mentoring)
would have inuenced protean career.
295
Promoting
protean career
Downloaded by Universiti Putra Malaysia At 01:18 20 June 2017 (PT)
Implications
This study explains the impact of environmental situations on protean career, particularly
the implications to organizations, HRD practitioners and employees, respectively. For
organization, the present framework suggests that organizational support programs can
affect employees’ protean career. Organizational support programs such as employability
culture and mentoring are crucial to encourage employees in continuous learning and skills
enhancement to assist employees in their career decisions and career path development. It
could be assumed that the more organizations take an active interest and provide assistance
in their employees’ career development, the more benets can be obtained by the
organizations because they are able to increase employees’ commitment and reduce turnover
rate accordingly (Briscoe and Finkelstein, 2009). Meanwhile, organizational support system
such as competency enhancement and network support programs are vital to facilitate
employees in managing their career growth. Effective protean career management may need
to be highly tailored to the demand of a particular situation and employees’ expectation.
Notably, formal mentoring system (i.e. organizational-related factor) could be practiced to
assist employees in their career development. Employees may view a mentoring program as
providing learning and development strategies, whereby an experienced co-worker applies
guided learning to assist a less experienced worker in developing new skills and improving
job performance. A mentor can provide coaching, friendship, sponsorship and role modeling
to the juniors, less experienced protégé particularly in job performance and career
development. Mentoring is helping the protégé succeed by providing guidance. For instance,
mentors provide advice on career growth and recommend the mentee for visible positions or
attractive compensation packages. Whereas, coaching is to improve performance and skills.
They provide encouragement and urge continuous improvement of the coachees. Coaches
hold the coachee accountable for trying new things and using his or her strengths to get
results. They offer objective perspective and support the coachee’s efforts to try new actions
which are important for coachees’ career development.
Higgins (2001) stressed that mentoring is a key HRD initiative in fostering employees
career development aligned with the need of organization goal. An organization can
stimulate effective mentoring programs, including career counseling and coaching,
360-degree feedback and emotional support. The organizations are required to develop
mechanisms to allow mentors and protégé to improve mutually supportive bonds. Such
social bonds are important in assisting employees to manage their career plan and
developing appropriate behavior in pursuing their career plan. Engagement of both
mentoring and coaching are important to assist employees in skill development and job
performance.
For HRD practitioners, the study provides insights and awareness of the existence of a
protean career. The traditional psychological contract between employer and employees is
diminishing in the career presently. The protean career reects a new psychological contract
between employer and employees which is based on transactional contract instead of
relational contract (Greenhaus et al., 2010). A transactional contract is usually in shorter term
and involves performance – based pay, lower commitment by both parties and an allowance
for easy exit from the implicit psychological contract. Employees are expected to be exible
in accepting new work assignments and be willing to develop new skills in response to
the organization’s needs. In return, the organization does not offer promises of future
employment but rather “employability” by providing opportunities for continued
professional growth and development. The changing psychological contract between
employee and employer has become more complicated, as both groups have declared their
independence from one another for the long term; yet, there is interconnection for the short
EJTD
41,3
296
Downloaded by Universiti Putra Malaysia At 01:18 20 June 2017 (PT)
term (Doyle, 2000). Individuals play an active role in charting their career development, thus,
transcending the role of the organization in managing employees’ career growth. Further,
this study revealed the prominence of organizational variables as predictors of a protean
career. The ndings support the role of organizational-related factors (i.e. distal and
proximal contextual factors) in inuencing individuals’ protean career development, as
posited by the SCCT (Lent et al., 1994). Hence, HRD practitioners would formulate and
develop relevant HRD strategies to assist employees in their protean career development.
The focus on of protean career will increase employees’ awareness and readiness to
manage their career in a more proactive way. They are proactively acquire relevant skills,
knowledge and opportunities via training and development programs which introduced by
the organizations. The proactive roles of employees to participate in training and
development program would maximize the transfer of knowledge during learning process
and enhanced self-competencies for career growth. In this situation, the competencies and
employability always lead to career development and contributed to the eld of HRD, as
career development is one of the main focus of HRD; the contribution to protean career as the
eld of study would also provide an added value to HRD as the body of knowledge that
oversee the study. HRD practitioners should give more emphasis on providing
organizational support to employees through the realm of protean career, as it is controlled
by employees’ responsibility and initiatives. HRD practitioners in a new career environment
should work toward creating a continuous learning climate and consider the organization’s
responsibility for enhancing employees’ career strategies (Park and Rothwell, 2009).
The research ndings indicated that a protean career is inuenced by the application of
the usage level of career strategies. HRD practitioners might engage with career counselors
to identify and evaluate the effectiveness of employees’ career strategies such as attaining
competence in current job, putting in extended work hours, developing new skills,
developing new opportunities at current work and attaining a mentor that they used in their
career management. They can help employee identifying appropriate career strategies used
for protean career development based on the competencies of the employees.
For employees, the supportive employability cultures via organizational induction
programs, interpersonal relationship between superiors and employees, organizations shall
inspire the employees to focus on positive motives for self-employability and career
development. Employees would be able to perceive that it is normal to change jobs and tasks
on a regular basis and to continuously invest in keeping knowledge and skills up-to-date.
Employers assumed that the more organizations take an active interest and provide
assistance in their employees’ career development, the more benets can be obtained by the
organizations because they are able to increase employees’ commitment and reduce turnover
rate (Briscoe and Finkelstein, 2009). In addition, employees who leave an organization and
instill in them the strong organizational employability culture are more likely to be good
ambassadors of their former organization, which, in turn, may help attract talented
employees and potential customers (Nauta et al., 2009).
On other aspects, a strategic linkage is made between contextual affordance elements and
career development process as outlined in SCCT (Lent et al., 1994). Hence, the derived
research model sought to increase the understanding of relationship between independent
variables and a protean career. The ndings of the study provided empirical evidence that
employability culture and mentoring (i.e. organizational-related variable) are predictors of a
protean career. In a similar vein, the study examined the moderating effect of career
strategies on the relationship between organizational-related factors and protean career.
Further empirical examination involving this theory was rare and not comprehensively
297
Promoting
protean career
Downloaded by Universiti Putra Malaysia At 01:18 20 June 2017 (PT)
investigated (Lee, 2002). Therefore, the nding of this research provides insights in
explaining the moderating effect of career strategies in protean career relationships.
Specically, this study stretches the predictors of protean career by incorporating
organizational-related variables from the Malaysian context. The study has provided input
on the phenomenon of protean career of private sector professional employees from a
non-western perspective. The ndings revealed further that employees are less likely to
manage their own career at the expense of the organizational priority. It could be said that
Malaysian collectivist cultural values including considerate, moderate, respect for each other
are important to affect Malaysian working behavior. Thus, the practices of protean career
among professional employees in E&E industry are not at the risk of scarifying
organizational priorities and goals.
Subsequently, this study contributed insight from the perspectives of professional
employees in Malaysia E&E industry which is still lacking of studies related to this industry.
It is noteworthy to highlight the results of the study also supplemented to the knowledge of
protean career from the perspective of local context in Malaysia MNCs. In addition, it also
used a more comprehensive measurement on dismal (i.e. employability culture and
mentoring factors) and proximal contextual elements (i.e. career strategies) toward protean
career. Thus, this study has provided empirical ndings to conrm Lent et al.’s (1994) SCCT
model. The interactions between the organizational factors (dismal contextual elements) and
career strategies (proximal contextual element) will inuence individual’s career interest
development, subsequently to affect goal choice and career actions in a pro-active manner
(i.e. protean career) as postulated in SCCT model (Lent et al., 1994). A strategic linkage is
made between both dismal and proximal contextual elements in explaining career
development process.
Study limitations and future research
The study has limitations and suggestions for future research are provided. First, the
limitation of the current cross-sectional study design. The sample of this study involved
employees from the MNCs in Malaysia E&E industry and the generalization of the study
ndings may be limited to other industries (Ary et al., 2010). Second, the concept of
employability culture is a limited operationalization that focused upon the employees’
employability on career prospect. The recommendations to be considered are more
elaborative conceptualizations on employability which related to other prospects (Van der
Haijde et al., 2006). Third, the present study focused on the formal mentoring program
relationship in the organization. Thus, the generalization of the ndings to other types of
mentoring program such as informal mentoring and external mentoring shall be limited.
Hence, future research should investigate the correlation of mentoring provided in
alternative forms of mentoring relationship.
References
Aiken, L.S. and West, S.G. (1991), Multiple Regression: Testing and Interpreting Interactions, Sage
Publication, Newbury Park, CA.
Allen, T.D., Eby, L.T., Poteet, M.L., Lentz, E. and Lima, L. (2004), “Career benets associated with
mentoring for protégés: a meta-analysis”, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 89, pp. 127-136. doi:
10.1037/0021-9010.89.1.12.
Aminuddin, M. (2014), Human Resource Management: Principles and Practices, (3rd ed), Oxford,
Malaysia.
Arthur, M.B., Hall, D. and Lawrence, B. (1989), Handbook of Career Theory, Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge.
EJTD
41,3
298
Downloaded by Universiti Putra Malaysia At 01:18 20 June 2017 (PT)
Ary, D., Jacobs, L.C. and Razavieh, A. (2010), Introduction to Research in Education, 8th ed., Cengage
Learning, Belmont.
Babbie, E. (2007), The Practice of Social Research, 11th ed., Thompson, Belmont, Wadsworth.
Ballout, H.I. (2009), “Career commitment and career success: moderating role of self-efcacy”, Career
Development International, Vol. 14 No. 2, pp. 655-670, doi: 10.1108/13620430911005708.
Baruch, Y. (2004), “The academic career: a model for future careers in other sectors”, Journal of
Vocational Behavior, Vol. 64, pp. 241-262, doi: 10.1016/j.jvb.2002.11.002.
Briscoe, J.P. and Finkelstein, L.M. (2009), “The new career and organizational commitment: do
boundaryless and protean attitudes make a difference?”, Career Development International,
Vol. 14 No. 3, pp. 242-260.
Briscoe, J.P. and Hall, D.T. (2006), “The interplay of boundaryless and protean career: combination and
implications”, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 69, pp. 4-18, doi: 10.1016/j.jvb.2005.09.002.
Chan, W.S. and Ong, L.D. (2014), “Boundaryless career attitudes, employability and employee turnover:
perspective from Malaysian hospitality industry”, Research Journal of Applied Sciences,
Engineering and Technology, Vol. 7 No. 12, pp. 2516-2523.
Chay, Y.W. and Aryee, S. (1999), “Potential moderating inuence of career growth opportunities on
careerist orientation and work attitudes: evidence of protean career era in Singapore”, Journal of
Organizational Behavior, Vol. 20 No. 5, pp. 613-623.
Chin, W.W., Marcolin, B. and Newsted, P. (2003), “A partial least squares latent variable modeling
approach for measuring interaction effects: results from a Monte Carlo simulation study and an
electronic-mail emotion/adoption study”, Information Systems Research, Vol. 14 No. 2,
pp. 189-217, doi: 10.1287/isre.14.2.189.16018.
De Vos, A., De Hauw, S. and Van der Heijden, B.I.J.M. (2011), “Association between perceived
employability, employee well-being, and its contribution to organizational success: a matter of
psychological contract?”, The International Journal of Human Resource Management, Vol. 22
No. 7, pp. 438-447, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2011.05.010.
Doyle, P. (2000), Value-Based Marketing: Marketing Strategies for Corporate Growth and Shareholder
Value, John Wiley, Chichester.
Eby, L.T., Butts, M. and Lockwood, A. (2003), “Predictors of success in the era of the boundaryless
career”, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Vol. 24, pp. 689-708.
Eby, L.T., Allen, T.D., Evans, S.C., Ng, T. and DuBois, D.L. (2008), “Does mentoring matter? A
multidisciplinary meta-analysis comparing mentored and non-mentored individuals”, Journal of
Vocational Behavior, Vol. 72, pp. 254-267.
Ensher, E.A., Thomas, C. and Murphy, S.E. (2001), “Comparison of traditional, step ahead and peer
mentoring on protégé support”, Journal of Business and Psychology, Vol. 15 No. 3, pp. 419-438,
doi: 10.1023/A:1007870600459.
Fugate, M., Kinicki, A.J. and Ashforth, B.E. (2004), “Employability: a psycho-social construct, its
dimensions and applications”, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Vol. 65, pp. 14-38.
Godshalk, V.M. and Sosik, J.J. (2003), “Aiming for career success: the role of learning goal orientation in
mentoring relationship”, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 63 No. 3, pp. 417-437.
Gomez-Mejia, L.R., Balkin, D. and Cardy, R. (2016), Managing Human Resources, 8th ed., Pearson,
Hoboken, NJ.
Gould, S. and Penley, L.E. (1984), “Career strategies and salary progression: a study of their
relationships in a municipal bureaucracy”, Organizational Behavior and Human Performance,
Vol. 34, pp. 244-265, doi: 10.1016/0030-5073(84)90006-0.
Granrose, C.K. and Portwood, T.D. (1987), “Matching individual career plans and organizational career
management”, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 30, pp. 699-720, doi: org/10.2307/256156.
Greenhaus, J.H., Callanan, G.A. and Godshalk, M. (2010), Career Management, 4th ed., Sage Publication,
Thousand Oaks, CA.
299
Promoting
protean career
Downloaded by Universiti Putra Malaysia At 01:18 20 June 2017 (PT)
Gubler, M., Arnold, J. and Coombs, C. (2013), “Reassessing the protean career concept: empirical
ndings, conceptual components, and measurement”, Journal of Organizational Behavior,
Vol. 35, pp. 23-40, http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/job.1908
Hair, J.F., Hult, G.T.M., Ringle, C.M. and Sarstedt, M. (2014), A Premier on Partial Least Squares
Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM), Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA.
Hair, J.F., Hult, G.T.M., Ringle, C.M. and Sarstedt, M. (2017), A Premier on Partial Least Squares
Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM), 2nd ed., Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA.
Hair, J.F., Black, W.C., Babin, B.J., Anderson, R.E. and Tatham, R.L. (2010), Multivariate Data Analysis,
6th ed., Pearson, Prentice Hall, NJ.
Hall, D.T. (1976), Career in Organizations, Pacic Pallisades, Goodyear, CA.
Hall, D.T. (2002), Careers In and Out of Organizations, Sage Publication, Thousand Oaks, CA.
Hall, D.T. (2004), “The protean career: a quarter century journey”, Journal of Vocational Behavior,
Vol. 65, pp. 1-13, doi: 10.1016/j.jvb.2003.10.006.
Hall, D.T. and Chandler, D.E. (2005), “Psychological success: when the career is calling”, Journal of
Organizational Behavior, Vol. 26, pp. 155-176, doi: 10.1002/job.301.
Hall, D.T. and Moss, J .E. (1998), “The new career contract: helping organizations and employees adapt”,
Organizational Dynamics, Vol. 26 No. 3, pp. 22-37, doi: 10.1016/S0090-2616(98)90012.2.
Henseler, J. and Chin, W.W. (2010), “A comparison of approaches for the analysis of interaction effects
between latent variables using partial least squares path modeling”, Structural Equation
Modeling, Vol. 17 No. 2, pp. 82-109, doi: 10.1080/10705510903439003.
Higgins, M.C. (2001), “Reconceptualising mentoring at work: a developmental network perspective”,
Academy of Management Review, Vol. 26 No. 2, pp. 254-288.
Kanter, R. (1989), “Careers and the wealth of nations: a macro perspective on the structure and
implications of career forms”, in Arthur, M.B., Hall, D.T. and Lawrence, S. (Ed.), Handbook of
Career Theory, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
King, Z. (2004), “New or traditional careers? A study of UK graduates’ preferences”, Human Resource
Management Journal, Vol. 13 No. 1, pp. 5-26, doi: 10.1111/j.1748-8583.2003.tb00081.x.
Konrad, A.M. and Mangel, R. (2000), “The impact of work-life programs on rm productivity”, Strategic
Management Journal, Vol. 21 No. 12, pp. 1225-1237, doi: org/10.1002/1097-0266(200012)21:
12%3C1225::AID-SMJ135%3E3.0.CO.
Kraimer, M.L., Seibert, S.E., Wayne, S.J. and Liden, R.C. (2011), “Antecedents and outcomes of
organizational support for development: the critical role of career opportunities”, Journal of
Applied Psychology, Vol. 96 No. 3, pp. 485-500, doi: 10.1037/a0021452.
Kram, K.E. (1985), Mentoring at Work: Developmental Relationships in Organizational Life, Scott
Foresman, Glenview, IL.
Kroth, M. and Christensen, M. (2009), Career Development Basics: A Complete How- to Guide to Help
You, ASTD Press, Rosewood Drive, Danver.
Lankau, M.J. and Scandura, T.A. (2002), “An investigation of personal learning in mentoring
relationship: content, antecedents, and consequences”, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 45
No. 4, pp. 79-790.
Lawrence, A., Maimunah, I., Aminah, A. and Jamilah, O. (2011), “Predictors of academics’ career
advancement at Malaysian private universities”, Journal of European Industrial Training,
Vol. 35 No. 6, pp. 589-605.
Lee, C.B. (2002), “Career goals and career management strategy among information technology
professionals”, Career Development International, Vol. 7 No. 1, pp. 6-13, doi: 10.1108/
13620430210414829.
EJTD
41,3
300
Downloaded by Universiti Putra Malaysia At 01:18 20 June 2017 (PT)
Lei, M. and Lomax, R.G. (2005), “The effect of varying degrees of nonnormality in structural equation
modeling”, Structural Equation Modeling, Vol. 12 No. 1, pp. 1-27, doi: 10.1207/
s15328007sem1201_1.
Lent, R.W. and Brown, S.D. (2006), “Integrating person and situation perspectives on work satisfaction:
a social cognitive view”, Journal of Vocational Behavior, No. 45, pp. 79-122,
doi: 10.1006/jvbe.1994.1027.
Lent, R.W., Brown, S.D. and Hackett, G. (1994), “Toward a unifying social cognitive theory of career and
academic interest, choice and performance”, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 45, pp. 79-122,
doi: 10.1006/jvbe.1994.1027.
Little, R.J.A. and Rubin, D.B. (2002), Statistical Analysis with Missing Data, John Wiley, New York.
Nabi, G.R. (2003), “Situational characteristics and subjective career success: the mediating role of
career-enhancing strategies”, International Journal of Management, Vol. 24 No. 6, pp. 653-671.
Nambiar, S. (2009), “Malaysia and the global crisis: impact, response, and rebalancing strategies”, ADBI
Working Paper Series No. 148.
Nauta, A., Vianen, A.N., Van Der Heijden, B., Van Dam, K. and Willeman, M. (2009), “Understanding the
factors that promote employability orientation: the impact of employability culture, career
satisfaction and role breath self-efcacy”, Journal of Occupational and Organizational
Psychology, Vol. 82, pp. 233-251, doi: 10.1348/096317908X320147.
Neves, P. and Eisenberger, R. (2014), “Perceived organizational support and risk taking”, Journal of
Managerial Psychology, Vol. 29 No. 2, pp. 187-205, doi: 10.1108/JMP-07-2011-0221.
Noe, R.A. (1996), “Is career management related to employee development and performance?”, Journal of
Organizational Behavior, Vol. 17 No. 2, pp. 119-133, doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1099-1379(199603)17:
2⬍119::AID-JOB736⬎3.0.CO;2-O.
Opalyn, M. (2012), “As demand falls, Penang plants cut jobs and production”, available at: www.
themalaysianinsider.com/malaysia/article/as-demand-falls-penang-plants-cut-jobs-and-
production#sthash.SuvXYMGW.dpuf (accessed 13 April 2015).
Park, Y. (2009), “Factors inuencing self-directed career management: an integrative investigation”,
Journal of European Industrial Training, Vol. 33 No. 7, pp. 578-593, doi: 10.1108/
03090590910985363.
Park, Y. and Rothwell, W.J. (2009), “The effects of organizational learning climate, career enhancing and
work orientation on the protean career”, Human Resource Development International, Vol. 12
No. 4, pp. 387-405, doi: 10.1080/13678860903135771.
Pinho, S.D.C., Coetzee, M. and Schreuder, D. (2006), “Formal mentoring: mantee and mentor
expectations and perceived challenges”, Journal of Human Resource Management, Vol. 3 No. 3,
pp. 20-26.
Ramaswami, A., Huang, J.-C. and Dreher, G.F. (2014), “Mentoring across cultures: the role of gender and
marital status in Taiwan and the US”, Journal of Business Research, Vol. 67, pp. 2542-2549.
Rasool, S., Kiyani, A.A., Aslam, M.J., Akram, M.U. and Rajput, A.A. (2012), “Impact of organizational
culture on employee’s career salience: an empirical study of banking sector in Islamabad,
Pakistan”, International Journal of Business and Social Science, Vol. 3 No. 7, pp. 299-306.
Reitman, F. and Schneer, J.A. (2008), “Enabling the new career of 21st century”, Organizational
Management Journal, Vol. 5, pp. 17-28. doi: 10.1057/omj.2008.4.
Robbins, S.P. and Judge, T. (2013), Organizational Behavior, 15th Edition (International), Pearson.
Ronn, M. (2010), “The relationship between career management and organizational commitment: the
moderating effect of openness to experience”, Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Stellenbosch
University.
Scandura, T.A. and Williams, E.A. (2001), “An investigation of the moderating effects of gender on the
relationship between mentoring initiation and protégés perception of mentoring functions”,
Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 59 No. 3, pp. 342-363.
301
Promoting
protean career
Downloaded by Universiti Putra Malaysia At 01:18 20 June 2017 (PT)
Sloman, M. (2005), Change Agenda: Training to Learning, Research Report, CIPD, London.
Taber, B.J. and Briddick, W.C. (2011), “Adlerian-based career counseling in an age of protean careers”,
The Journals of Individual Psychology, Vol. 67 No. 2, pp. 107-121.
Tremblay, M., Dahan, J. and Gianecchini, M. (2014), “The mediating inuence of career success in
relationship between career mobility criteria, career anchors and satisfaction with organization”,
Personnel Review, Vol. 43 No. 6, pp. 818-844, doi: 10.1108/PR-08-2012-0138.
Van Dam, K. (2004), “Antecedents and consequences of employability orientation”, European Journal of
Work and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 13, pp. 29-51, doi: 10.1080113594320344000237.
Van Der Heijde, C.M., Van der Heijden, B.I.J.M. and Schyns, B. (2006), “A competence-based and
multidimensional operationalization and measurement of employability”, Human Resource
Management, Vol. 45, pp. 449-476, doi: 10.1002/hrm.20119.
Warren, C. (2006), “Curtain call”, People Management Magazine, 23 March.
Wilton, N. (2011), An Introduction to Human Resource Management, Sage, London.
Wong, S.C. and Roziah, M.R. (2015), “Protean career among professionals in malaysian electrical and
electronics industry and the moderating role of career strategies”, European Journal of Training
and Development, Vol. 39 No. 5, pp. 1-25, doi: 10.1108/EJTD-02-2015-0009.
Wright, P.C. and Belcourt, M. (1994), “Management development: a career management perspective”,
The International Journal of Career Management, Vol. 6 No. 5, pp. 3-10.
Yamamoto, H. (2006), “The relationship between employees’ inter-organizational career orientation and
their career strategies”, Career Development International, Vol. 11 No. 3, pp. 243-264.
Further reading
Carr, Z., Schmidt, A.M., Ford, J.K. and DeShon, R.P. (2003), “Climate perceptions matter: a meta analytic
path analysis relating moral climate, cognitive and affective states, and individual level work
outcomes”, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 88, pp. 605-619.
Hall, D.T. (1996), “Protean career of 21st century”, Academy of Management Executive, Vol. 10, pp. 8-16.
Ostroff, C. (1993), “The effects of climate and personal inuences on individual behavior and attitudes
in organizations”, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Vol. 56, pp. 56-90,
doi: 10.1006/obhd.1993.1045.
Corresponding author
Siew Chin Wong can be contacted at: sc.wong@help.edu.my
For instructions on how to order reprints of this article, please visit our website:
www.emeraldgrouppublishing.com/licensing/reprints.htm
Or contact us for further details: permissions@emeraldinsight.com
EJTD
41,3
302
Downloaded by Universiti Putra Malaysia At 01:18 20 June 2017 (PT)
