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Longitudinal relations between adolescents' self-esteem and prosocial behavior toward strangers, friends and family
Journal of Adolescence
Abstract
The present study examined age-trends and longitudinal bidirectional relations in self-esteem and prosocial behavior toward strangers, friends, and family over a four-year time period (age 11 to 14). A total of 681 adolescents were recruited in the United States (51% girls, 28% single parent families). A longitudinal panel model was conducted and the results showed that adolescent self-esteem was associated longitudinally with subsequent prosocial behavior toward strangers, and earlier prosocial behavior toward strangers promoted subsequent self-esteem. There were no such bidirectional relations between self-esteem and prosocial behavior toward friends and family. Findings also highlight the complexity of adolescent development of selfesteem and the multidimensional nature of prosocial behavior. Discussion focuses on understanding the dynamic interplay between adolescent selfesteem and prosocial behavior.
... Meta-analytic work emphasizes that the examination of mechanisms is a pressing next step to parsing out these somewhat ambiguous findings. The inclusion of self-esteem in the current study, a positive buffering agent associated both positively with prosocial behavior [12] and negatively with internalizing symptomology [13], addresses this call. ...
... This highlights both the importance of considering the target of prosocial behavior and explanatory mechanisms. Moreover, prosocial behavior specifically toward strangers during adolescence was found to be associated with internal strengths and motivations such as self-esteem [12], sense of meaning [16], hope, persistence, and gratitude, which in turn protect against depression [17]. However, a recent study including 14 different countries found that only prosocial behavior toward family members (not toward strangers or friends) was consistently negatively associated with depression among emerging adults [18]. ...
... We hypothesized that prosocial behavior at Time 1 (especially prosocial behavior toward strangers and family) would be associated with lower levels of depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms, and suicidal risk at Time 2. We also hypothesized that self-esteem would mediate the relationship between prosocial behavior and internalizing symptomology and suicidal risk. Because of consistent gender differences in prosocial behavior [22] and self-esteem [12], we explored gender as a moderator but did so in an exploratory fashion. ...
... It plays a central role in adolescent development, influencing various behaviors, including social interactions and psychological well-being (Keane & Loades, 2017). Importantly, self-esteem shapes how adolescents interpret and respond to their social environment, including their engagement in prosocial behaviors (Fu et al., 2017). ...
... Furthermore, self-esteem is closely linked to prosocial behavior, as individuals with higher self-esteem experience greater intrinsic motivation to engage in prosocial acts (Li & Hao, 2022). Both cross-sectional and longitudinal research have shown a positive correlation between high self-esteem and engagement in current and subsequent prosocial behavior among adolescents (Fu et al., 2017;Li & Hao, 2022). Children with higher self-esteem believe in their ability to assist and care for others, leading to a stronger prosocial inclination; ...
Whether higher family socioeconomic status (SES) drives adolescents to engage in more prosocial behaviors is a topic of debate. Previous research has typically concentrated on the association between self-reported subjective SES and their prosocial behaviors. Drawing from the Ecological Systems Theory, this study incorporates two proximal factors-parental educational expectations (PEE) and adolescent's self-esteem-into a chained mediation model to explore the mechanisms of the distal factor, family SES, links to adolescents' prosocial behavior. An analysis of 600 caregiver-child pairs (with children ranging from Grades 3 to 12, comprising 64.3% boys) supports the negative link between family SES and prosocial behavior and unexpectedly indicates the suppressing mediating effect of PEE and self-esteem. Results suggest that prosocial motivation is not solely linked with material resources; it also intertwines with family educational perspectives and the development of individual self-worth. These findings provide implications in cultivating prosocial behaviors among adolescents from different SES.
... Other emerging evidence suggests that young people's empathy and prosocial behaviours do not appear to be expressed equally across all situations and contexts (Estévez et al., 2016;Melloni et al., 2013;. For example, a small body of research indicates that adolescents show differences in their empathic and prosocial responding depending on their relationship with the target (e.g., family, friends, strangers) Fu et al., 2017;Jaureguizar et al., 2013). Youth empathy and prosocial behaviour has been shown to vary across different situations and cultural contexts (Mesurado et al., 2014;Padilla-Walker & Fraser, 2014;Rad et al., 2020) and there have been calls for greater attention to be paid to how context shapes the expression of empathy (Stellar & Duong, 2023). ...
... Thus, these findings indicate that empathy may be a 'conditional' rather than a 'universal' response, in that it seems to be felt or shown toward certain people, in certain situations, but not toward others (Van Rijsewijk et al., 2016). Evidence from other empirical research also suggests that youth's empathic and prosocial responding does vary according to different situational and target characteristics (Fu et al., 2017;Padilla-Walker et al., 2015;Sturmer et al., 2006), although research investigating this matter appears somewhat limited. Hence, these findings may suggest that there is, at least to a certain extent, a parochial aspect to youth's empathic and prosocial responding. ...
The aim of this study is to explore young people's perspectives on the factors that facilitate or inhibit empathy and prosocial responding among youth. Qualitative focus groups ( n = 29) were undertaken with Irish young people aged 13–17 years relating to their views on the factors that facilitate or inhibit the expression of empathy. Parents, friends, and social media were found to be key influences, whereas barriers identified included societal norms, gender norms, lack of skill, or knowledge and target characteristics. This research provides important insights into adolescents’ perceptions of the social correlates of empathy. Concepts from the sociology of empathy, such as empathy maps and paths, are helpful in drawing out the implications for future research and practice.
... Selfesteem, which reflects an individual's overall assessment of their own value and competence, is thought to be intimately related to a variety of psychological and behavioral outcomes (von Soest, Wichstrøm, & Kvalem, 2016). Previous studies have found that those with higher self-esteem engage in more good behaviors, including prosocial activities (Fu, Padilla-Walker, & Brown, 2017). However, the relationship between self-esteem and prosocial behaviors may be more complicated than it appears. ...
... Self-esteem is linked to prosocial behavior, and prosocial behavior is linked to future self-esteem. So, Fu et al. (2017) investigated the longitudinal association between prosocial behavior and adolescent self-esteem among family, friends, and strangers. Data have been collected from 681 adolescents in the US. ...
Purpose: The current study focuses on how emotional expressivity influences the link between prosocial activities and self-esteem in undergraduate students. Design/Methodology/Approach: The study's sample consisted of 528 college students, with ages ranging from 17 to 24 years. Of the participants, 52.8% identified as female and 47.2% identified as male. The participants in the study were provided with Rosenberg's self-esteem scale, a measure of prosocial propensity, and an emotional expressivity scale. Statistical Package for Social Science was used to generate the results. Findings: The findings reveal the relationship between self-esteem and prosocial behavior, as well as the contribution of emotional expressivity as a modifier in that correlation. It was further explored that people who scored high on self-esteem and emotional expressivity were more likely to engage in prosocial behaviors. Conclusion: Gaining insight into the underlying factors that contribute to the correlation between self-esteem and prosocial behaviour is crucial to the advancement of strategies aimed at fostering and demonstrating prosocial behaviour. Research Limitation: One possible limitation of the study is its reliance on self-reported measures, which may be subject to bias regarding social desirability and may not completely capture individuals' actual behaviours. To supplement self-reported data, future studies could use observational or experimental approaches. Practical Implication: The study's conclusions have consequences for educators, counselors, and policymakers. Understanding the function of emotional expressivity in encouraging prosocial behavior can help guide initiatives aimed at creating a pleasant and supportive atmosphere in educational institutions and communities. Contribution to Literature: This study improves the existing body of facts by looking into the relationship between self-esteem, emotional expressivity, and prosocial behaviors. It enhances our understanding of the aspects that drive prosocial behavior and emphasizes the status of moderation for emotional expressivity in the context of this connection.
... Many studies have investigated the importance of self-esteem on prosocial behaviors in various contexts and backgrounds (e.g. Jami et al., 2021), and some longitudinal studies provide evidence of its impact (see Fu et al., 2017). According to the sociometer theory (Leary, 2005), self-esteem monitors the quality of an individual's interpersonal relationships and motivates behavior that helps maintain a minimum level of acceptance by others (Leary & Baumeister, 2000). ...
... Some longitudinal studies give further evidence to this relationship. For instance, Fu et al. (2017) found self-esteem was associated longitudinally with subsequent prosocial behavior toward strangers through a four-year tracking study. However, the knowledge about the combined effect of perceived social relation and self-esteem on prosocial behaviors is largely limited. ...
Despite a great deal of recent scholarly attention devoted to prosocial behaviors in tourism, its central antecedents from a socio-psychological and cultural perspective remain unknown. Using key socio-cultural constructs (cultural worldviews, perceived social relations, and self-esteem), this research examines a baseline model and compares it with a competing model to highlight alternative theoretical possibilities. We employ the face negotiation theory, the theory of reciprocal altruism, the sociometer theory, and the terror management theory to disentangle these relationships highlighting self-esteem’s significant role. The results are based on a survey of 403 tourists in a popular tourist destination in Asia, Macau. In the better-fitted model, findings demonstrate that while cultural worldviews and perceived social relations significantly predict prosocial behaviors, self-esteem moderates the extent to which both cultural worldviews and perceived social relations would trigger prosocial behaviors. These findings contribute valuable theoretical, methodological, and practical insights into the relationships among prosocial behavior and its socio-cultural antecedents.
... This is because taking prosocial actions may enable individuals to feel valued and needed by others, which bolsters feelings about the social self [24]. Research has shown that prosociality is linked to higher levels of general self-worth and social worth [24,25]. Cognitive theories of internalizing disorders posit that individuals with adaptive self-schemas are less vulnerable to developing internalizing problems [26,27]. ...
... Consistent with prior findings, this study provided evidence that prosocial behavior can be used as a protective factor to allow individuals to experience less psychological maladjustment. The high level of prosociality is positively connected with self-perceived social competence, which mirrored the results that prosociality is linked to higher levels of general self-worth and social worth [24,25], and the positive self-perceived social competence, in turn, may protect elementary and secondary school students from developing psychological problems [28]. ...
Despite empirical findings that prosociality can prevent elementary and secondary school students from developing psychological maladjustment, little is known about the underlying mechanisms. The goal of the present study was to examine the mediating effects of peer preference and self-perceived social competence on the associations between prosociality and psychological maladjustment (i.e., depressive symptoms and loneliness). Participants were 951 students (Mage = 11 years, 442 girls) in Grades 3~7 from Shanghai, China. They completed peer nominations of prosociality and peer preference and self-report measures of self-perceived social competence, depressive symptoms, and loneliness. Multiple mediation analyses revealed that: (a) both peer preference and self-perceived social competence mediated the relations between prosociality and psychological maladjustment, and (b) a serial indirect pathway (i.e., prosociality → peer preference → self-perceived social competence → psychological maladjustment) emerged when controlling for age group and gender. These findings point to potential targets in the prevention and intervention of Chinese students’ internalization of problems.
... By contrast, empathy and volunteering are more firmly established as predictors of self-esteem and psychological well-being (Bowman et al., 2010;Fu et al., 2017;Green et al., 2018;Vinayak & Judge, 2018). These effects may be driven by the intrinsic satisfaction and external social reinforcement that accompany prosocial engagement. ...
Higher levels of moral identity, empathy, and volunteering (virtues) are associated with increased self‐esteem and psychological well‐being, which, in turn, are predictive of fewer health problems. Epigenetic aging, a marker of health, reflects the rate at which individuals age biologically relative to their chronological age. Epigenetic aging is shaped by behavioral factors and environmental stressors, but the effects of moral identity, empathy, and volunteering on epigenetic aging are underexplored. Thus, this study examined if these three dimensions of virtue predict epigenetic aging during adolescence and if these relationships are mediated by self‐esteem and psychological well‐being. The sample included 1,213 adolescents (51% female; 62% Black, 34% Non‐Hispanic White, 4% Other race/ethnicity) that participated at three time points between 2004 and 2017 ( M age 13, 16, 19 years). Results revealed that higher moral identity and empathy were associated with higher self‐esteem and psychological well‐being during early adolescence. Moreover, higher empathy during early adolescence was associated with slower epigenetic aging on the GrimAge clock during late adolescence. Path analyses adjusting for covariates showed that higher self‐esteem during middle adolescence predicted slower epigenetic aging in late adolescence, but none of the three virtues in early adolescence predicted self‐esteem, psychological well‐being, or epigenetic aging over time.
... These domains of behavior were chosen based on work reviewed previously that shows they are linked, concurrently and respectively, with several indices of adjustment or maladjustment. For example, based on existing research suggesting that education and volunteering are associated with positive outcomes (Fu et al., 2017), it was hypothesized that retrospective reports of education and volunteering in the twenties would be positively associated with life satisfaction and hope, and negatively associated with poor emotional health and regret in the early thirties. On the other hand, as previously discussed, existing work suggests that potentially problematic behaviors (i.e., criminal activity, extensive video game use, and risky sexual behaviors) are associated concurrently with negative outcomes (see Fielder & Carey, 2010;Roese et al., 2006). ...
The current study (a) examined retrospectively the relation between behaviors during one’s twenties and indices of adjustment (i.e., life satisfaction, relationship satisfaction, and hope) and maladjustment (i.e., poor emotional health and regret) in one’s thirties, and (b) examined the possible moderating role of income, gender, and ethnicity in these relations. Participants included 4969 (59% female) individuals between the ages of 30 and 35. Results revealed that education and volunteering in emerging adulthood were associated with positive outcomes in established adulthood (e.g., higher life satisfaction, better emotional health, and lower levels of regret) while criminal activity and risky sexual behaviors in emerging adulthood were associated with negative outcomes (e.g., lower life satisfaction and emotional health, and higher levels of regret) in established adulthood.
... This finding adds to the prosocial literature that has linked prosocial behavior with psychological benefits. Previous studies have suggested that conducting prosocial behavior can enable individuals' psychological flourishing (Nelson et al., 2016), increase their perceptions of meaning in life (Klein, 2017), and enhance their selfesteem (Fu et al., 2017). Moreover, prosocial behaviors, as exemplified in acts of helping or cooperation, have been found to foster individuals' positive self-concept and self-evaluation (Cauley & Tyler, 1989;Grant & Sonnentag, 2010;Lemay et al., 2021). ...
Information-sharing behavior constitutes one of the key elements for the success of online charitable crowdfunding (OCC) projects, but it has received relatively limited academic attention so far. From a relational perspective, this study proposed a conceptual model to better understand the relationship between consciousness of social face, two types of impression management motivations, OCC information-sharing behavior, and perceived relational value. An online survey was conducted among 1,166 Internet users in China (47.2% were male; 70.8% fell within the age group of 18-35 years old). The finding showed that consciousness of social face was positively associated with information-sharing behavior through the positive mediation of promotion-focused impression management motivation and the negative mediation of prevention-focused impression management motivation. Furthermore, information-sharing behavior was positively associated with perceived relational value. This study sheds light on the impact of social face consciousness on prosocial information-sharing behavior through impression management motivations and offers practical implications concerning how to promote individuals' OCC information sharing behavior on social media.
... Thus, it is possible that adolescents with higher self-esteem have greater satisfaction with needs that lead to internalization than adolescents with lower self-esteem, and are then able to engage in higher prosocial behaviors (Sholehati et al., 2023). Adolescents who frequently engage in prosocial behavior are more likely to benefit from feeling happy about their involvement in these positive activities so that they can increase their self-esteem (Fu et al., 2017). ...
This research is motivated by the phenomenon of low prosocial behavior among high school teenagers in Palopo City. Authoritative parenting by parents and self-esteem are supporting factors for adolescents to increase prosocial behavior. Therefore, this study aims to prove the influence of authoritative parenting and self-esteem on prosocial behavior in high school teenagers in Palopo City. This research employed quantitative research with an ex-post facto type of research with a sample of 335 teenagers. The data collection technique used an accidental sampling technique with research instruments in the form of psychological scales, namely the prosocial behavior scale, authoritative parenting scale, and self-esteem scale. The validity test used the results of factor loading, and the reliability test used Cronbach's Alpha, with a reliability coefficient value for the prosocial behavior scale = 0.910, the self- esteem parenting scale = 0.885, and the self-esteem scale = 0.890. Data were analyzed using multiple regression analysis techniques. The study's results show that authoritative parenting and self-esteem influence prosocial behavior in adolescents (p=0.000). Therefore, it can be concluded that authoritative research and self-esteem influence prosocial behavior in adolescents. The regression line equation is 14.204 + 0.326 X1 + 0.539 X2. The effective contribution of authoritative parenting and self-esteem to prosocial behavior was 44.8%, consisting of authoritative parenting at 17.2% and self-esteem at 27.6%.
... The willingness to contribute to society is closely linked to the subjective happiness of each [66,67]. Participation in prosocial behaviour is likely related to the beliefs that a person holds, as various studies have shown [60,[68][69][70][71]. It is having positive beliefs about oneself (self-esteem), one's life (subjective happiness), and the future (optimism) associated with prosocial behaviour. ...
Background
Satisfaction and happiness are two widely studied topics in current literature. Human beings need to find happiness. However, for many authors, satisfaction is a prerequisite for happiness. Satisfaction, in turn, can be approached from different perspectives, such as job satisfaction, health satisfaction, and social life satisfaction. This research analyses the relationship between these variables and their influence on proactive social behaviour.
Methods
The present study utilised the European Social Survey, an academic survey conducted across Europe in its round 10, carried out between 2022 and 2023, with a database of 25,311 valid responses. Structural equation modelling analysis conduct using PLS-SEM with the Smart PLS software.
Results
The results demonstrate a direct and significant relationship between overall satisfaction and happiness and between happiness and prosocial behaviour. Similarly, a solid indirect relationship exists between satisfaction and prosocial behaviour in society. Furthermore, job satisfaction is among the variables influencing overall satisfaction and happiness. However, it is not the most important, with satisfaction with social life being the most influential on satisfaction.
Conclusions and implications
Happiness is one of the main variables that influence people’s lives. As we have observed, this happiness has a direct and solid relationship with the individual’s level of satisfaction, with job satisfaction and satisfaction with social life being the most influential in this relationship between satisfaction and happiness. Therefore, these conclusions must be understood by both workers and employers and public administrations. Additionally, the relationship between happiness and prosocial behaviour is an interesting topic that the governments of countries and regions in Europe should consider.
... First, empathy is thought to promote prosocial behavior by appealing to altruistic values, as explained in more detail in the following section (Batson et al. 1987;Eisenberg and Miller 1987;Stocks et al. 2009). Second, people are believed to have an inherent desire to enhance and sustain their self-esteem (Greenberg 2008), and compliments or positive assessments by others for one's prosocial behaviors can boost one's self-esteem (Clary and Snyder 1999;Fu et al. 2017). We posit that providing information that evoke empathy and self-esteem can attract greater attention to sustainability ratings. ...
This research focuses on the increasing but unexplored role of individual investors in sustained sustainable investment. Sustainable investment with pecuniary motives tends to be fractured by economic downturns. Drawing on research on social emotions shaping decision‐making, this study explores how non‐pecuniary motives and emotions—empathy and self‐esteem—affect the attention to sustainability ratings by individual investors. We administered the original survey‐embedded experiments to nationals of two countries in the Global North, Germany, and Japan. We found that evoking empathy can lead experienced Japanese investors to focus on sustainability ratings while German investors are unaffected. On the other hand, self‐esteem stimuli are effective for German potential investors who have expressed an interest in investing but not for Japanese investors. These results underline the potential of emotional stimuli in promoting sustainable investment and highlight the importance of tailoring such stimuli to different cultural contexts and groups of people.
... Supportive parenting can boost adolescents' self-esteem, which in turn fosters prosocial behavior toward strangers and outgroups. Higher self-esteem can help adolescents manage the potential discomfort and higher costs associated with interacting with unfamiliar people (Fu et al., 2017;Padilla-Walker & Fraser, 2014). A longitudinal study with adolescents found that positive parenting, characterized by involvement and a strong connection with the child, is linked to greater empathy and self-regulation in adolescents. ...
Introduction
While a substantial body of existing literature has examined the negative effects of parental psychological control on adolescents' prosocial behaviors, there is a noticeable gap in whether parental psychological control affects prosocial behaviors towards ethnic outgroup members. This three‐wave longitudinal study investigated whether similar relations can be observed between parental psychological control and prosocial behaviors targeted at ethnic outgroup persons, and whether these relations are mediated by adolescents' intergroup attitudes.
Methods
Participants were 412 European American adolescents (42% girls; Mage = 15.63 years at Time 1) and their primary caregivers (52% mothers) residing in the United States. They completed online questionnaires. Parents completed a measure of parental psychological control at Time 1. Adolescents completed measures of intergroup attitudes, public, and altruistic outgroup prosocial behavior at all three time points (T1, T2, T3), each approximately 8 months apart. The retention rate was 38.1% (N = 157; 44% girls) at Time 3.
Results
Path analyses revealed a direct negative link between parental psychological control and altruistic prosocial behavior towards ethnic outgroup persons but a direct positive association to public prosocial behavior towards outgroup persons. Importantly, parental psychological control was indirectly related to adolescents' prosocial behavior towards ethnic outgroup persons, via its effect on their intergroup attitudes.
Conclusions
The findings underscore how parental psychological control and adolescents' intergroup attitudes contribute to shaping prosocial behaviors towards ethnic outgroups.
... In previous studies, this scale demonstrated adequate internal consistency in a sample of adolescents (Carlo et al., 2011;Fu et al., 2017;Padilla-Walker et al., 2012). To our knowledge, there is and has only been the Spanish version of the Prosocial behavior toward different targets scale with psychometric properties being assessed . ...
Emerging adulthood is a pivotal period for the development of prosocial behavior. A reliable tool for measuring prosocial behavior in emerging adults is crucial for accurate assessment and intervention planning, aiding in identity development, and promoting behaviors beneficial to personal and societal well-being. Literature suggests that prosocial behavior differs according to the target to whom such behavior is oriented. The Prosocial behaviors toward different targets scale – brief version (PB-15) assesses prosocial behavior taking into account three different targets: strangers, friends, and family members, with five items for each dimension. The current study aimed to validate the PB-15 in a sample of 304 Italian emerging adults (aged 18–25 years, Mage = 21.31 ± 1.63; 78.3% females). Confirmatory factor analysis supported the original three-factor model. Internal consistency was good. Results showed that females had higher prosocial behavior toward friends and family than males, which might be due to heightened social pressure, females are socialized or social desirability to exhibit nurturance and compassion, whereas males are taught to inhibit such prosocial behavior. As expected, PB-15 strangers, friends, and family subscales showed significant negative correlations with a lack of emotional awareness. Overall, findings support the psychometric properties of the PB-15 as a brief diagnostic tool to assess prosocial behavior in a sample of Italian emerging adults.
... Prosocial behavior includes helping or sharing with others, defending, as well as providing comfort or reassurance (Grusec et al., 2002) and is linked to positive outcomes such as self-esteem and psychosocial adjustment (Flynn et al., 2015;Fu et al., 2017). Prosociality is an aspect of social competence as it corresponds to social acceptance and approval and relies on perspective-taking and the ability to decode social cues regarding expectations in different contexts (Wentzel et al., 2007). ...
... Conversely, an increase in those problems is associated with a decrease in prosocial behavior. On one side, adolescents showing prosocial behaviors could result in positive self-views and behavioral patterns, and foster supportive relationships characterized by kindness and cooperation with peers and family members [7,40,49,50]. ...
Extensively studied in interparental relationship literature suggests interparental conflict is a risk factor for adolescent adjustment, but the specific, dimension level relationships between interparental conflict and adolescent adjustment remain unclear. This study explored the interactions between the various dimensions of interparental conflict and adolescent adjustment in Chinese adolescents. A total of 1870 Chinese adolescents (42.27% males; Mage = 16.18, SD = 0.43, range = 15–18) completed a survey at two time points spaced three months apart. Data was analyzed using both cross-sectional and longitudinal network analysis. The cross-sectional network analysis found that resolution has the greatest connections with the dimensions of adolescent adjustment, suggesting that adolescents reporting high resolution are more prone to experience concurrent poor adjustment and therefore should be a primary focus of attention. The longitudinal network analysis revealed that, in general, previous hyperactivity-inattention is a significant and strong predictor of future interparental conflict, underscoring a child-driven effect. Meanwhile, prosocial behavior contributes to decreases in both interparental conflict and adjustment problems over time. These findings highlight the importance of addressing hyperactivity-inattention and cultivating prosocial behavior in adolescents as key intervention points—these can help resolve conflicts between parents and reduce adjustment problems for adolescents.
... These documents stem from other cited documents regarding the influence of the social world on adolescents' mental health and construction of the self (e.g. Fu et al., 2017;Rosenberg, 1965). ...
... In the present study, prosocial behavior was defined as any voluntary behavior intended to benefit others or promote harmonious relationships (Eisenberg et al., 2015). Prosocial behavior is an important indicator of social competence during early adolescence; when youth are prosocial, they also tend to be more popular among their peers (Logis et al., 2013), have high self-esteem (Fu et al., 2017), and exhibit less physical aggression and delinquent behavior (Padilla-Walker et al., 2018). Students' prosocial behavior in the classroom might include offering to help a classmate, cooperating in groups, expressing kindness, and giving praise and compliments to classmates (Bergin et al., 2003). ...
Students’ academic engagement is greatly informed by a classroom’s social climate. However, more research is needed regarding how specific peer behavior, especially prosocial behavior, come to shape academic engagement. The present study investigated whether students’ perceptions about their classmates’ prosocial behavior were associated with their academic engagement (cognitive, behavioral, affective) across the school year. Indirect effects via increases in students’ own prosocial behavior were examined. Participants were 905 middle school students from rural, low-income communities in the Midwestern United States (50% girls, 46% boys; Mage = 12.94 years). Students completed self-report surveys in the fall and spring of the 2022–2023 school year. Results revealed that students’ perceptions of their classmates’ prosocial behavior were positively associated with students’ own prosocial behavior. Students’ own prosocial behavior was positively associated with all three dimensions of engagement. The positive indirect effect of classmates’ prosocial behavior on engagement through students’ own prosocial behavior was significant. The findings highlight the importance of classmates’ behavior on individuals’ academic engagement and offer insights into classroom-based interventions aimed at improving collective behavior.
... Prosocial behaviour was also found to be associated with higher self-esteem. 18 These findings emphasise the need to enhance and promote adolescents' prosocial behaviour. 17 However, a small ratio of adolescents had difficulties in prosocial behaviour found in previous studies. ...
Background
In recent decades, a high prevalence of mental health problems among adolescents has been reported worldwide. In Vietnam, mental health problems such as emotional and behavioural difficulties are relatively common in the adolescent age group.
Objective
This study aimed to estimate the prevalence of emotional-behavioural problems and prosocial behaviours in Vietnamese adolescents and identify the role of social support in these adolescents’ strengths and difficulties.
Methods
A population sample of 582 adolescents from sixth to ninth grade from four secondary schools in Vietnam voluntarily participated by completing the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (α = .64) and the Social Support Scale (α = .90).
Results
The research results revealed that Vietnamese adolescents suffered from considerable levels of emotional-behavioural difficulties and prosocial behaviour problems. Through multible regression analysis, support from their families significantly predicted to decrease students’ emotional and behavioural symptoms (β< 0; p< .05) and increasing prosocial behaviours (β> 0; p < .05). In contrast, friend support only contribute to protecting adolescents from behavioural problems (β = -.18; p < .05) and encouraged prosocial behaviours (β = .22; p < .05)
Discussion
Family support had a central role in its positive contribution to reducing emotional-behavioural and prosocial behaviour problems. Friend support only decreased behavioural problems and encouraged prosocial behaviours. These results are interpreted that educators could limit adolescents’ emotional-behavioural difficulties and encourage prosocial behaviours through social support from their families and friends.
... Individuals with good jealousy are difficult to get close to others, and the relationship between temperament jealousy and prosocial behavior is also regulated by individual self-esteem. Individuals with high self-esteem may aggravate the negative effects of temperament jealousy on prosocial behavior [15]. Those who are fully confident of themselves but easily jealous Journal of Education, Humanities and Social Sciences ...
Affective empathy is the response and feeling to others’ emotions, it includes empathic concern and personal distress. In the real situation, empathy always occurs under certain specific circumstances and can develop into an individual’s prosocial behavior. In this experiment, the relationship between the empathy state and prosocial behavior of college students was discussed using specific emotional materials. Batson’s Empathy Adjective Scale and the revised Prosocial Behavior Scale were used. The results show that viewing specific emotional materials can stimulate different levels of emotional empathy. In a state of high emotional empathy, people have higher levels of prosocial behavior. Different emotional empathy states can only have a significant impact on some dimensions of prosocial behavior, including three dimensions of openness, compliance, and emotion. However, the three dimensions of anonymity, altruism, and urgency do not have a significant impact.
... One way how moral identity may relate to happiness, life satisfaction, meaning in life, and self-esteem is through engagement in prosocial behavior. Previous research has shown robust links between moral identity and prosocial behavior (Hertz and Krettenauer, 2016), which in turn has been linked with greater happiness (Aknin and Whillans, 2021), life satisfaction (Espinosa et al., 2022), meaning in life (Klein, 2017), and higher self-esteem (Fu et al., 2017). While these four dimensions of emotional wellbeing are intercorrelated (Lin et al., 2021), they differ in their cognitive, emotional, and reflective processes. ...
Introduction
This meta-analytic review surveyed previous empirical studies that examined links between moral identity and indicators of emotional well-being. Additionally, this meta-analysis examined cultural origin as a moderator, testing if links between moral identity and emotional well-being differ in collectivistic vs. individualistic countries.
Methods
A systematic literature review was conducted through ProQuest’s 65 databases and PubMed. A random-effect meta-analysis and subgroup analyses were conducted using Comprehensive Meta-Analysis 4.0 (CMA) software.
Results
Drawing on 27 eligible studies, moral identity was associated with greater emotional well-being (r = 0.27, p < 0.001). Follow up analyses on individual dimensions showed medium effect sizes in links between moral identity and greater happiness or positive affect (r = 0.28, p < 0.001), greater sense of purpose or meaning in life (r = 0.29, p < 0.001), and higher self-esteem (r = 0.25, p < 0.001). Moreover, moral identity was associated with greater life satisfaction showing a small effect size (r = 0.15, p = 0.011). Results showed that effect sizes of links between moral identity and overall emotional well-being did not significantly differ by cultural origin. However, effect sizes tended to be larger in the nine studies that were conducted in collectivistic countries (r = 0.30, p < 0.001) as compared to the 15 studies that were conducted in individualistic countries (r = 0.27, p < 0.001).
Discussion
The results of this meta-analysis indicate a robust empirical relationship between moral identity and emotional well-being that is present across various dimensions of emotional well-being and in both individualistic and collectivistic cultures.
Systematic review registration
https://osf.io/94f8b/?view_only=6db54da0fa304c83993d0438ecb5c637
... Regarding prosocial behavior, it is likely to reduce adolescents' loneliness by counteracting the fear of negative evaluation that engenders and maintains loneliness (Lanser and Eisenberger (2022)). A longitudinal study has substantiated that early engagement in prosocial behavior can bolster subsequent positive self-perception (Fu et al., 2017), thus serving as a protective factor against loneliness. ...
Fear of negative evaluation and prosocial behavior have been identified as predictive factors influencing the development of loneliness in adolescence, representing typical factors in the cognitive and behavioral processes of re-affiliation. The elucidation of plausible direct and indirect pathways linking these pivotal factors to adolescents’ loneliness need further exploration. This study aimed to investigate the direct and indirect relationships between the fear of negative evaluation, prosocial behavior, and adolescents’ loneliness through the lens of developmental changes. A total of 533 adolescents (49.0% girls, Mage = 15.18 years, SD = 0.71) participated in this longitudinal study, assessed at three timepoints over a span of two years with 12-month intervals. Latent growth modeling uncovered direct associations between the developmental trajectories of both fear of negative evaluation and prosocial behavior with the developmental trajectory of adolescents’ loneliness. The developmental trajectory of fear of negative evaluation exhibited an indirect association with the developmental trajectory of loneliness through the mediating role of prosocial behavior. These findings highlighted the roles of cognitive and behavioral re-affiliation processes, both independently and as mediators, in influencing adolescent loneliness, suggesting that interventions aimed at reducing fear of negative evaluation and promoting prosocial behavior could effectively mitigate adolescents’ loneliness.
... However, the motivation to help strangers might differ from the motivation to help friends and family. Researchers have shown that dispositional traits, such as self-esteem or sympathy, are linked to more prosocial behaviors toward strangers (Fu et al., 2017;Padilla-Walker and Fraser, 2014). Moreover, some moral traits (e.g., sympathy, moral values) might be particularly relevant in predicting out-group helping behaviors. ...
... For instance, empathy is consistently associated with both general prosocial (Eisenberg et al., 2006) and defending behavior (Ma et al., 2019). However, defending behaviors are relatively high-cost , meaning they are likely linked with self-esteem (Fu et al., 2017) and self-efficacy (Gini et al., 2008) in ways not shared by low-cost behaviors. Thus, it is important for research to explore how different types of PB develop from an early age, with special attention to different predictors and outcomes. ...
Research has found that media is associated with children's prosocial behavior (PB) from an early age, and that parents play a key role in children's media use and behavior. However, few studies explore these relations as early as infancy while also controlling for well‐established predictors of PB (e.g., empathic concern). Thus, the present study examined longitudinal associations between parents' PB and media use, and prosocial development during early childhood, mediated by children's own media use. Participants were 519 children (M age at Time 1 = 17.77 months) and parents who participated in three timepoints of an ongoing, longitudinal study. A longitudinal path model suggested that children's media use was still significantly associated with PB 1 year later after accounting for factors such as parents' PB, media use, and empathy. These findings have important implications for the early development of behaviors that serve as a foundation for social and moral development.
... Moreover, individuals with heightened self-esteem often navigate social relationships more positively, stemming from their intrinsic confidence and contentment (Harris and Orth, 2020). This inherent confidence emboldens them to assist, share, and endorse others (Fu et al., 2017). In conclusion, PECICE holds the potential to foster prosocial behavior among university students by enhancing self-esteem. ...
Objective
This study sought to uncover the relationship between physical education courses integrated with civic education (PECICE) and prosocial behavior among university students. Additionally, we aimed to decipher the mediating roles of cultural confidence and self-esteem within this relationship.
Methods
Employing a questionnaire-based approach, we assessed the relationship among PECICE, cultural confidence, self-esteem, and prosocial behavior in university students. The instrument comprised four distinct scales: the Perceived Effectiveness Scale for PECICE, the Cultural Confidence Scale, the Self-Esteem Scale, and the Prosocial Behavior Scale. Our sample encompassed 293 Chinese college students, consisting of 137 men and 156 women, with an average age of 21.39 years (SD = 2.1).
Results
PECICE demonstrated significant positive associations with cultural confidence (r = 0.29, p < 0.001), self-esteem (r = 0.35, p < 0.001), and prosocial behavior (r = 0.40, p < 0.001). The influence of PECICE on prosocial behavior among university students was mediated through three channels: solely via cultural confidence (mediating effect value: 0.14), solely via self-esteem (mediating effect value: 0.22), and through the combined influence of both cultural confidence and self-esteem (mediating effect value: 0.2).
Conclusion
The intertwined mediating roles of cultural confidence and self-esteem highlight their pivotal significance in enhancing the efficacy of PECICE. These insights offer a valuable reference for both educators and policymakers striving to augment prosocial behavior in university students.
... al., 2020). I benefici indiretti del comportamento prosociale possono derivare dall'esperienza emotivamente positiva elicitata dall'agire prosociale, quali "il sentirsi buoni", da cui deriva la rilevanza emotiva dell'azione, un effetto positivo sul concetto di sé e l'autostima, l'aumento del contatto sociale con l'altro (Fu et al., 2017;Poulin et al., 2013;Weinstein e Ryan, 2010). Durante l'infanzia i comportamenti prosociali favoriscono l'adattamento psicosociale, riducendo le condotte aggressive e proteggendo dalle amicizie devianti (Kokko e Pulkkinen, 2000;Spataro et al., 2020); inoltre, promuovono comportamenti positivi reciproci, determinando una diminuzione del rifiuto sociale ed un aumento della popolarità nel gruppo dei pari (Denham et al., 1990;Parkhurst e Asher, 1992). ...
La didattica postpandemica
... Hence, it is logical to posit that tourists with higher levels of self-esteem are more likely to engage in prosocial behaviours. While the association between self-esteem and prosocial has gained momentum in adolescent research (Christner et al., 2020;Fu et al., 2017), tourism scholars are yet to disentangle how tourists' self-esteem could propel their prosocial actions at the destination. Recent studies among hospitality employees reveal that organization-based self-esteem is positively associated with prosocial behaviours (H. ...
In building sustainable post-pandemic destinations, it is critical to understand the typologies of tourists’ prosocial behaviours. Consequently, this study innovatively applied a latent class cluster analysis to segment the prosocial behaviours of 403 Macau tourists. Three ordered discrete segments were derived based on consistent tourists’ probabilities of performing prosocial behaviours on the trip namely: the Self-centred, the Intermediate, and the Philanthropist. The associated ordered logistic regression predicting the segments revealed that relative to the Self-centred, the Intermediate and the Philanthropist are more likely to face death terror, are sociable – seek vacation friends – and believe in cultural and heritage conservation. Not only does this research expand the theoretical application of Terror Management Theory, the Scrooge effect, and the self-esteem concept, it contributes to prosocial alternative tourism with novel destination management implications for marketing and promoting prosocial tourism performance.
... According to the literature on donations, people are motivated to give money and time to achieve prestige, respect, and reputation (Sargeant et al., 2006;Tiltay & Torlak, 2020). Other previous studies found that self-esteem is an important factor that influences engagement in altruistic behaviors (Fu et al., 2017;Zheng et al., 2021). ...
In this study, the factors that determine the intentions of individuals to donate to nonprofit organizations (NPOs) were analyzed. Based on an extensive review of the academic literature, research hypotheses were proposed about the influences of altruism, self-esteem, trust, donation past behavior, attitudes and brand identification. Data were collected by means of an online survey. The sample was composed of 300 respondents. The empirical investigation consisted of specifying and estimating a model using PLS-SEM. The results showed that altruism and self-esteem did not have statistically significant effects on the intention to donate. The findings suggested that donations to NPOs were more strongly influenced by trust, past donation behavior, attitudes, and brand identification. The paper discusses implications of these results for theory and managerial practices related to philanthropy.
... With the development of perspective taking in adolescence, adolescents have more opportunities for prosocial behavior by showing empathic concern for others' feelings ( Van der Graaff et al., 2018). Prior research has shown that prosocial behavior in adolescence predicts positive developmental outcomes, such as self-esteem (Fu et al., 2017). With the establishment of various online platforms, recent studies have examined prosocial behavior separately in offline and online contexts (Erreygers et al., 2018;Armstrong-Carter and Telzer, 2021). ...
Research has demonstrated that adolescents of the digital age engage in developmental tasks by interacting with others in both online and offline environments. However, no studies have investigated how adolescents develop their identity, a crucial developmental task, by engaging in online and offline prosocial behaviors. To address this research gap, we examined the role of online and offline prosocial behavior in identity development during adolescence using variable- and person-centered approaches. The participants were 608 individuals in early adolescence (50.2% girls; age range = 12–13 years, Mage = 12.75 years, SD = 0.43) and 594 individuals in middle adolescence (50.3% girls; age range = 15–16 years, Mage = 15.79 years, SD = 0.41) in Japan. They completed questionnaires to measure identity development, online and offline prosocial behavior, and demographic characteristics. The results from the variable-centered approach (i.e., identity dimensions) revealed that both online and offline prosocial behaviors were positively related to commitments and proactive explorations in early and middle adolescence. The findings from the person-centered approach (i.e., identity statuses) demonstrated that early and middle adolescents with higher levels of online prosocial behavior were more likely to show searching moratorium than all other identity statuses, whereas those with higher levels of offline prosocial behavior were more likely to show achievement than troubled diffusion, carefree diffusion, and undifferentiated. Consistent with both variable- and person-centered approaches, these findings highlight that online prosocial behavior can be a new resource for identity development in adolescence. Moreover, the results suggest that online prosocial behaviors lead to identity status in the process of maturing identity and that offline prosocial behavior is necessary to become more mature identity status. Regarding practical implications, educating adolescents on digital media literacy, including supportive behavior in online environments, is crucial to gradually exploring their identity. In addition, for adolescents to develop more mature identity, adults should create in-person environments in which they participate in offline prosocial behavior. The limitations of our findings with respect to the online and offline prosocial behavior scale items are discussed.
... In contrast, individuals with low self-esteem may lack initiative in helping others because they may doubt their capacity to help others and experience more conflicts in their minds (Yu et al., 2018). Longitudinal research has shown that adolescents with high self-esteem exhibited greater prosocial tendencies toward strangers than adolescents with low self-esteem (Fu et al., 2017). As mentioned above, adolescents with high levels of empathy may be more driven to help distressed or needy individuals because they are capable of understanding others' needs and sharing emotions with others (Eisenberg & Morris, 2001). ...
Parenting practices are assumed to have an important influence on predicting adolescents’ prosocial behavior. However, the underlying mechanisms of the link between the critical parenting practice of parental behavioral control and adolescents’ prosocial behavior have received relatively less attention. Adolescents’ empathy and self-esteem are also identified as contributing to their prosocial behavior. This study investigated whether adolescents’ empathy mediated the relationship between maternal behavioral control and their prosocial behavior and whether the mediation process was moderated by their self-esteem. Self-report questionnaires measuring these variables were administered to 2502 Mainland Chinese adolescents (M age = 13.79 years; range = 11‒18 years; 52% girls). After controlling for demographic variables, the results revealed that empathy partially mediated the link between maternal behavioral control and prosocial behavior. Furthermore, the effect of maternal behavioral control on empathy and empathy on prosocial behavior was both moderated by self-esteem. The discussion elaborates on the function of maternal behavioral control in adolescents’ prosocial behavior development.
... In consistent with prior findings, this study provided evidence that prosocial behavior can be used as a protective factor to allow individuals to experience less psychological maladjustment. The high level of prosociality is positively connected with selfperceived social competence, which mirrored the results that prosociality is linked to higher levels of general self-worth and social worth [19,20]. and the positive self-perceived social competence, in turn, may protect children from developing psychological problems [23]. ...
Despite empirical findings that prosociality can prevent children and adolescents from developing psychological maladjustment, little is known about the underlying mechanisms. The goal of the present study was to examine the mediating effects of peer preference and self-perceived social competence on the associations between prosociality and psychological maladjustment (i.e., depressive symptoms and loneliness). Participants were 951 students (Mage = 11 years, 442 girls) in Grades 3~7 from Shanghai, China. They completed peer nominations of prosociality and peer preference, and self-report measures of self-perceived social competence, depressive symptoms, and loneliness. Multiple mediation analyses revealed that: (a) both peer preference and self-perceived social competence mediated the relations between prosociality and psychological maladjustment; and (b) a serial indirect pathway (i.e., prosociality → peer preference → self-perceived social competence → psychological maladjustment) emerged when controlling for grade and gender. These findings point to potential targets in the prevention and intervention of adolescent internalizing problems.
... As shown by Bandura [63], only if individuals have confidence in their own ability or that of their group to do something, can they engage in effective behavior. Bandura et al. [67] have noted the relationship between prosocialness and self-efficacy, and many other studies have confirmed this association [68][69][70][71]. Self-efficacy may promote prosocial behaviors by fostering feelings of psychological empowerment that motivate individuals to engage prosocially with others [72]. ...
Leadership is one of the most studied features of virtual teams. Among the various characteristics analyzed by recent literature, leadership self-sacrifice is one of the most important, as it represents a predictor of many positive characteristics of teams’ functioning. In this study, we (a) analyze the relationship between leader self-sacrifice and the prosocial behavior of followers in a work team and (b) observe the effects of leader self-sacrifice in virtual teams. A sample of 197 university students enrolled in a psychology course took part in a group electronic task of writing a detailed research plan for a scientific investigation. Participants collaborated in groups of five, led by a senior student for 30 days. Results showed the presence of an effect of e-leadership self-sacrifice on followers’ prosocial behavior. Another effect of e-leadership self-sacrifice was found via team identification and perceived self-efficacy. Findings are discussed on the basis of Social Identity Theory, showing the importance of self-sacrifice e-leaders to promote reciprocal prosocial behavior of the followers.
... En outre, des études se sont intéressées spécifiquement aux variations de différentes facettes des représentations de soi à l'adolescence. Certains ont mis en évidence un déclin de l'estime de soi à l'entrée dans l'adolescence surtout chez les filles (Simmons, Rosenberg et Rosenberg, 1973 ;Cantin et Boivin, 2002 ;Fu et al., 2017). Par contre, durant la seconde partie de l'adolescence, on note une hausse de l'estime de soi (Tashakkori, Thompson, Wade et Valente, 1990). ...
Depuis de nombreuses années, la question des relations parents-adolescents a suscité un intérêt particulier dans le champ de la recherche en psychologie. Les travaux antérieurs ont montré que les pratiques éducatives parentales ont des effets importants sur le développement à l’adolescence. La construction de l’identité et des représentations de soi constitue l’enjeu majeur de la période adolescente (Erikson, 1972 ; Tap, 1991). Cette thèse promeut la notion de rapport aux pratiques éducatives parentales qui associe aux pratiques perçues, la relation de sens (sentiments de satisfaction / insatisfaction, jugements, attentes…) que le sujet construit à propos des attitudes et conduites de ses parents. L’objectif principal de cette recherche est d’analyser l’influence du rapport aux pratiques éducatives parentales sur le développement des représentations de soi des sujets. L’étude a porté sur 542 sujets scolarisés (429 sujets togolais âgés de 12 à 20 ans et 113 sujets français âgés de 12 à 16 ans). Cinq outils auto-rapportés ont permis de collecter les données. L’Instrument de Mesure des Pratiques Educatives Parentales perçues par l’Adolescent – IMPEPA (Claes et al., 2010) a examiné les pratiques éducatives parentales à partir des perceptions des adolescents. Deux questions ouvertes ont été posées concernant les souhaits relatifs à la relation avec la mère d’une part et avec le père d’autre part. L’Echelle Toulousaine de l’Estime de Soi -ETES (Bardou et al., 2012) a permis d’évaluer l’estime de soi. La technique du : « Qui suis-je ? » a permis d’appréhender les descriptions et réflexions à l’égard de soi. Les principaux résultats montrent que les pratiques éducatives parentales perçues par les sujets togolais et français sont riches et diversifiées. Des liens affectifs importants avec les parents et des pratiques d’encadrement soutenues son mis en évidence. Les adolescents persistent malgré tout à souhaiter des liens affectifs plus forts avec leurs parents.
... This finding is further confirmed by Sahin (2017) who investigated the influence of emotional intelligence on pro-social behavior and the role of emotional knowledge as a mediator by Martin-Raugh et al. (2016). According to Fu et al. (2017), they have used emotional intelligence to gain an overall understanding of the link between it and pro-social behavior. Previous studies focus on influence of emotional intelligence on adolescents generally and they were not focusing on undergraduates contexts that are highly important to future society. ...
Education plays a key role in enhancing the emotional skills of students to create a more cooperative, empathetic society. Therefore, emotional intelligence plays a vital role in changing human behaviours towards pro-social activities and promoting resilience of society. In this highly competitive education system maintaining ethical and emotional obligation towards colleagues is significant for others to survive the challenging periods in their lives and establishing a virtuous practice in the future. Also, how students can be assisted with this in view, is questionable, since evidence in this regard is lacking. Thus, this study was conducted to explore how emotional intelligence influences undergraduates’ pro-social behaviour during the undergraduate period for promoting the resilience of society. This study employed a quantitative deductive research approach. Using a self-administered questionnaire, 175 responses of Management undergraduates, the University of Ruhuna, were gathered by employing the convenient sampling technique. Study results revealed that emotional perception, emotional understanding, emotional use, and emotional management have a positive influence on the pro-social behaviour of Management undergraduates for promoting resilience of society. Study provides vital implications to the practitioners and researchers and for future studies suggested to use larger sample size to get more clear insights regarding study phenomenon.
... Thus, although self-esteem seems to be moderately stable over time within a given context, variations may take place during human developmental transitions (Huang 2010). In this way, pubertal, family and social changes inherent to the adolescent stage, alongside the effectiveness of self-regulatory mechanisms, may be associated with the aforementioned changes to self-esteem (Caprara et al., 2013;Fu et al., 2017;Simmons & Blyth, 2017;Godfrey et al., 2019;Krauss et al., 2020a, b). Along the same lines, age appears to influence the effectiveness of emotional regulation and whether or not one suffers disorders such as stress, anxiety, depression or body dissatisfaction. ...
Background
Adolescence is a decisive stage in human development during which intense physical, psychological, emotional and social changes are experienced. The aim of the present study was to analyse the lifestyle differences related with the health of adolescents enrolled in first year (13.01 ± 0.62 years old) and fourth year of secondary education (16.02 ± 0.63 years old) from a region in the North of Spain.
Method
A cross-sectional study was conducted with a sample of 761 adolescents from twenty-five educational centres in a northern region of Spain. The sample was made up of 383 first year students and 378 fourth year students. Physical activity engagement, health-related quality of life, self-esteem, adherence to a Mediterranean diet, hours of nightly sleep, body mass index and maximum oxygen consumption were evaluated.
Results
First-year adolescent students reported higher values for self-esteem, health-related quality of life, physical activity, Mediterranean diet adherence, hours of nightly sleep and maximal oxygen consumption. Some differences emerged according to sex. Associative analysis revealed negative correlations between age, lifestyle habits (physical activity engagement, hours of nightly sleep and Mediterranean diet adherence) and health indicators (VO2max, self-esteem and HRQoL), with a positive association emerging with BMI. Similar findings emerged regardless of sex, with the exception of findings pertaining to VO2max not being significant in boys.
Conclusion
Differences perceived as a function of the adolescent’s age suggest that it should be an important consideration for educational and health organisations, with the aim of establishing intervention strategies appropriate for each age group.
... Prosocial behavior theory (Eisenberg, 1986) pointed out that individual personality characteristics (e.g., self-esteem) play an important role in producing prosocial behavior. Some studies have found that self-esteem is an important personality factor affecting altruistic behavior and can effectively predict altruistic behavior (Afolabi, 2014;Fu et al., 2017). Recent studies have also shown a significant positive correlation between self-esteem and IAB (Jiang et al., 2017;Zheng et al., 2021a, b). ...
This study proposes and tests a moderated mediation model to explore the relationship between Internet altruistic motivation (IAM) and Internet altruistic behavior (IAB), as well as its underlying and conditional mechanisms. A total of 324 Chinese college students (M age = 20.31 years, SD age = 1.38; 165 females) completed a questionnaire consisting of the IAM Questionnaire, IAB Scale, Mehrabian Trait Empathy Scale and Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. Results indicated that IAM was positively correlated with IAB (r = 0.44, p < 0.001), and self-esteem played a partial mediating role between IAM and IAB. In addition, empathy moderated the relationship between IAM and self-esteem as well as that between IAM and IAB. Specifically, the higher the individual’s empathy, the stronger the predictive effect of IAM on IAB and self-esteem. The findings can deepen understanding of how and when IAM promotes IAB.
... In future studies, it would be desirable to combine self-report measures with other methods, such as peer nomination techniques. Third, prosocial behavior was measured as a unidimensional construct, while recent research has highlighted its multidimensional nature, which allows for more in-depth research and provides a contribution to more specific and effective related interventions (e.g., Fu et al., 2017;. Therefore, it would be beneficial to incorporate both overall and multidimensional measures of prosocial behavior in future research. ...
Introduction
In this study, we examined the relationship between prosocial behavior and school bullying victimization in children and adolescents. We also tested the mediating effects of peer alienation and student–teacher closeness, as well as the moderating effect of the educational stage.
Methods
In total, 538 children and adolescents were recruited from three suburban schools in Beijing, China (252 boys, 286 girls; mean age = 12.47; 237 elementary school students, 101 middle school students, and 200 high school students). The participants were asked to complete the measures of prosocial behavior, peer alienation, and student–teacher closeness at the initial time point and reported school bullying victimization 3 months later.
Results
We found that prosocial behavior was directly and negatively associated with traditional bullying victimization (i.e., physical, nonphysical, and relational); however, it had no direct association with cyberbullying victimization. Prosocial behavior was indirectly associated with school bullying victimization (except in the relational dimension) via peer alienation, but no indirect effect of student–teacher closeness was found. Besides, the associations between prosocial behavior, peer alienation, student–teacher closeness, and bullying victimization were found equally among elementary, middle, and high school students.
Conclusions
The findings suggest that prosocial behavior is an important factor associated with decreased school bullying victimization, and peer relationships play a mediating role in this association. Our study extends the current understanding of prosocial behavior primarily as a consequence of child and adolescent development to an antecedent (of school bullying victimization), which contributes to a more comprehensive view of prosocial behavior.
... Engaging in prosocial behavior, defined as voluntary actions intended to benefit others, is a positive indicator of social proficiency that develops over adolescence (Pakaslahti et al., 2002;Wentzel et al., 2007). Greater prosociality in adolescence has been associated with, and may contribute to, fewer problem behaviors, greater acceptance from peers, and improved self-esteem, self-efficacy, well-being, and life satisfaction (Caprara et al., 2014;Fu et al., 2017). These developmental benefits of prosociality have been documented in Mexican-origin youth (Carlo & de Guzman, 2009;Knight & Carlo, 2012). ...
This 2‐year longitudinal study examined Mexican‐origin adolescents’ need to belong and cognitive reappraisal as predictors of multiple forms of prosocial behavior (i.e., general, emotional, and public prosocial behaviors). Prosocial behaviors, which are actions intended to benefit others, are hallmarks of social proficiency in adolescence and are influenced by intrapersonal abilities and motivations that typically develop during adolescence. Yet, few studies of Mexican‐origin or other U.S. Latinx youths have examined whether such individual difference characteristics, specifically social motivation and emotion regulation skills, support prosocial behavior. In a sample of 229 Mexican‐origin youth (Mage = 17.18 years, SD = .42, 110 girls), need to belong, cognitive reappraisal, and general prosocial behaviors were assessed at ages 17 and 19. Emotional and public forms of prosociality also were assessed at age 19. Cognitive reappraisal was positively associated with concurrent general prosociality at age 17, whereas need to belong was positively associated with concurrent public prosociality at age 19. Moderation analyses revealed that general and emotional types of prosocial behaviors at age 19 were lowest for youth with both lower need to belong and less use of cognitive reappraisal at 19 years. Greater cognitive reappraisal skills and need to belong may reflect distinct motivations for engaging in varying forms of prosocial behavior in late adolescence.
Altruistic prosocial behaviours are an important subset of prosocial behaviours (i.e., actions that benefit others) that develop across age and can vary across cultures. These behaviours are defined by a selfless motive to assist others with little or no expectation for self-reward and at a cost or risk to oneself. Research has demonstrated several sociocognitive, socioemotive and social correlates of these actions. Importantly, scholars have posited the central role of altruistic prosocial behaviours in reducing and addressing social inequities and injustices, though direct supportive evidence is sparse. First, we briefly review prior theory and research on the development and social correlates of altruistic prosocial behaviours. Second, a new heuristic model of altruistic prosocial behaviours is presented that outlines the elements of varieties of such actions. The model provides avenues for future research that can further our understanding of the correlates and development of distinct forms of altruistic prosocial behaviours across development and cultures. And third, we propose recommendations for future research to significantly advance the developmental scholarship on this important construct.
This study examined the narrative identities of 10 male, center-based, Filipino children in conflict with the law (CICL) from their stories of their experiences before entering the youth rehabilitation center, during their commitment at the center, and their perception of the future after they leave the center. Participants were minors when they were charged with the commission of an offense, but were 18 to 22 years old at the time of the interviews. Multiple in-depth, face-to-face, semi-structured interviews were conducted using an adapted life story interview guide to elicit participants’ self-defining memories and views of the past, present, and future, following protocols approved by the University Research Ethics Committee and research guidelines for juvenile justice populations. Data were analyzed inductively using thematic narrative analysis and revealed three depicted identities across time points, manifesting a sense of sameness and continuity in the CICL’s views of themselves. In particular, the CICL depicted the self as a young person in need, with capabilities, and demonstrating concern for others. The study contributes to the development of a theory and program framework that can support the positive development of CICL, before, during, and after their stay in the youth rehabilitation center by identifying important elements for focus.
Given the importance of self-esteem for promoting adolescents’ social, psychological, and academic adjustment and the growing importance of social identities during adolescence, this five-wave study examined whether an identity-based self-affirmation intervention attenuated declines in adolescent self-esteem following the high school transition. A sample of ninth graders in the United States (N = 388; Mage = 14.05; 60.6% female; 35.8% male; 3.6% nonbinary, trans, or identifying with another gender; 46% White, 19% Black, 17% Asian, 6% Arab, Middle Eastern, North African, 6% Biracial/Multiethnic, 3% Latinx/Hispanic, and 3% another race/ethnicity) was recruited for the study. Following completion of a baseline online survey assessing self-esteem, participants were assigned to one of three conditions and corresponding writing exercises: identity-based self-affirmation, values-based self-affirmation, or control. Participants completed the same writing exercise during the first three waves of the study, and they completed measures of self-esteem at all five waves. Results indicated that participants in the self-affirmation conditions, but not the control condition, were protected from declining self-esteem across 1 year.
Introduction
Subjective well‐being, an important index for measuring mental health, is presently declining among junior high school students. Envy, one of their common emotions, is inextricably linked to subjective well‐being. Based on the Dual Envy Theory, our research explores the bidirectional relationship between benign‐malicious envy and subjective well‐being. The mediating role of self‐esteem, as well as the related gender differences, is examined.
Methods
Chinese middle school students (n = 1566, boys 50.3%, age = 13.96 ± 0.88 years old) were assessed at two time points over a 3‐month interval. Structural equation modeling was used to examine the longitudinal relationships among the variables.
Results
(1) Cross‐lagged analysis showed a positive bidirectional relationship between benign envy and subjective well‐being and a negative bidirectional relationship between malicious envy and subjective well‐being in the total sample. However, the path from T1 subjective well‐being to T2 malicious envy in boys was not significant. (2) Self‐esteem mediated the relationship between both benign and malicious envy and subjective well‐being among both boys and girls. A Wald chi‐square test showed that T2 self‐esteem was a stronger predictor of T2 benign envy in boys than in girls.
Conclusion
The results reveal a virtuous cycle of benign envy and subjective well‐being, and a vicious cycle of malicious envy and subjective well‐being, while emphasizing the role of self‐esteem in this process. Gender differences were also noted. These findings have important implications for improving the subjective well‐being of secondary school students and exploring the positive effects of envy.
Prosocial behaviors have been studied in many ways. However, it is important to reveal the current status of the studies conducted in the context of adolescents and to make predictions for future studies. In order to do this, it is necessary to examine the keywords, concepts and sources used in related studies. Therefore, bibliometric analysis was utilized in this study. In the study, the Web of Science (WoS) database platform was completed using VOSviewer as the source of the analysis data. In total, a data set of 4237 studies was used. When the 25 authors with the most publications on adolescence and prosocial behaviors are examined, Gustavo Carlo ranks first with 107 studies. When the relationships between institutions were analyzed, it was determined that the strongest ties were at the University of Missouri with 107 link strengths and Leiden University with 97 link strengths. The 5 most commonly used words in the studies were Prosocial Behavior, Adolescents, Children, Adolescence and Aggression, respectively. The most critical limitation of the study is that it was not included in databases such as YÖK Thesis Archive, international databases such as SCOPUS and Pubmed, and sources that have not been circulated online.
Prosociality is a multifaceted concept referring to the many ways in which individuals care about and benefit others. Human prosociality is foundational to social harmony, happiness, and peace; it is therefore essential to understand its underpinnings, development, and cultivation. This handbook provides a state-of-the-art, in-depth account of scientific, theoretical, and practical knowledge regarding prosociality and its development. Its thirty chapters, written by international researchers in the field, elucidate key issues, including: the development of prosociality across infancy, childhood, adolescence, and beyond; the biological, cognitive, emotional, and motivational mechanisms that underlie and influence prosociality; how different socialization agents and social contexts can affect children's prosociality; and intervention approaches aimed at cultivating prosociality in children and adolescents. This knowledge can benefit researchers, students, practitioners, and policy makers seeking to nurture socially responsible, caring youth.
Background:
We aimed to evaluate the correlation of Childhood parental companionship, self-esteem and prosocial behavior in college students.
Methods:
We conducted a survey to assess the childhood parental companionship, self-esteem and prosocial behavior in our college from November 1, 2021 to December 15, 2021. The parental companionship status questionnaire, Self-Esteem Scale (SES) and prosocial behavior questionnaire were used for survey. Pearson linear correlation analysis was used for evaluating the correlation of childhood parental companionship, self-esteem and prosocial behavior in college students. The Bootstrap method was used to test the potentially mediating effect.
Results:
A total of 2186 college students were included. The average total companionship score was (60.52 ± 5.17), the average self-esteem scale score was (27.15 ± 8.56), the prosocial behavior questionnaire score was (61.19 ± 15.04). Pearson correlation analysis indicated that childhood parental companionship was positively correlated with self-esteem (r = 0.679) and prosocial behavior(r = 0.679) in included college students (all P < 0.05). Self-esteem had mediating effect on parental companionship and prosocial behavior of included college students, its mediating effect was -0.445, accounting for 77.92 % of the total effect.
Conclusions:
Childhood parental companionship is positively correlated with self-esteem and prosocial behavior, and self-esteem play a mediating role in the parental companionship and prosocial behavior of college students.
We examined variability and change in adolescents' prosocial behaviors directed to peers and friends across four time scales: two‐years, one‐year, two‐monthly, and daily. Data from three longitudinal datasets with a total of 569 adolescents (55.7% girl, Mage = 15.23, SD = 3.90) were included. The overall time‐related stability of prosocial behavior across time scales was moderate to excellent. Variability did not differ between early (age 10–15) and late (age 16–21) adolescence, but late adolescence was associated with higher mean levels of prosociality. Finally, results indicated that prosocial behaviors measured over longer periods (i.e., two‐years and one‐year) were positively associated with cognitive processes (perspective taking), whereas prosocial behaviors measured over shorter periods (i.e., two‐monthly) were positively associated with affective processes (empathy).
Background
Studies have shown that relative deprivation is a risk factor for depressive symptoms, but the underlying mechanisms are not yet clarified. Thus, this study formulated a moderated mediation model to investigate the mediating role of self-esteem and the moderating role of belief in a just world between relative deprivation and depressive symptoms among rural-to-urban migrant children.
Methods
A sample of 1,076 Chinese migrant children (Mage = 12.25 years, SD = 1.66) completed measurements of relative deprivation, self-esteem, belief in a just world, and depressive symptoms. Furthermore, the mediating mechanism and moderating effect of the study were explored with the SPSS PROCESS macro (Models 4 and 7).
Results
The results showed a significant positive association between relative deprivation and depressive symptoms, with self-esteem partially mediating this association. Moreover, belief in a just world moderated the association between relative deprivation and self-esteem. Namely, the indirect effect of self-esteem was moderated by belief in a just world. Specifically, the mediating effect was stronger for migrant children with higher levels of belief in a just world.
Conclusion
These findings broaden our knowledge of how and when relative deprivation influences depressive symptoms among migrant children. Therefore, appropriate measures should be taken to prevent and manage migrant children' depression and provide them with corresponding guidance. Some measures could be taken by schools and educators to help migrant children with high relative deprivation in improving their self-esteem and belief in a just world, such as self-reference tasks and psychological intervention programs.
The current study sought to address gender differences in prosocial behavior by creating and validating a multidimensional measure of prosocial behavior that more fully captures the ways that men help others. The new measure is directed toward family, friend, and strangers, and has five factors: defending, emotional support, inclusion, physical helping, and sharing. In Study 1, CFA analyses performed on a sample of 463 emerging adults online (mean age 23.42) revealed good model fit and divergent validity for each of the five factors. Study 2 replicated the analyses on a sample of 453 urban adolescents in the Northwest (mean age 18.37). Results established that all factors had good model fit, construct validity, and convergent validity. The discussion focuses on implications of this measure for future prosocial research including an increased diversity in how people (particularly men) help others and developmental differences toward different targets of prosocial behavior.
The current study examined bidirectional, longitudinal links between prosocial and problem behavior. Participants (N = 500) were recruited from a Northwestern city in the United States and assessed for 3 consecutive years from 2009 to 2011 (Mage of youth at Time 1 = 13.32, SD = 1.05; 52% girls; 67% European American, 33% single-parent families). Results suggested that effects of earlier prosocial behavior toward family and strangers were predictive of fewer problem behaviors 2 years later, while results for prosocial behavior toward friends were more mixed. Results also suggested depression predicted lower prosocial behavior toward family members and anxiety predicted higher prosocial behavior toward friends. Findings show a complex pattern of relations that demonstrate the need to consider targets of helping.
The development and maintenance of prosocial, other-oriented behaviors has been of considerable recent interest. Though it is clear that prosocial behaviors emerge early and play a uniquely important role in the social lives of humans, there is less consensus regarding the mechanisms that underlie and maintain these fundamental acts. The goal of this paper is to clarify inconsistencies in our understanding of the early emergence and development of prosocial behavior by proposing a taxonomy of prosocial behavior anchored in the social-cognitive constraints that underlie the ability to act on behalf of others. I will argue that within the general domain of prosocial behavior, other-oriented actions can be categorized into three distinct types (helping, sharing, and comforting) that reflect responses to three distinct negative states (instrumental need, unmet material desire, and emotional distress). In support of this proposal, I will demonstrate that the three varieties of prosocial behavior show unique ages of onset, uncorrelated patterns of production, and distinct patterns of individual differences. Importantly, by differentiating specific varieties of prosocial behavior within the general category, we can begin to explain inconsistencies in the past literature and provide a framework for directing future research into the ontogenetic origins of these essential social behaviors.
Developmental scholars assert that parents are important in fostering prosocial behaviors in adolescents, but longitudinal investigations on this topic are limited. Participants consisted of 372 boys and 358 girls with a mean age of 10.84 years (SD = 1.57) at Wave 1 from a mostly middle class community in Spain. Across three successive years, participants completed measures of fathers’ and mothers’ warmth and strict control, sympathy, prosocial moral reasoning, and self- and peer-reported prosocial behaviors. Results showed that parental warmth, sympathy, and prosocial moral reasoning were predictive of prosocial behaviors. Further analyses showed bidirectional effects such that early prosocial behaviors predicted later parenting and adolescents’ prosociality. Findings lend support to cognitive-developmental and moral internalization models of prosocial development.
In this study, adolescents' prosocial behavior toward parents was explored as an embedded aspect of parent-adolescent relationships. Gender, grade, attachment, and interdependency were examined as characteristics contributing to variation in adolescent prosocial behavior Adolescents (n = 129) in the 6th, 8th, and 10th grades; their mothers (n = 126); and their fathers (n = 104) completed questionnaires during two l-hour, in-home visits that were 1 week apart. For this study, the Adolescent Prosocial Behavior Inventory was developed, from which emerged two dimensions: affection and helpfulness. Additional analyses showed that mothers received more prosocial behavior than didfathers, and daughters acted more prosocially than did sons. Attachment had a direct and an indirect effect through interdependency on adolescent prosocial behavior From parents' viewpoints, interdependency related directly to helpfulness; whereas for sons'reports, attachment linked with helpfulness. Results supported a relationalperspective for understanding adolescents'prosocial behavior
We examined the life-span development of self-esteem and tested whether self-esteem influences the development of important life outcomes, including relationship satisfaction, job satisfaction, occupational status, salary, positive and negative affect, depression, and physical health. Data came from the Longitudinal Study of Generations. Analyses were based on 5 assessments across a 12-year period of a sample of 1,824 individuals ages 16 to 97 years. First, growth curve analyses indicated that self-esteem increases from adolescence to middle adulthood, reaches a peak at about age 50 years, and then decreases in old age. Second, cross-lagged regression analyses indicated that self-esteem is best modeled as a cause rather than a consequence of life outcomes. Third, growth curve analyses, with self-esteem as a time-varying covariate, suggested that self-esteem has medium-sized effects on life-span trajectories of affect and depression, small to medium-sized effects on trajectories of relationship and job satisfaction, a very small effect on the trajectory of health, and no effect on the trajectory of occupational status. These findings replicated across 4 generations of participants—children, parents, grandparents, and their great-grandparents. Together, the results suggest that self-esteem has a significant prospective impact on real-world life experiences and that high and low self-esteem are not mere epiphenomena of success and failure in important life domains.
This research provides the first support for a possible psychological universal: Human beings around the world derive emotional benefits from using their financial resources to help others (prosocial spending). In Study 1, survey data from 136 countries were examined and showed that prosocial spending is associated with greater happiness around the world, in poor and rich countries alike. To test for causality, in Studies 2a and 2b, we used experimental methodology, demonstrating that recalling a past instance of prosocial spending has a causal impact on happiness across countries that differ greatly in terms of wealth (Canada, Uganda, and India). Finally, in Study 3, participants in Canada and South Africa randomly assigned to buy items for charity reported higher levels of positive affect than participants assigned to buy the same items for themselves, even when this prosocial spending did not provide an opportunity to build or strengthen social ties. Our findings suggest that the reward experienced from helping others may be deeply ingrained in human nature, emerging in diverse cultural and economic contexts. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved).
conceptual and empirical perspectives on the relationship between helping and coping are presented
presents empirical evidence on the nature and degree of helping by individuals presumed to be exposed to stress, including siblings of children with disabilities and elderly persons / show that contrary to stereotypes of people presumed to be under stress, many such people do help others despite their own troubles
[describes] the results of two of my own emerging field studies, the results of which, when taken in combination with evidence presented in the first section, should increase the plausibility that helping serves as an effective coping mechanism (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Two studies explored the relation between self-esteem and self-enhancement biases. It was proposed that people with high self-esteem engage in forms of self-enhancement in which the self is directly linked to positive identities and outcomes, whereas people with low self-esteem engage in forms of self-enhancement in which the self is indirectly linked to positive identities and outcomes. To test the hypothesis, we examined group favoritism as a function of self-esteem and group involvement. As expected, high self-esteem subjects were most apt to display favoritism when they were directly involved in group processes, whereas low self-esteem subjects were most apt to display favoritism when they were not directly involved in group processes. Furthermore, consistent with the view that these tendencies reflect a motivated desire to enhance self-worth, these effects were less evident after subjects had received positive feedback than after they had received negative feedback. The discussion centers on the nature of high and low self-esteem and the influence of self-enhancement and self-consistency motives in social behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Summarizes several studies on self-esteem between 13 and 23 yrs of age, as well as results from the Monitoring the Future project (MFP) to show that global self-esteem, as measured by scales like the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, increases over that age span. The MFP consists of annual questionnaire surveys of 15,000–29,000 high school seniors and some follow-up questionnaires after graduation. Using MFP data from the classes of 1976 through 1979, results support an increase in self-esteem with age. In spite of the considerable increase in mean levels, there is also considerable stability of self-esteem. Using both single- and multiple-indicator models with correlated errors, the stabilities of self-esteem are shown to be fairly high. Annual stabilities are estimated to be between .6 and .9, depending on the model and on the definition of stability. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Objective:
The present longitudinal study examined the development of self-reported prosociality (i.e., the tendency to enact prosocial behaviors) from adolescence to early adulthood and its prediction from teacher-reported effortful control (i.e., dispositional regulation) at age 13.
Method:
Participants were 573 (276 girls) Italian adolescents aged approximately 13 (M = 12.98, SD = 0.80) at the first assessment and 21 (M = 21.23, SD = 0.67) at the last assessment. The study used three different cohorts recruited across ten years (from 1994 to 2004) from a larger longitudinal project with a multiple-cohort design.
Results:
Latent growth curve modeling indicated that the overall level of prosociality declined until approximately age 17 with a subsequent slight rebound until age 21. Significant inter-individual variability in developmental trends of prosociality in males and females was observed. Youths' effortful control was related to a lesser decline of prosociality in adolescence.
Conclusions:
Being able to regulate one's own emotions and behaviors in early adolescence may not only affect the tendency to behave prosocially, but also counter the self-centered tendencies observed across this phase of development.
After decades of debate, a consensus is emerging about the way self-esteem develops across the lifespan. On average, self-esteem is relatively high in childhood, drops during adolescence (particularly for girls), rises gradually throughout adulthood, and then declines sharply in old age. Despite these general age differences, individuals tend to maintain their ordering relative to one another: Individuals who have relatively high self-esteem at one point in time tend to have relatively high self-esteem years later. This type of stability (i.e., rank-order stability) is somewhat lower during childhood and old age than during adulthood, but the overall level of stability is comparable to that found for other personality characteristics. Directions for further research include (a) replication of the basic trajectory using more sophisticated longitudinal designs, (b) identification of the mediating mechanisms underlying self-esteem change, (c) the development of an integrative theoretical model of the life-course trajectory of self-esteem.
Two studies examined individual and environmental forces that affect engagement in prosocial behavior. Self-determination theory was used to derive a model in which autonomy orientation and autonomy support predicted satisfaction of three core psychological needs, which in turn led to engagement in prosocial activities. In Study 1, college students reported their engagement in various prosocial activities, and completed measures of autonomy orientation, parental autonomy support, and general need satisfaction. In Study 2, volunteer workers completed measures of autonomy orientation, work autonomy support and need satisfaction at work. The number of volunteered hours indicated the amount of prosocial engagement. Results across the studies showed that autonomy orientation was strongly related to engagement in prosocial behavior, while autonomy support was modestly related. Need satisfaction partially mediated the effect of autonomy orientation, and fully mediated the effect of autonomy support. Interestingly, autonomy support predicted lower volunteer turnover. Implications for how prosocial behavior can be motivated are discussed.
Although research has established that receiving expressions of gratitude increases prosocial behavior, little is known about the psychological mechanisms that mediate this effect. We propose that gratitude expressions can enhance prosocial behavior through both agentic and communal mechanisms, such that when helpers are thanked for their efforts, they experience stronger feelings of self-efficacy and social worth, which motivate them to engage in prosocial behavior. In Experiments 1 and 2, receiving a brief written expression of gratitude motivated helpers to assist both the beneficiary who expressed gratitude and a different beneficiary. These effects of gratitude expressions were mediated by perceptions of social worth and not by self-efficacy or affect. In Experiment 3, we constructively replicated these effects in a field experiment: A manager's gratitude expression increased the number of calls made by university fundraisers, which was mediated by social worth but not self-efficacy. In Experiment 4, a different measure of social worth mediated the effects of an interpersonal gratitude expression. Our results support the communal perspective rather than the agentic perspective: Gratitude expressions increase prosocial behavior by enabling individuals to feel socially valued.
In a longitudinal study of 47 girls and 44 boys, developmental change in self-esteem (SE) was examined from early adolescence through late adolescence to early adulthood. Males tended to increase and females tended to decrease in SE over time. There was appreciable rank-order consistency in SE over time. Within each gender, the considerable individual differences in developmental trajectories were coherently related to personality characteristics independently assessed in early adolescence. Boys and girls with high SE possessed quite different personality characteristics in early adolescence; by early adulthood, although important differences remained, the personality characteristics associated with high SE were similar for the 2 sexes. Discussion focuses on the implications of our findings for the "consistency versus change" debate, the influence of gender-role socialization on SE development, and the importance of examining normative, gender-specific, and individual developmental change in SE.
C. Gilligan's (1982) critique of L. Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning and her assertion that two modes of moral reasoning (justice and care) exist have been the subject of debate within the field of psychology for more than 15 years. This meta-analysis was conducted to review quantitatively the work on gender differences in moral orientation. The meta-analysis revealed small differences in the care orientation favoring females (d = -.28) and small differences in the justice orientation favoring males (d = .19). Together, the moderator variables accounted for 16% of the variance in the effect sizes for care reasoning and 17% of the variance in the effect sizes for justice reasoning. These findings do not offer strong support for the claim that the care orientation is used predominantly by women and that the justice orientation is used predominantly by men.
This article presents meta-analytic results of the relationship of 4 traits--self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy, locus of control, and emotional stability (low neuroticism) with job satisfaction and job performance. With respect to job satisfaction, the estimated true score correlations were .26 for self-esteem, .45 for generalized self-efficacy, .32 for internal locus of control, and .24 for emotional stability. With respect to job performance, the correlations were .26 for self-esteem, .23 for generalized self-efficacy, .22 for internal locus of control, and .19 for emotional stability. In total, the results based on 274 correlations suggest that these traits are among the best dispositional predictors of job satisfaction and job performance. T. A. Judge, E. A. Locke. and C. C. Durham's (1997) theory of core self-evaluations is used as a framework for discussing similarities between the 4 traits and their relationships to satisfaction and performance.
This study provides a comprehensive picture of age differences in self-esteem from age 9 to 90 years using cross-sectional data collected from 326,641 individuals over the Internet. Self-esteem levels were high in childhood, dropped during adolescence, rose gradually throughout adulthood, and declined sharply in old age. This trajectory generally held across gender, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and nationality (U.S. citizens vs. non-U.S. citizens). Overall, these findings support previous research, help clarify inconsistencies in the literature, and document new trends that require further investigation.
Because motivations for prosocial actions typically are unclear, sometimes even to actors but especially for observers, it is difficult to study prosocial motivation. This article reviews research that provides evidence regarding children's motives for prosocial behaviors. First, we present a heuristic model to classify motives on the dimension of reflecting altruistic (with the ultimate goal of benefiting another) to egoism (the ultimate goal of benefiting the self) goals; in addition, we briefly discuss classifying motives based on a continuum of morality. Next, we review findings indicating the existence of a number of different motives in our model and briefly discuss developmental issues, when possible. Future directions for the study of prosocial motivation are proposed. © 2016 The Authors. Child Development
This study investigated developmental trajectories for prosocial behavior for a sample followed from the age of 10–18 and examined possible adjustment outcomes associated with membership in different trajectory groups. Participants were 136 boys and 148 girls, their teachers, and their parents (19.4 percent African-American, 2.4 percent Asian, 51.9 percent Caucasian, 19.5 percent Hispanic, and 5.8 percent other). Teachers rated children's prosocial behavior yearly in grades 4–12. At the end of the 12th grade year, teachers, parents, and participants reported externalizing behaviors and participants reported internalizing symptoms, narcissism, and features of borderline personality disorder. Results suggested that prosocial behavior remained stable from middle childhood through late adolescence. Group-based mixture modeling revealed three prosocial trajectory groups: low (18.7 percent), medium (52.8 percent), and high (29.6 percent). Membership in the high prosocial trajectory group predicted lower levels of externalizing behavior as compared with the low prosocial trajectory group, and for girls, lower levels of internalizing symptoms. Membership in the medium prosocial trajectory group also predicted being lower on externalizing behaviors. Membership in the high prosocial trajectory group predicted lower levels of borderline personality features for girls only.
The current study examined bidirectional relations between adolescents' moral personality (prosocial values, self-regulation, and sympathy) and low- and high-cost prosocial behavior toward strangers. Participants included 682 adolescents (M age of child = 14.31, SD = 1.07, 50% female) who participated at two time points, approximately one year apart. Cross-lag analyses suggested that adolescents' values were associated with both low- and high-cost prosocial behavior one year later, self-regulation was associated with high-cost prosocial behavior, and sympathy was associated with low-cost prosocial behavior. Findings also suggested that low-cost prosocial behavior was associated with sympathy one year later, and high-cost prosocial behavior was associated with values. Discussion focuses on reciprocal relations between moral personality and prosocial behavior, and the need to consider a more multidimensional approach to prosocial development during adolescence.
Mexican American youth often engage in relatively high levels of prosocial behaviors. We theorize that this may be due to a cultural value system that encourages familism values, which, in turn, may foster the development of sociocognitive processes that promote prosocial behaviors. Two hundred and five Mexican American early adolescent youth (Mage = 10.9 years, SD = 0.84; 51% girls) reported their familism values, perspective taking, prosocial moral reasoning, and six types of prosocial behaviors. The results indicated that perspective taking partially mediated the relation between familism values and the specific prosocial tendencies theoretically linked to the Mexican American culture. The study demonstrated the utility of integrating cultural and traditional developmental mechanisms in attempting to explain prosocial behaviors.
We investigated relations between prosocial behavior, perceived social support, and improvement in depression and anxiety symptoms over 6 months among 102 Acholi adolescent (14–17 years, 58% female adolescents) survivors of war and displacement in Northern Uganda. Adolescents were assessed using a locally developed screener. Regression analyses measured the association between resilience factors and mental health outcomes. Findings indicated that high levels of baseline prosocial behaviors were associated with improvement in anxiety symptoms among adolescents with high symptom improvement. This same trend was seen for depression symptoms (p = .06). Experiencing caregiver loss modified this association for depression symptoms. Baseline social support was not associated with improvement in depression or anxiety. Results suggest that prosocial behavior is associated with increased resilience.
The present study examined the longitudinal relations between prosociality and self-esteem. Participants were 386 (50.3% males) middle adolescents (Mage = 15.6) assessed over a 10-year period until they entered into young adulthood (Mage = 25.7). First, multivariate latent curve analysis indicated that the developmental increase of prosociality was positively related to the parallel increase of self-esteem. Second, an autoregressive cross-lagged model revealed that the direct effect of prosociality on self-esteem was statistically significant but essentially negligible. These findings corroborated from a long-term longitudinal perspective previous studies highlighting the positive correlation between the development of prosociality and self-esteem, and pointed out to the need for further investigating the relation between the two constructs. The theoretical and practical implications of these results are discussed.
This study examined longitudinal change in adolescents' prosocial behavior toward family, friends, and strangers. Participants included 491 mother–child dyads (average age of child at Time 1 = 11.5, 67% European American). Growth mixture modeling suggested that prosocial behavior toward family was generally stable or decreased over time, while prosocial behavior toward friends increased over time. However, findings highlighted unique developmental trajectories within subgroups of adolescents for prosocial behavior toward family and friends and found that maternal warmth and adolescent sympathy, self-regulation, and gender consistently distinguished between groups. Discussion focuses on the need for a more multidimensional approach to prosocial development.
Fourth, sixth, and eighth graders were paired either with a close friend or with a classmate whom they neither strongly liked nor strongly disliked. The pairs of children were observed as they did two tasks that provided them with opportunities for generous or helpful behavior toward each other. On one task, children distributed rewards to themselves and to their partner. On the second task, children were allowed to help their partner get rewards when the partner had been placed at a disadvantage. The results showed an increase with age in the differences between friends' and classmates' behavior. Eighth graders were more generous and more helpful toward friends than toward other classmates, but sixth and fourth graders treated friends and classmates similarly. After doing the tasks, eighth graders also reported that they thought their friends less often competed with them and more often tried for equality in rewards than other classmates. Attributions about the partner's motives were similar for friends and classmates at sixth and fourth grade. The age differences in behavior and motives are compared with current theories of the development of friendship.
Three studies of everyday helping behavior are described. Study I reveals that most everyday helping occurs between friends, family members, and other familiar individuals; providing assistance to strangers is less common. Furthermore, much of the help given to familiar others is planned, whereas help given to strangers is almost always spontaneous. Study 2 describes the construction of an instrument to measure self-reports of helping. A multidimensional scaling analysis reveals three regions of helping: planned formal, planned informal, and spontaneous. Study 3 finds that characteristics of individuals, in general, are related more strongly to planned forms of helping than to spontaneous forms of helping. Social network variables also are found to be better predictors of self-reported helping behavior than are traditional personality variables.
• Why are people in close relationships motivated to go beyond their own self-interest and act in a manner that benefits their partner? Some theorists would point to person factors in answering this question, specifying various personality dimensions as particularly relevant (see chaps. 3,4, 7, and 19, this volume). Others would take a social cognitive approach, emphasizing the manner in which relationship cognitions guide prosocial activity (see chaps. 1, 10, and 18, this volume). In this chapter, we advance a different approach. We review findings from a long-standing program of research on prosocial behavior in close relationships from an interdependence perspective. We make three main points. First, we suggest that the structure of interdependence between persons should be an important concern for social and behavioral scientists interested in understanding prosocial motivation and behavior. Second, we suggest that behaving to the benefit of one's partner in such situations rests on key structural features of relationships. Third, we propose that in interdependent relationships, each person's actions have implications for the partner. In short, we are going to suggest that psychology, particularly social psychology, should be more truly social in character when attempting to understand prosocial motives and behavior in interpersonal contexts. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved)
• Why are people in close relationships motivated to go beyond their own self-interest and act in a manner that benefits their partner? Some theorists would point to person factors in answering this question, specifying various personality dimensions as particularly relevant (see chaps. 3,4, 7, and 19, this volume). Others would take a social cognitive approach, emphasizing the manner in which relationship cognitions guide prosocial activity (see chaps. 1, 10, and 18, this volume). In this chapter, we advance a different approach. We review findings from a long-standing program of research on prosocial behavior in close relationships from an interdependence perspective. We make three main points. First, we suggest that the structure of interdependence between persons should be an important concern for social and behavioral scientists interested in understanding prosocial motivation and behavior. Second, we suggest that behaving to the benefit of one's partner in such situations rests on key structural features of relationships. Third, we propose that in interdependent relationships, each person's actions have implications for the partner. In short, we are going to suggest that psychology, particularly social psychology, should be more truly social in character when attempting to understand prosocial motives and behavior in interpersonal contexts. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved)
Ninety adolescents and young adults (evenly divided by gender) were interviewed regarding their evaluations of helping and making a sacrifice to help in both distant and close relationships. Adolescents and young adults judged that it is important to help, satisfying to help, and wrong not to help, particularly when the recipients are in close relationships. With increasing age, helping behavior was viewed less as an obligation and more as a matter of personal choice with distant relationships. Female participants judged it more important to help, overall, than did male participants, but there were no gender differences for how satisfying it would be to help or whether it would be wrong not to help. Helping others and making sacrifices of personal goals to help others are valued in adolescence.
This study assessed features of young children's friendships and determined whether the features reported were associated with prosocial and aggressive behavior. Teachers completed the friendship features questionnaires (FFQ) on the mutual friendships in their class identified by the 98 children who were interviewed (M age =3.91 years). Four subscales (support, conflict, exclusivity/intimacy, and asymmetry) were differentiated from the 36-item questionnaire. Teacher reports of friendship features showed moderate inter-rater reliability and were associated with teacher reports of aggression and prosocial behavior and peer reports of acceptance and rejection. Friendship support was positively correlated with prosocial behavior, friendship conflict was positively correlated with overt aggression and peer rejection, and friendship exclusivity/intimacy was positively associated with relational aggression and negatively with peer acceptance. Findings are consistent with research on school age children's friendship features and their behavioral correlates.
In this chapter, we review research and some current theory on the development of prosocial responding (including prosocial behavior and empathy-related responding) and possible antecedents/causes, outcomes, and correlates. In the initial section of this chapter, we briefly present a general framework for integrating factors that contribute to prosocial responding. Then the empirical literature related to the development of prosocial behavior, with an emphasis on the emerging literature on early development and development during adolescence, is reviewed. Next we review literature on the potential origins of prosocial responding, including potential biological, cultural, familial, and peer/school factors. Then we address sociocognitive correlates of prosocial responding and the relations of temperamental/personality and social-behavioral individual differences (e.g., aggression) to prosocial behavior and/or empathy-related responding. Due to space constraints, we focus more on current rather than older publications and disproportionately on topics of central importance to prosocial development and issues that have been foci of interest in the past decade. In the final sections of the chapter, gaps in the field and future directions are discussed.
Self-esteem would appear to be a laudable quality. Indeed, from a superficial view, what could be wrong with esteeming the self? Esteeming oneself would seem akin to the other prescriptions of modern so-cial-cognitive psychology: Be optimistic; hold positive illusions; expect success; feel efficacious; be happy. But like many of these "positive" prescriptions, the ad-monition to esteem oneself is more complex and prob-lematic than it seems. We believe that Kernis (this issue), in working to disentangle the issues of level of self-esteem from its stability, has brought some of the problematic dynam-ics of "self-esteeming" into the forefront. Our com-ments, derived from both self-determination theory (SDT; Ryan & Deci, 2000) and Buddhist perspectives, suggest some reasons why. Extending the issues raised by Kernis, previous SDT formulations of contingent and noncontingent self-esteem (e.g., Deci & Ryan, 1995), and our recent findings concerning mindfulness (Brown & Ryan, 2003), we suggest that when self-esteeming processes are salient there is something awry with self-regula-tion, and with well-being. Based on SDT, we argue that, although self-evaluation is a "natural" human ten-dency with both evolutionary (Sedikedes & Skowronski, 2000) and developmental (Ryan & Kuzckowski, 1994) foundations, ongoing concern with the worth of the self is a byproduct of need depri-vation or conflict. Specifically, the salience of pro-cesses in which the self is esteemed or disparaged is etiologically linked with the experience of contingent regard by significant others. We hypothesize that con-tingent regard increases one's proneness to introjection, a form of behavioral regulation in which one's actions are motivated by desires to gain (or not lose) self or other approval. Introjection, in turn, leaves one vulnerable to exogenous social pressures, the pur-suit of unfulfilling goals, and the inauthentic living that can follow from them. Based on Buddhist perspec-tives, we further suggest that regulation based on mindfulness, rather than on contingent self-regard, is associated with healthier and more vital living, and provides a basis for acting more authentically. Self-as-Object; Self-as-Process The dominant view of self in Western psychology is that of the "self-as-object" (McAdams, 1990). Derived primarily from the work of Mead (1934) and Cooley (1902), this tradition describes the self as a concept that is largely internalized from the reactions and opinions of others. One's self-concept can be positive or nega-tive, simple or complex. Yet, whatever its structure or valence, self-concepts are defined as involving, in part, appraisals and evaluations of one's being and attrib-utes, and it is these evaluative schema that constitute self-esteem. These appraisals regarding worth can be relatively generalized (e.g., Rosenberg, 1965) or do-main specific (Harter, 1993). In either case, the com-mon view is: the more positive, the better. In contrast to the self-as-object perspective is an-other take on self derived from developmental and or-ganismic theorizing—the self-as-process (e.g., Blasi, 1988; Deci & Ryan, 1991; Loevinger, 1976). Re-searchers in the self-as-process tradition view the self not merely as a concept, or as an object of self-evalua-tion, but as the very process of assimilation and inte-gration. The self represents the integrative core of the person and entails ongoing activities of extending, as-similating, and bringing meaning and coherence to life experiences. Thus, in this view, the self is both an in-herent tendency and a dynamic, synthetic process. SDT has specifically focused on the conditions that support the integrative tendencies that characterize the self, versus those under which these tendencies or functions are compromised (Ryan, 1995). Taking the self-as-process perspective, the question becomes not merely how high or low is self-esteem, but what is one doing when evaluating the self as an object? In this view, the very process of placing one's self in the role of object, and then evaluating "its" worth, is a motivated act. Indeed, apart from being handed a self-esteem survey by a psychologist, many people would not spontaneously ask themselves, "How worthy am I?" When they do, the question is, why do they? There are also people who are preoccu-pied with their worth. They regularly appraise them-selves, compare themselves with others, and struggle to ward off threats to a positive view of self. Whether such individuals come away with positive or negative conclusions, the very fact that one's esteem is in ques-tion suggests a psychological vulnerability. This is consistent with Kernis's thesis, as it suggests that when self-esteem is a salient concern it is problematic, and likely to be contingent, unstable, and vulnerable. In contrast, optimal health is more likely when self-es-teem is not a concern because the worth of the self is not at issue.
Optimism, personality, and coping styles may alter the effects of stressful events through appraisal and stress reduction. The 1999 Kosovo crisis offered an opportunity to test this proposition under real-life, traumatic stress conditions. Dispositional optimism, personality, and coping contributions were predicted based on geographical distance and degree of reported stress for 3 groups: Kosovar refugees, Albanian citizens helping the refugees in Albania, and Albanian immigrants living in the United States. Results showed Kosovars significantly higher on all stress measures, and on maladjustment. Reduced optimism and reduced control coping were related to higher levels of maladjustment. Pessimism and escape coping showed no relation to psychological adjustment. Resilience was related to a combination of higher optimism, extraversion, openness to experience, conscientiousness, and control coping, paired with lower neuroticism.
A substantial number of U.S. adolescents currently participate in community service and there is increased national interest in service programs. This article assesses the assumption of developmental benefits to service participants by critically reviewing 44 empirical studies. It offers a theoretical framework for understanding the findings by connecting them to identity development and delineating three pertinent concepts: agency, social relatedness, and moral-political awareness. These concepts are applied to studies that investigate: (1) the characteristics and motivations of participants, (2) the effects of service, and (3) the process of service. The findings support the conclusion that service activities which provide opportunities for intense experiences and social interactions are often associated with prasocial development. The findings also point to the need for more studies focused on particular service programs and on relationships between service providers and those served.
The present study was designed to investigate stability and changes in prosocial behavior and the parent and peer correlates of prosocial behavior in rural adolescents. Participants were from a rural, low SES community in the Eastern United States. The participants were in 7th, 8th, and 9th grades at Time 1 and 10th, 11th, and 12th grades at Time 4, and completed measures of prosocial behavior and quality of parent and peer relationships. Latent growth curve modeling revealed that despite moderate stability in individual differences in prosocial behavior and slight increases in quality of peer and parent relationships, level of prosocial behavior declined until late high school with a slight rebound in grade 12. Furthermore, increases in the quality of peer relationships predicted decreases in prosocial behavior for girls but not boys. Discussion focuses on continuity and change in prosocial behavior and the gender-based relations between quality of parent and peer relationships and prosocial behaviors in adolescence.
Based on data from a 17‐year longitudinal study of 1083 adolescents, from the ages of 13 to 30 years, the average development of self‐reported global self‐esteem was found to be high and stable during adolescence. However, there is considerable inter‐individual variance in baseline and development of global self‐esteem. This study used latent growth mixture modelling to characterize three trajectory classes of global self esteem between ages 14 and 23 years: consistently high, chronically low, and U‐shaped.
The respondents in three classes showed statistically significant different levels of life satisfaction, depressive mood, somatic complaints and insomnia at age 30. Attempts to predict trajectories from age 13 were only partially successful, with body image, relations with parents and frequency of physical activity as the significant predictors.
According to self-determination theory, people have three basic psychological needs: relatedness, competence, and autonomy. Of these, the authors reasoned that relatedness need satisfaction is particularly important for promoting prosocial behavior because of the increased sense of connectedness to others that this engenders. In Experiment 1, the authors manipulated relatedness, autonomy, competence, or gave participants a neutral task, and found that highlighting relatedness led to higher interest in volunteering and intentions to volunteer relative to the other conditions. Experiment 2 found that writing about relatedness experiences promoted feelings of connectedness to others, which in turn predicted greater prosocial intentions. Experiment 3 found that relatedness manipulation participants donated significantly more money to charity than did participants given a neutral task. The results suggest that highlighting relatedness increases engagement in prosocial activities and are discussed in relation to the conflict and compatibility between individual and social outcomes.
Incl. app., bibliographical notes and references, glossary, index
A longitudinal study of a general population (n=219; M age: 12, 13 and 14), was carried out between 1990 and 1993 over 3 years in Lausanne (Switzerland). Several questionnaires, validated in French, were used: Perceived Competence Scale, Social Support Appraisal and a questionnaire on mental health developed in our research Unit. We attempted to answer the following questions: Is there a global change in self-esteem during early adolescence? If so, does the way in which the young person perceives himself vary according to the social and relational environment? What are the differences between boys and girls in the development of self-esteem? What is the relation between self-esteem and mental health?As to the specific differences according to gender, results show that girls tend to have a poorer self-esteem than boys, whatever the domains taken into consideration. Differences are more significant with reference to appearance and athletic performance. As far as the development of self-esteem is concerned, there is no major change, notably when considering global perception. Results of a factor analysis underscore the fact that girls' self-esteem is more global and less differentiated by domain while boys separate the scholastic and behavioral part of their experience from the social. Global self-esteem has more influence on the level of depressive mood in girls than in boys.
The present longitudinal research demonstrates robust contributions of early prosocial behavior to children's developmental trajectories in academic and social domains. Both prosocial and aggressive behaviors in early childhood were tested as predictors of academic achievement and peer relations in adolescence 5 years later. Prosocialness included cooperating, helping, sharing, and consoling, and the measure of antisocial aspects included proneness to verbal and physical aggression. Prosocialness had a strong positive impact on later academic achievement and social preferences, but early aggression had no significant effect on either outcome. The conceptual model accounted for 35% of variance in later academic achievement, and 37% of variance in social preferences. Additional analysis revealed that early academic achievement did not contribute to later academic achievement after controlling for effects of early prosocialness. Possible mediating processes by which prosocialness may affect academic achievement and other socially desirable developmental outcomes are proposed.
Using two waves of panel data from Americans' Changing Lives (House 1995) (N = 2,681), we examine the relationships between volunteer work in the community and six aspects of personal well-being: happiness, life satisfaction, self-esteem, sense of control over life, physical health, and depression. Prior research has more often examined the effects of voluntary memberships than of volunteer work, has used cross-sectional rather than longitudinal data, and, when longitudinal, has emphasized social causation over selection effects. Focusing only on the consequences of volunteer work overlooks the antecedents of human agency. People with greater personality resources and better physical and mental health should be more likely to seek (or to be sought for) community service. Hence, we examine both selection and social causation effects. Results show that volunteer work indeed enhances all six aspects of well-being and, conversely, people who have greater well-being invest more hours in volunteer service. Given this, further understanding of self- versus social-selection processes seems an important next step. Do positive, healthy people actively seek out volunteer opportunities, or do organizations actively recruit individuals of these types (or both)? Explaining how positive consequences flow from volunteer service may offer a useful counterpoint to stress theory, which has focused primarily on negative life experiences and their sequelae.
The goal of this study was to examine both the direct and indirect relations of parent and peer attachment with self-esteem and to examine the potential mediating roles of empathy and social behaviour. 246 college students (M age = 18.6 years, S.D. = 1.61) completed self-report measures of parent and peer attachment, empathy, social behaviour, and self-esteem. Structural equation modelling revealed that parental attachment had mostly direct effects on self-esteem. Among females, the links between peer attachment and self-esteem, however, were entirely mediated by empathy and prosocial behaviour. The findings from this study suggest that although close supportive relationships with parents and peers are related to adolescent self-esteem, these links are complex.
The development and correlates of prosocial behavior
- G Carlo
Carlo, G. (2014). The development and correlates of prosocial behavior. In M. Killen, & J. Smetana (Eds.), Handbook of moral development (pp. 208e234). NY:
Psychology Press.
Prosocial development
- N Eisenberg
- T L Spinrad
- A Knafo-Noam
Eisenberg, N., Spinrad, T. L., & Knafo-Noam, A. (2015). Prosocial development. In R. M. Lerner, & M. E. Lamb (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology and
developmental science (pp. 1e47). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Prosocial development: A multidimensional approach (pp. 305e326)
- M E Lewis
Lewis, M. E. (2014). Parents as recipients of adolescent prosocial behavior. In L. M. Padilla-Walker, & G. Carlo (Eds.), Prosocial development: A multidimensional approach (pp. 305e326). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.