Leading Learning among the Indigenous Orang Asli Students: Setting the Scene

Abstract

This paper highlights the initializing stage of a Grounded Theory research that focusses on how some students from the Indigenous Orang Asli community survived deficit theorizing; a theorizing approach that rationalizes the learning disengagement among them. Influenced by arguments of the anti-deficit thinkers, this research seeks to understand the situation from the perspective of strength. Research sampling was purposeful, within the context of theoretical sampling following the Grounded Theory method. The main data was provided by participants who have reached the tertiary level education. Although, data has been gathered through unstructured interviews with sixteen (16) participants, this paper presents the experience of the key researcher in the initial exploratory data collection from fieldwork, and findings from two in-depth unstructured interviews with the first participant, which sets the scene for the subsequent research process. The main aim is to describe how the GT research took start. The final findings are expected to provide an in-depth knowledge of the leading learning process among the successful Orang Asli students; providing lessons learned for students, parents, teachers, schools, community, and policy makers to consider for the betterment of the Indigenous education. The study will contribute to the body of literature that supports strength-based practice for the continuous improvement of the Indigenous Orang Asli community.

Full text

International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences
2016, Vol. 6, No. 12
ISSN: 2222-6990
146
www.hrmars.com
Leading Learning among the Indigenous Orang Asli
Students: Setting the Scene
Misnaton Rabahi1, Hamidah Yusof2 and Marinah Awang3
1,2,3 Department of Management and Leadership, Faculty of Management and Economics,
Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, 35900 Tanjung Malim, Malaysia
DOI: 10.6007/IJARBSS/v6-i12/2480 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.6007/IJARBSS/v6-i12/2480
ABSTRACT
This paper highlights the initializing stage of a Grounded Theory research that focusses on how
some students from the Indigenous Orang Asli community survived deficit theorizing; a
theorizing approach that rationalizes the learning disengagement among them. Influenced by
arguments of the anti-deficit thinkers, this research seeks to understand the situation from the
perspective of strength. Research sampling was purposeful, within the context of theoretical
sampling following the Grounded Theory method. The main data was provided by participants
who have reached the tertiary level education. Although, data has been gathered through
unstructured interviews with sixteen (16) participants, this paper presents the experience of
the key researcher in the initial exploratory data collection from fieldwork, and findings from
two in-depth unstructured interviews with the first participant, which sets the scene for the
subsequent research process. The main aim is to describe how the GT research took start. The
final findings are expected to provide an in-depth knowledge of the leading learning process
among the successful Orang Asli students; providing lessons learned for students, parents,
teachers, schools, community, and policy makers to consider for the betterment of the
Indigenous education. The study will contribute to the body of literature that supports
strength-based practice for the continuous improvement of the Indigenous Orang Asli
community.
Keywords: Grounded Theory Method, Indigenous Research, Leading Learning, Learning
Disengagement, Orang Asli Research, Strength-Based Practice.
1. INTRODUCTION
Orang Asli is the official name of the Peninsular Malaysia Indigenous community. The Orang Asli
represent about 0.6 percent (178,197 at 2013 as cited in JAKOA, 2016) of the total population.
They comprise diverse groups of 18 Indigenous ethnic tribes, distinguished by their respective
ethnic languages and social-cultural identities (Lye, 2011; Tarmiji, Fujimaki & Norhasimah, 2013;
JAKOA, 2015). Their social and economic position situates them among the disadvantaged
minorities; the majority living beneath the poverty line (Mohd Asri, 2012) and marginalised
(Johari & Nazri, 2007; Tarmiji, Fujimaki & Norhasimah, 2013). Historically, the Orang Asli
education was formalized in 1952 (Edo, 2012). Since then, educating the community has been
one of the Government’s priorities (MOE, 2013).

International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences
2016, Vol. 6, No. 12
ISSN: 2222-6990
147
www.hrmars.com
The community has achieved considerable progress in education (KPM, 2008). However,
research indicates that the educational attainment of the Orang Asli children has been
problematic (Wan Afizi, Shaharuddin & Noraziah, 2014; SUHAKAM, 2015; Norwaliza, Ramlee &
Abdul Razaq, 2016). Prevalent issues include learning disengagement and low achievement. As
an Indigenous group, the achievement has not been at par with the national progress (Nicholas,
2006; Sharifah et al. 2011; United Nation, 2011; DPM, 2012). For instance, Sharifah et al. (2011)
highlight the problems of learning disengagement among the children; despite improvement
initiatives carried out by the Government. The authors state a dropout rate of 47.23% for year
2000 cohort at primary level. This means 47.23% of the children registered for the cohort did
not complete their primary education. In another study, Mohd Asri (2012) cites a dropout rate
of 39.1% in 2008, reducing to 29% in 2010 and 26% in 2011. However, the dropout problem
appears to disappear in JAKOA (2016) who reports a dropout rate of -21.05% for the 2009
cohort due to extensive campaign for primary enrolment by the relevant Government agencies.
Dropouts after Year 6, though, remain high (22.09% in 2010). The dropouts refer to students
who were enrolled in Year 6 in 2010 but did not continue to Form 1 at the secondary level
(JAKOA, 2016).
Past research has attributed the Orang Asli educational problems to the lack of interest in
schooling, attitude, poverty, implementation failure, accessibility, parental involvement,
curriculum, pedagogical skills, the quality of leadership of school administrators, the school
climate, and social cultural milieu of the Orang Asli society (Nicholas, 2006; Kamaruddin &
Jusoh, 2008; Sharifah et al., 2011; Mohd Asri, 2012; Ramle, Wan Hasmah, Amir Zal & Asmawi,
2013; Ramlee, 2013). For instance, in a study of literacy level of aboriginal students, Ramlah &
Aslina (2013) concluded that psychosocial problems including family environment, low family
income, mother tongue language, cognitive ability, curriculum and the Orang Asli culture,
hinder the Orang Asli students from going to school. In a study on the implementation of the
Cluster of Excellence Policy at an Orang Asli school, Mohd Asri (2012) highlights the issue of
absenteeism and pupils’ dissatisfaction despite the extensive effort allocated to the pioneering
initiative. He narrates an interesting scene:
Pupil absenteeism is another obstacle to the implementation of the initiative.
Throughout the site visit period, it was observed that about 5 to 6 pupils were absent
during the morning roll call. Every day, the on-duty teacher would have to seek these
pupils at their homes. Sometimes, the teacher would have to wake the pupils and wait
for them to get ready to go to school. Teachers believe lack of interest among parents
and pupils means it is impossible to maintain high standards at the school. The same
lack of commitment was observed during English night classes and cultural performance
training sessions. Some parents blame their children’s attitude saying that they have
tried everything to make them go to school. While others, especially the parents of
female pupils believe that education will not take them anywhere. Pupils, on the other
hand, cite too much homework, strict teachers, uninteresting activities and tiredness as
some of the reasons for staying away from school. (Mohd Asri, 2012, p. 98)
The scene reflects a vicious cycle of blame wherein teachers attributing the cause of the
problem to parents and pupils; parents to their children (the pupils); and pupils back to their

International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences
2016, Vol. 6, No. 12
ISSN: 2222-6990
148
www.hrmars.com
teachers. Despite support from the Government and other agencies, why our Orang Asli
students are still underachieving and remain disengaged from school.
Previous studies have explored the problems from the perspectives of school administrators,
teachers, parents, and community leaders. Few are those that represent learners. It is therefore
the intent of this study to explore and understand, how some others among these students
have been able to complete the schooling process and beyond, successfully, despite the oft
cited challenges and barriers. The initialising phase of this study is guided by the following
questions:
 How did the Orang Asli students lead their learning?
 How did the Orang Asli parents lead their children in learning?
 How did the teachers lead the learning of the Orang Asli students?
 How did the school heads lead the learning of the Orang Asli students?
This paper presents the initial thoughts and considerations that set the scene for the main
grounded theory (GT) study on how learning is led among the Orang Asli students at the
primary level.
2. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
The theoretical considerations for this study are based upon the initial review of the literature,
summarized for the purpose of this paper under three key theories: theory of deficit, theory of
culturally responsive pedagogy of relations and a proposed theory of hope.
Theory of Deficit: Generally, the deficit theory in education forwards the idea that problems of
dropouts and learner disengagement are due to deficiencies from the student’s side of the
divide (Valencia, 2010). Deficit theorizing sees diversity in lifestyle, language, and ways of
learning, as problematic, and views the deficiencies of poor and minority students, their
families and communities as the causes of students’ school problems and academic failure
(Valencia, 1997; 2010).
In similar manner, the deficit perspective is reflected in the Orang Asli education, in which past
research on underachievement and dropouts have highlighted reasons that include problems of
interest, attitude, poverty, accessibility, parental involvement, curriculum, teacher’s
pedagogical skills, school leadership, school climate, and social cultural milieu of the Orang Asli
society (Nicholas, 2006; Kamaruddin & Jusoh, 2008; Mahmud, Amat & Yaacob, 2008; Sharifah
et al., 2011; Mohd Asri, 2012). No doubt the deficit perspective has triggered varied continuous
improvement initiatives, yet the same studies indicate many unresolved challenges, indicating a
need to explore a new perspective to understand the problem. The new lens is that of the anti-
deficit thinkers’.
Theory of Culturally Responsive Pedagogy of Relations: In contrast to the deficit theory,
Howard (1994), Ladson-Billings (1995), Nelson (2002), and Bishop, Berryman, Cavanagh and
Teddy (2007) presented an anti-deficit thinking perspective. Bishop, Berryman, Wearmouth,
Peter and Clapham (2011) concluded from a New Zealand ten-year study of Indigenous Maori
students, that it is for effective teachers to: first, “understand the need to explicitly reject
deficit theorizing as a way of explaining Maori students’ educational achievement levels,” and
second, “to take an agentic position in their theorizing about their practice,” (Bishop et al.,

International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences
2016, Vol. 6, No. 12
ISSN: 2222-6990
149
www.hrmars.com
2011, p.13). In an agentic position teachers identify and challenge existing belief about their
students, embrace the opportunity to effect change, believe that they can and know how to
make a difference, build relationship with, and build self-belief in the students.
Bishop et al. (2007) built upon the theorising of similar others (Cummins, 1995; Gay, 2000;
Sidorkin, 2002; Villegas & Lucas 2002; Bishop et al., 2007), and forwarded a theory of Culturally
Responsive Pedagogy of Relations that emphasises power sharing, culture, interactive dialogic
and spiral learning, and commitment to common vision for excellence in educational outcomes.
Although, their research focus was that based upon the Indigenous students at secondary level
(Year 9 and 10), the study provides key lessons learned and hope for a new perspective to
improve the Orang Asli education – a multi-disciplinary perspective model of hope.
A Multi-Disciplinary Perspective ‘A Model of Hope’: Nicholas (2006) argues that, education to
an Orang Asli is about being a good person. This is in contrast to the official focus of education
as a human capital development tool, which is to prepare students for “the challenges of 21st
century economy” (KPM, 2013), p.E-9). As a result, despite the many initiatives carried out by
the Government; achievement remains a problem, indicating a need to build a shared vision. A
shared vision can only be realised through understanding of our own individual mental models
and that of others (Senge, 1990).
A review on the educational problems of Orang Asli children provides information on its
contributing factors. We also found that, past initiatives and programs have focused primarily
on improving factors and provisions related to accessibility, infrastructure, facilities and
teachers’ skills, and attempts for Indigenous curriculum. Less focus is noted on the learning
experience of the children and the children as learners. Scholtes (1998) argues that education is
about leading learning. Based upon Scholtes’ precept, we envisage education as leading
learning within the context of the community. Consequently, our initialising thoughts and
conceptual model drew upon our own experience (Misnaton, 2001) and examination of the
following theoretical perspectives: quality management, learning organization, and language
learning and minority education.
First is the discipline of quality management that is built upon the premise of continuous
improvement. The underpinning theory in quality management is rooted in the belief that
everyone is educable (Deming, 1986, 1994; Tribus, 1994). The emphasis is on continuous
improvement through customer focus, effective leadership, people involvement, understanding
process, and systems thinking (UNICEF, 2000). Taking our cue from this perspective, quality in
learning must focus on customers and continuous improvement, in which leadership is a major
driver.
Second, what makes the learning organisation theory relevant in this study is the systems
approach to learning. According to Senge (1990) and his mentors (Argyris, 1982; Argyris &
Schon, 1978), real learning is generative learning, learning how to learn, leading one’s own
learning, and seeing context as systems. Thus, in the context of this research, the systems
approach will enable the researchers to see the problem of Orang Asli students in inter-related
contexts, generating a perspective that encompasses the community, school and the
stakeholders.

International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences
2016, Vol. 6, No. 12
ISSN: 2222-6990
150
www.hrmars.com
Third, theories of educational good practice at primary level are effectively linked with language
learning theories (Vygotsky, 1978, 2005; Jawaid, 1998, 2014; Moreland, Jawaid & Dhillon, 2000;
Cummins, 2005; Richard-Amato & Snow, 2005). For instance, Vygotsky (1978, 2005) and Jawaid
(1998) argue that learning of the children is invariably linked to how the learning is scaffold by
teachers, parents, schools and the community as whole. Other authors such as Desforges
(2003) and Peters, Seeds, Goldstein and Coleman (2008) provide perspective of parental
involvement in children’s education.
Thus shaped by the above theories, our initial conceptual model (Figure 1) for the proposed
study incorporates key concepts pertaining to improvement process, systemic learning, and
good practice from language learning and Indigenous research. This ‘model of hope’
conceptualises a preliminary leading learning model comprising the following key processes:
 Initialising learning: how the individual starts and seeks help to start the learning
process;
 Facilitating learning: how the individual creates the means to ease continuity of
learning;
 Accommodating learning: how the individual adapts, adjusts and reconciles differences
of the old and the new, learning for survival or survival learning, and applying learning;
and
 Generating learning: how the individual expands the ability to produce the results, he or
she truly wants; learning for generating the new and the novel; the generative learning.
At this juncture, it must be emphasised that the above model is a preliminary tool for thinking
about the process of how learning is led with respect to the Orang Asli children. Consistent
within the GT approach, we have used the literature towards a better understanding of the
issue, a concept referred to in grounded theory method as theoretical sensitivity (Glaser &
Strauss, 1967; Corbin & Strauss, 2008). The literature in GT also provides additional data for the
study.
3. METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
The methodological considerations are guided by the nature of the problem of our study. Our
intent is to generate a path of understanding which would not be effective, “when people bring
their preconceptions into an interaction and speak from a place of already knowing instead of
engaging with openness, a desire to learn, and respect for what might emerge (Oberg, Blades &
Thom, 2007, p.134)”. Research authors suggest that the GT method is a practical method to
uncover and understand complex processes unhindered by previous conceptions, and to
generate theory grounded in data (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Creswell, 2007, 2009; Merriam,
2009; Corbin & Strauss, 2008). The next step is to decide which GT method to adopt from
among the multi versions of the GT approach. Consequently, upon considerations described
below, Glaser’s classic GT method (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) is deemed the most appropriate to
explore ‘what contributed’ to the sustained schooling of some students among these Orang Asli
children despite their deficit conditions.
Issues in GT Method: Despite the initial collaboration of Glaser and Strauss “the two authors
ultimately disagreed about the meaning and procedures of grounded theory” (Creswell, 2007,

International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences
2016, Vol. 6, No. 12
ISSN: 2222-6990
151
www.hrmars.com
p.63). Glaser’s criticism is that Strauss’s approach to GT is too prescribed and structured. Glaser
himself espouses the autonomy, originality, contribution and power of GT method: such that a
researcher can explore potentials and possibilities on her or his own pacing, give birth to
originality of ideas and methods, contributes innovative solutions, and feels the power of
discovering and conceptualising latent patterns in a substantive area (Glaser & Holton, 2004;
Glaser, 2006). Whilst Glaser emphasises immersion, induction and emergence, Strauss is
concerned with systematic procedure of the methodology towards validity of the approach and
the resulting theory (Corbin & Strauss, 1990). In addition, Charmaz (2006) has issues with
Glaser’s perspective of theory discovered from data. Trained by both Glaser and Strauss, she
argues for the constructivist GT, that the theory in GT method is constructed rather than
discovered. For Charmaz, neither data nor theory is discovered; rather both are constructed by
the researcher and the research participants-informants during interactions, observations and
fieldwork.
Second is the issue of prior knowledge in GT method. Glaser emphasises the need to avoid
doing in-depth literature review in the substantive area. He argues for data-led theory
generation, rather than literature led conceptualisation of theory. This issue was discussed at
length by McCallin (2003, 2006a) in which she argues that “critical analysis of existing literature,
regardless of timing, opens up the mind to the strengths and limitations in received writing, and
for consideration in relation to the developing theory” (McCallin 2006b, p.56). In congruence
with McCallin, Birks and Mills (2011) state that, “through the comparison of theoretical
concepts with coded data, the literature can potentially become a source of data in itself, if it
earns its way into the developing grounded theory,” (p.61). Glaser and Strauss (1967) concur
that, “Of course, the researcher does not approach reality as a tabula rasa. He must have a
perspective that will help him see relevant data and abstract significant categories from his
scrutiny of the data,” (p.3). Indeed Glaser recommended that the researcher reads vociferously
in other areas and fields while doing GT in order to increase theoretical sensitivity (Birks & Mills,
2011; Suddaby, 2006). Both Glaser and Strauss point to the literature as one source of data and
to increase theoretical sensitivity for theory generation. Sensitivity means “having insight, being
tuned in to, being able to pick up relevant issues, events, and happenings in data,” (Corbin &
Strauss, 2008, p.32). Our present research takes its practical cues from Corbin and Strauss
(2008), along with that of Charmaz (2006) and Birks and Mills (2011). However, the original
work of the founders (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) remains our underpinning guide for conceptual
reference and elaborations; whilst the detailed GT method used in this research is adapted
from Hoda (2011), who adopted the original founders’ classic GT method.
Sampling in GT Method: According to Strauss and Corbin (1998), where to sample, where to go
to obtain the data necessary to further the development of the evolving theory is directed by
theoretical sampling technique. This is a technique that differentiates GT method from that of
conventional sampling methods. Theoretical sampling is defined as, “sampling on the basis of
concepts derived from data,” (Corbin & Strauss, 2008, p.65); a “process of data collection for
generating theory whereby the analyst jointly collects, codes, and analyses his data and decides
what data to collect next, and where to find them, in order to develop his theory as it emerges”
(Glaser & Strauss, 1967, p.45). Thus, data collections are focused on concepts that appear to be

International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences
2016, Vol. 6, No. 12
ISSN: 2222-6990
152
www.hrmars.com
relevant to the evolving story line; instead of sampling persons, the researcher is purposely
looking for indicators of the emerging concepts. In theoretical sampling, “The researcher aims
to develop the properties of his or her developing categories or theory; the researcher seeks
people, events, or information to illuminate and define the boundaries and relevance of the
categories” (Charmaz, 2006, p.189). This means, GT researchers go to places, persons, and
situations that will provide information about the concepts they want to learn more about
(Corbin & Strauss 2008). But how do we begin? Of course, “The researcher begins a study with
a general target population and continues to sample from that group” (Corbin & Strauss, 2008,
p.145). Based upon this guideline, our study takes the Orang Asli students as our general target
population. The initial issues of dropouts and learning disengagement led to the theoretical
concepts of leading learning among them. The concepts arose from delving into the literature in
quality, learning organisation, Indigenous education, and language learning and minority
education. This is in accord with Glaser and Straus (1967), who suggest that research can start
with a partial framework of concepts representing the structure and processes in the situation
in which the study will be conducted, especially when such preliminary work is to fulfil the
requirements for graduate research initial proposal. The second step was exploratory fieldwork
comprising visits and conversations with personnel in-charge of the Orang Asli affair at the
Department of Orang Asli Development, also known as Jabatan Kemajuan Orang Asli (JAKOA),
and a head teacher of an Orang Asli primary school, in order to get a glimpse of one context of
an Orang Asli school. The third step was an attempt to understand how learning was led in the
case of a student who has progressed successfully through the schooling system. At this stage
we were sufficiently theoretically sensitive, such that we could conceptualise and formulate our
next steps.
When to stop? Theoretical sampling stops when we reach theoretical saturation. Theoretical
saturation, also referred to as conceptual saturation, refers to the point at which gathering
more data about a theoretical category reveals no new properties nor yields any further
theoretical insights about the emerging grounded theory (Charmaz, 2006). Similarly, Corbin &
Strauss (2008) who refer to this limiting stage as conceptual saturation, defined it as the
process of acquiring sufficient data to develop each category or theme fully in terms of its
properties and dimensions and to account for variation. In other words, theoretical sampling
stops, when new data do not result in further elaboration of a concept or category.
To date, data has been collected from 16 in-depth interviews with students from the local
institutes of higher education. Some students have since graduated. Each interview was about
two hours, with breaks, and recorded with consent. However, this paper presents the initial
findings from two in-depth interviews with the first research participant. The main purpose is to
show how the grounded theory research process took start.

International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences
2016, Vol. 6, No. 12
ISSN: 2222-6990
153
www.hrmars.com
4. DATA COLLECTION
Data collection at the initial stage covered two needs. First, the need of the key researcher to
familiarise herself with, and understand the Orang Asli school learning environment, and the
life of an Orang Asli student. Second was the need for leads for further data collection. The
initial familiarisation was through visits to the state and the district level departments that
manage the affairs of the Orang Asli community, and conversations with the head teacher and
teachers of an Orang Asli primary school, an Orang Asli community liaison worker, who was
from the same community as that of the primary school.
A second familiarisation was through two in-depth interviews, each about two hours long, with
an Orang Asli student in her final semester of the Bachelor of Education programme at a
Teacher Training Institute, Malaysia. The sole Orang Asli student at the institute, she was
invited to participate, through a personal contact. The purpose was to explore and understand
through, narratives of her life; how she has attained her current level of education, and the
conditions as well as provisions availed to her throughout her school years (kindergarten,
primary and secondary). The research ethics considerations include that of a signed informed
consent, explaining the purpose and the limitations of data use (Merriam, 2009). The interviews
were in Bahasa Melayu, conducted in an informal and relaxed environment, where
conversations consisted of dialogues that were intended to stir the remembrance of time past.
Conversations were audio recorded with the knowledge and agreement of the research
participant.
5. FINDINGS
Data analysis in a GT study is structured by the constant comparative method comprising the
concurrent process of open coding of raw data, selective coding, memo writing and further
data collection. It is a method of analysis that generates successively more abstract concepts
and theories through inductive processes of comparing data with data, data with category, and
category with concept (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Charmaz, 2006). We compare incident against
incident for similarities and differences. Incidents that are found to be conceptually similar to
previously coded incidents are given the same conceptual label and put under the same code.
Each new incident that is coded under a code adds to the general properties and dimensions of
that code, elaborating it and bringing in variation (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). As the aim of this
paper is to show the start of the grounded theory process - a critical phase for researchers new
to the method - the data analysis is limited to open coding and memo-writing on emerging
concepts and categories. The data was examined for indicators of provisions that resolved the
concerns of the participant.
The findings are listed under categories defined by actions and behaviours of the emerging
roles: Parents, Student, Kindergarten, Primary School and Significant Others. In this analysis, we
found the concept ‘Parents’ comprised the entire family of Father, Mother, Grandfather,
Grandmother and Older Sister, who had impacted the Participant’s learning achievement and
engagement. Whilst, Significant Others comprised other family members, other students’

International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences
2016, Vol. 6, No. 12
ISSN: 2222-6990
154
www.hrmars.com
achievement from the same community and the government agencies’ provisions that
facilitated the research participant’s learning process.
The initial results of open coding are intended only as baseline to guide the subsequent data
collection. Although the interviews covered the participant’s experiences during her secondary
school years, these data have not been analysed for concepts pertaining to the leading learning
process. The secondary schooling data was invaluable to the key researcher in that it provided
her a better contextual sensitivity of the student, her schooling challenges and achievements
beyond the primary level.
Context: The scene of this narrative was in the state of Johor, Malaysia. There were five villages
and one town whose communities were closely linked with each other. These villages and town
are coded as: V1-V2-V3-V4-V5-T1. V1 was the innermost village. The distance from V1 to Town
T1 was approximately 40 kilometers, through gravel roads used by both the communities and
the timber-carrying heavy vehicles. When it rained, the road surface was usually eroded
resulting in potholes. The road was not waterlogged due its location in hilly area. Access to a
bus route was just after Town T1, at a junction of a bus route connecting two other main towns,
T2 and T3. The nearest bus station was in Town T2 about 45 minute-drive from T1. During the
initial years, the family of the research participant comprised Grandfather (GF), Grandmother
(GM), Mother (46)(M), First Sibling-Brother (30)(B1), Second Sibling-Sister (29)(S2), and the
Research Participant (24)(P1). Upon mother’s remarriage, there was Step-Father (47)(F2),
Fourth Sibling-Sister (17)(S4), Fifth Sibling-Brother (13)(B5), and Sixth Sibling-Sister (5)(S6). All
ages of the living relatives given were ages at the time of the interviews. The Father (F1) died
when P1 was two weeks old. M married F2 when P1 was 7 years old. In other words, M was a
single parent since P1 was two weeks old through her kindergarten (KG) - first and second –
years. The entire family lived in V2. They finally moved to V5 when P1 completed her Year 3 of
Sekolah Rendah (SR) – the Primary School. Detailed findings of this familiarisation case are
presented and discussed below.
Parents Leading Learning (Mother): Mother, despite having no schooling opportunity herself,
believed that education is an important vehicle to exit the hardship and poverty situation. She
had high expectation of her child, and despite the death of her husband two weeks after the
birth of P1, made effort to ensure that her child did not miss the kindergarten and subsequent
schooling years. She moved to V4 to be near the KG and worked as a farm worker. She built a
one-room hut for accommodation and shared the hut with other Orang Asli children who came
from the far inland community. She attended the initial KG weeks of her child to support and
comfort her, and in the process learned the basics of writing, which she used to help P1 at
home. She provided simple learning provisions at home, such as coloured pencils, and set daily
routines to initiate and facilitate her children’s learning. Although they speak the language of
their Indigenous tribe, mother also spoke Bahasa Melayu.
Parents Leading Learning (Older Siblings): The role of older siblings in the learning process was
not anticipated by the researcher initially. The case, however, showed how an older sister, who
worked in a distant town, financially supported the education of her siblings. The sister had
passed her Malaysian Certificate of Education (SPM).

International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences
2016, Vol. 6, No. 12
ISSN: 2222-6990
155
www.hrmars.com
Parents Leading Learning (Grandparents): This is also another aspect of family involvement
that was not initially anticipated by the researcher. In the context of P1, grandparents played a
significant role in her initial education: GM as carer in the absence of mother, and GF provided
financial support in the absence of father. GM also taught the traditional knowledge of Orang
Asli to P1 during her early years, resolving concern of real life problems arising from living in
isolated communities. There was pride in P1’s voice as she described her GF’s ability to make,
sell as well as play the violin, suggesting a role model value of a grandparent.
Student Leading Learning (P1): Her seed of independence was sown at an early age. Prior to
the kindergarten she was left with GM when mother went to collect forest products. She was
sent to live with an aunt during the first two years of SR. She was boarded at the school hostel
in the third year of SR. She was excited about going to the KG and did not cry because mother
stayed with her in the classroom throughout her first week. She adapted quickly to the new
learning environment of the KG, made friends within the week, and mother was no longer
missed. She enjoyed the KG and school because there were many friends. She made friends
easily but had no best friend because she got along with everybody. In the KG she enjoyed
singing songs, playing musical instruments, tracing and writing the alphabet and Jawi script, and
tracing and drawing shapes. She became interested in the English Language from watching an
English children programme. The television, in black and white, was at an uncle’s place,
operated using a generator. She took to daily routine easily, preparing for school in the
morning, taking bath using water piped from the river. She enjoyed playing many traditional
games with friends after completing school work. She was clear about her ambition: in Year 4
she wanted to be a teacher and in Year 6 she wanted to be a doctor. She was an avid reader,
reading story books almost daily during her primary years; her daily routine included borrowing
and returning books on daily basis. After primary school she attended a secondary school in
Town T1. Upon reflection she voiced deep regrets about her siblings’ missing education: older
sister was not able to attend further education after SPM due to financial constraint, younger
sister (S4) dropped out of school during Year 6 and did not attempt the Primary School
Achievement Test, and younger brother, B5, dropped out of school during Form 1. It was also
evident from the interview sessions that she had high confidence level, sense of direction, and
good sense of humour.
Kindergarten Leading Learning: This reflects the role of the first and second KG teachers (KT1
and KT2), the support and provisions provided by the KG in leading the learning of P1. First, KT1
was very caring (P1 emphasised “very, very caring”). She was from outside the community. The
SR was next to the KG and had teachers’ quarters where KT1 resided along with other female
teachers. KT1 used to carry books and the action was imprinted in the student’s memory
because of her love for books. KT2 carried on the duty when KT1 left after her marriage. The KG
facilitated learning by allowing mother to be with P1 throughout the first week of attending KG.
Provisions included writing and reading materials, and stationery. Familiar faces helped P1
settled in the KG: a female Teacher Assistant who was an older cousin of P1 and another male
cousin enrolled in the same class with P1. The KG had combined mini sports day with the SR, in
which P1 remembered enjoying thoroughly. This event provided the kindergartners interactions
with the primary school students, thus paving a future into the next primary schooling.

International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences
2016, Vol. 6, No. 12
ISSN: 2222-6990
156
www.hrmars.com
Primary School Leading Learning: This includes the role of hostel in facilitating school
attendance, and setting the routine for learning; a supportive male teacher who went out all
the way, on a motorbike, to the hinterland isolated community to deliver the good news about
financial assistance for P1; and memorable co-curriculum events to enliven the learning
process. The role of library emerges as an important entity that contributed to the learning
process of P1 who was an avid reader.
Significant Others Leading Learning: ‘Significant Others’ in this case is defined as people,
agencies or institutions that had direct or indirect impact on the student’s education and
learning process. In this context, several roles and concepts appear to have influenced P1’s
educational focus: achievement of other community members in education, the village head,
also known as the Tok Batin, and his role in facilitating access to the kindergarten and school,
The Government’s provision such as new village development scheme that enabled P1 and
family to move closer to the school, vehicle for the Tok Batin’s role in ferrying the students, and
the Department for Orang Asli Development (JAKOA), and its role in the disbursement of aids
and disseminating knowledge about education.
Data from this familiarisation case have not been analysed into the different components of the
initial conceptual model of Leading Learning - that of Initialising, Facilitating, Accommodating
and Generating Learning. This is essentially due to the explorative nature of this stage. But as
more data were collected, the constant comparative coding and memoing revealed the extent
of each category that defines its properties and dimensions. The following example is an extract
from Misnaton, Hamidah and Marinah (2015) that illustrates the sub-category of Initialising
Learning within the category of Parents Leading Learning.
The concept ‘initialising’ is similar to that use in computing, which is to set the value or
put in the condition appropriate to the start of an operation; although in this study, the
concept ‘value’ takes on a different shade. Value in this context, is belief and aspiration
for a better future. Hence, based upon the findings, the category of initialising learning
is defined by the belief, aspirations and the conditions that exist to initiate learning. The
extent of initialising learning is indicated by the home learning environment and routine
comprising: (a) communicating belief and aspiration, (b) providing learning space and
learning resources, (c) setting learning routine and, (d) having learning initiators.
(Misnaton, Hamidah & Marinah, 2015, p.96).
6. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Setting the scene for the GT study include addressing the initial critical issues of which GT
method to adopt, identifying emerging concerns and concepts and getting familiar with the art
of memoing. We conclude with contributions to the body of knowledge, implication for practice
and further work.
Choosing a GT method: Getting started in this GT research involved a period of trying to
understand and decide which path to adopt among the three paths built by the major
proponents of the method: the classic GT of Glaser (Glaser & Strauss, 1967), the more technical
GT of Strauss (Corbin & Strauss, 2008) or the constructivist GT of Charmaz (2006). Our research
finally adopts the classic GT of Glaser that empowers a researcher with autonomy and freedom.

International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences
2016, Vol. 6, No. 12
ISSN: 2222-6990
157
www.hrmars.com
However, Corbin and Staruss (2008) and Charmaz (2006) provide elaborations that give
practical meaning to the concepts discussed in the original work of the founders. GT
applications by earlier researchers such as Hoda (2011), McCallin (2006a) and Jawaid (1998)
contributed to the confidence in its use. Moreover, the classic GT has an online GT journal and
support established by Glaser and the classic GT team that researchers can use to develop a
continuous understanding of the method, and access detailed guidance by the founder himself
(Glaser, 2006, 2012).
Emerging concerns, concepts and categories: The minor literature review, field visits and
conversations with the relevant authority-in-charge set the initial direction for the study.
Subsequent in-depth interviews with the first research participant provided focus, as roles,
concepts and categories emerged from the participant’s experience. An example was the
emerging roles of grandparents and older siblings. Concerns and resolutions identified from the
data gave direction for further data collection. For instance, mother was concerned with the
future of her daughter, and this concern was resolved through her actions, such as finding a job
and moving to be near the kindergarten and school. The action reflects an example of how
parents made life adjustment to accommodate the learning requirements of their children.
Memoing: Critical to the GT method is memo-writing. Memoing is important to identify and
give structure to the emerging categories and their properties, and to assist in making decision
for further theoretical sampling. During memoing, relevant literature provides secondary data
that gives focus and helps us to make sense of the data. Memo ensures thoughts are captured
quickly. Memoing must not be constrained by concerns for language and grammar. As more
concepts and categories emerge from the study, the memo is revisited and updated
accordingly. A sample resulting from the constant comparative analysis of the participants’ data
to-date is illustrated in the following memo (A more comprehensive discussion of Orang Asli
parents leading learning is in Misnaton, Hamidah & Marinah, 2015).
MEMO: 27.01.15: Family Leading Learning – Initialising and Facilitating Learning - Home
Learning Environment: The concept of ‘home learning environment’ comprises a range
of learning related provisions including, “reading, library visits, playing with letters and
numbers, painting and drawing, teaching (through play) the letters of the alphabet,
playing with numbers and shapes, teaching nursery rhymes and singing” (Desforges,
2003, p.23). Data shows that, within the limits of their socio-economic situation, there
existed practices that maintained a favourable home learning environment, which
contributed to the students’ initiation to learning, and provisions and activities that
scaffold continuous learning engagement. For instance, P1 had a mother who provided
coloured pencils and helped her with her writing skills; holding her hands to write and
trace the alphabet. P5 had older siblings who taught him to recite the alphabet and
celebrated his academic achievement with simple affordable rewards. P5 also had a
mother who, while preparing him for school would constantly remind him to study hard,
not to follow the bad ways of others, to emulate the good of others, to acquire
knowledge, because knowledge gives one an advantage for better life. Due to financial
limitation, P2 did not have the opportunity to attend the kindergarten, but mother
taught her at home. Thus, when P2 entered the primary school she could understand

International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences
2016, Vol. 6, No. 12
ISSN: 2222-6990
158
www.hrmars.com
what the teacher wrote on the board. There was pride in her voice when she related
that at the end of her first primary year, she achieved the first position in class, despite
not having kindergarten experience. See also Froiland, Peterson, and Davison (2012) and
Carpentieri (2012). [Note: P1, P2 and P5 refer to First Participant, Second Participant
and Fifth participant respectively].
Contribution to the body of knowledge: The paper describes what we have done that set the
scene of the entire GT research process. It provides input valuable to researchers new to the GT
method and to give them the confidence to start. Issues of GT, in particular the role of
literature review in GT is a significant barrier to many new GT researchers, as indicated by the
experience of past researchers as well as the key researcher of the current study. Once the
scene is set through the just do it dictum of Glaser (2012), one realises that the GT method is
indeed liberating, although the specter of drowning in textual data is also real. The role of
literature is to provide additional data and theoretical sensitivity to prevent such drowning and
keep the researcher and the study afloat, whilst memo-writing provides the platform to capture
emerging concepts and hypotheses.
Implications for practice: At this juncture, we can only provide glimpses of the concerns of an
Orang Asli student and how she survived the deficit theorising. Understanding the context of
Orang Asli students is an important initial phase of this research. It sets the scene from the
learners’ perspective, what concerns them as learners and how these concerns are resolved.
This is in contrast to what other stakeholders think about the problem and its resolution. In a
collaborative and learning leadership (Hallinger & Heck, 2010; Louis, Leithwood, Wahlstrom &
Anderson, 2012), stakeholders must consider the Orang Asli’s strengths, their social and
cultural capital in leading the learning of the community’s children. Leveraging on their
strengths and continuous improvement will contribute to the sustainability of the Orang Asli
education, and the thriving of the community. Still, we are cognisant that, “While the
researcher cannot know which concepts, or indeed if any, will have the same emphasis once
data collection and analysis proceed, it is likely that some will remain to be integrated into new
interpretations of relationships and processes” (McCallin, 2006a, p.16).
In the final analysis, a GT is judged by four criteria: fit, work, relevant and modifiable (Glaser &
Strauss, 1967; Hoda, 2011; Hakel, 2015; Flint, 2005). The theory fits when it matches the
realities, as experienced by the subjects, practitioners and researchers in the substantive area;
it works when it explains, predicts, and interprets what is happening; it is relevant if it fits and
works thus offering explanations of the basic process in the substantive area, and the theory
should be readily modifiable when new data present variations in emergent properties and
categories. Generating hypotheses “requires evidence enough to establish a suggestion – not
an excessive piling of evidence to establish a proof” (Glaser & Strauss, 1967, p.39).
Further work: Subsequent upon the initial scene setting, further data collection was guided by
the constant comparative method of the GT process. Additional data was collected through in-
depth interviews with more tertiary level student participants. Theirs were the guiding voices
for the GT development of leading learning process among the Orang Asli students. It must be
emphasized that the conceptual model of leading learning has not been thoroughly exploited at
this initial stage of the study. As more data was collected from 16 participants, the constant

International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences
2016, Vol. 6, No. 12
ISSN: 2222-6990
159
www.hrmars.com
comparative coding and memoing process revealed new categories and the extent of each
category that defines its properties and dimensions.
Acknowledgement
The first author acknowledges the continuous support, guidance and encouraging feedback of
her supervisors in the research process. She also acknowledges the cooperation of the research
participants for sharing their life stories in the learning journey and Pusat Pengurusan dan
Inovas (Kod Penyelidikan: 2013-0180-107-02), Sultan Idris Education University, for the Grant
that partially supports the study.
Corresponding Author
Misnaton Rabahi
Department of Management and Leadership
Faculty of Management and Economics
Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris
35900 Tanjung Malim
Malaysia
Email: misnatonrabahi@gmail.com
Tel: +60 12 672 4939
References
Argyris, C. (1982). Reasoning, learning and action. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Argyris, C. & Schon, D. (1978). Organisational learning: a theory of action perspective. Reading,
Mass.: Addison-Wesley.
Berg, B. (1998). Qualitative research methods for the social sciences. Needham Heights, MA:
Allyn and Bacon.
Birks, M. & Mills, J. (2011). Grounded theory: a practical guide. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Bishop, R., Berryman, M., Cavanagh, T. & Teddy, L. (2007). Te kotahitanga phase 3
whanaungatanga: establishing a culturally responsive pedagogy of relations in mainstream
secondary school classrooms. Report to the Ministry of Education New Zealand. Retrieved on
27 September 2012, from,
http://www.educationcounts.govt.nz/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/9922/Te_Kotahitanga_Ph
ase3.pdf
Bishop, R., Berryman, M., Wearmouth, J., Peter, M. & Clapham, S. (2011). Te kotahitanga:
maintaining, replicating and sustaining change: report for Phase 3 and 4 schools 2007-2010.
Ministry of Education New Zealand. Retrieved on 29 September 2012, from,
http://www.educationcounts.govt.nz/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/105838/988_TeKotahitan
ga.pdf
Carpentieri, J. D. (2012). Family learning: a review of the research literature. A Report prepared
for NIACE, National Research and Development Centre For Adult Literacy and Numeracy,
Institute of Education, University of London. Retrieved on 18 December 2014, from

International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences
2016, Vol. 6, No. 12
ISSN: 2222-6990
160
www.hrmars.com
http://www.niace.org.uk/sites/default/files/documents/projects/Family/External_research/N
RDC-A-Review-of-the-Research-Literature-in-FL.pdf
Charmaz, K. (2006). Constructing grounded theory. London: Sage
Corbin, J. & Strauss, A. (1990). Grounded theory research: procedure, canons and evaluative
criteria. Zeitschrift fur Soziologie, Jg. 19, December 1990, S.418-427. Retrieved on 09 October
2012, from, http://zfs-online.ub.uni-bielefeld.de/index.php/zfs/article/viewFile/2741/2278
Corbin, J. & Strauss, A. (2008). Basics of qualitative research (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Creswell, J. W. (2007) Qualitative inquiry and research design: choosing among the five
traditions (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods
approaches (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Cummins, J. (1995). Power and pedagogy in the education of culturally diverse students. In J.
Fredericskon & A. F. Ada (Eds.), Reclaiming our voices: Bilingual education, critical pedagogy,
and praxis (pp. 139–162). Ontario, CA: California Association for Bilingual Education.
Cummins, J. (2005). Language proficiency, bilingualism, and academic achievement. . In
Richard-Amato and Snow (Eds.) Academic success for English language learners (pp.76-86).
New York: Pearson.
Desforges, C. (2003). The impact of parental involvement, parental support, and family
education on pupil achievement and adjustment: a literature review. Department for
Education and Skills, UK: Research Report RR433. With Alberto Abouchaar. Retrieved on 10
June 2012, from,
bgfl.org/bgfl/custom/files_uploaded/uploaded_resources/18617/Desforges.pdf
Deming, W. E. (1986). Out of the crisis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Deming, W. E. (1994). The new economics: for industry, government and education (2nd ed.).
Cambridge, MA: MIT.
DPM (2012). Deputy Prime Minister: Speeches - 21/06/2012- majlis pelancaran transformasi
pendidikan Orang Asli kebangsaan Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia. Retrieved on 2 October,
2012, from, http://www.pmo.gov.my/tpm/?frontpage/speech/detail/1938
Edo, J. (2012). Pendidikan Orang Asli: Harapan dan peluang. In Ramle Abdullah, Mohammed
Hafis Amat Simin, Azlina Abdullah & Zurina Mansor (Eds.), Pendidikan Orang Asli dalam arus
perdana (pp.31-34). Kuala Terengganu: Penerbit Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin.
Flint, N. (2005). Methodological conundrums: confessions of a latent grounded theorist. Paper
presented at Australian Association for Research in Education (AARE) Annual Conference,
Parramatta. Retrieved on 15 May 2014, from,
http://www.aare.edu.au/data/publications/2005/fli05040.pdf
Froiland, J. M., Peterson, A. & Davison, M. L. (2012). The long term effects of early parent
involvement and parent expectation in the USA. School of Psychology International, 34(1), 33-
50. Doi: 10.1177/0143034312454361
Gay, G. (2000). Culturally responsive teaching: theory, research and practice. Columbia
University, New York, London: Teachers College Press.
Glaser, B. G. (1992). Basics of grounded theory analysis. Emergence vs Forcing. Mill Valley, CA:
The Sociology Press.

International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences
2016, Vol. 6, No. 12
ISSN: 2222-6990
161
www.hrmars.com
Glaser, B. G. (2002). Conceptualization: On theory and theorizing using grounded theory.
International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 1 (2). Article 3. Retrieved 15 May 2014, from,
http://www.ualberta.ca/~ijqm/
Glaser, B. G. (2006). The roots of grounded theory. The Grounded Theory Review, 5(2/3), 1-10.
Glaser, B. (2012). No preconception: The dictum. Grounded Theory Review: An International
Journal (Online). Retrieved from http://groundedtheoryreview.com/2012/11/28/no-
preconception-the-dictum/
Glaser, B. G. & Holton, J. (2004). Remodeling Grounded Theory. Forum Qualitative
Sozialforschung / Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 5(2), Art. 4, Para 1-80. Retrieved from
http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0114-fqs040245
Glaser, B. G. & Strauss, A. L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory. Chicago, IL: Aldane.
Hallinger, P. & Heck, R. H. (2010). Leadership for learning: does collaborative leadership make a
difference in school improvement. Educational Management Administration Leadership,
38(6), 654-678. doi: 10.1177/1741143210379060
Hoda, R. (2011). Self-organising agile teams: a grounded theory. PhD Thesis. Victoria University
of Wellington. Retrieved on 31 March 2014, from
http://researcharchive.vuw.ac.nz/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10063/1617/thesis.pdf?sequence=
2
Howard, D. (1994). Culturally responsive classrooms. In Harris, S. & Malin, M. (Eds.) Aboriginal
kids in urban classroom (pp.37-50). Australia: Social Science Press. Retrieved on 28
September, 2012, from http://www.eartroubles.com/attachments/cult-responsive-
classrooms.pdf
JAKOA (2011). Portal Rasmi Jabatan Kemajuan Orang Asli, Kementerian Kemajuan Luar Bandar
dan Wilayah. Retrieved on 17 May 2011, from, http://jakoa.gov.my.
JAKOA (2015). Portal Rasmi Jabatan Kemajuan Orang Asli (JAKOA). Retrieved from
http://www.jakoa.gov.my/orang-asli/info-orang-asli/suku-kaumbangsa/
JAKOA (2016). Bilangan kampong dan penduduk Orang Asli mengikut negeri 2014. Retrieved on
3 May 2016 from http://www.rurallink.gov.my/web/guest/hal-ehwal-orang-asli
Jawaid, A. (1998). A framework for the improvement of TESOL curriculum in Lahore, Pakistan,
based upon a comparative analysis of TESOL in Birmingham, U.K. (Unpublished PhD Thesis).
University of Wolverhampton.
Jawaid, A. (2014). Benchmarking in TESOL: a study of the Malaysia Education Blueprint. English
Language Teaching, 7(8), 23-38. Doi: 10.5539/elt.v7n8p23.
Johari Talib & Nazri Muslim (2007). Bagaimana kanak-kanak Orang Asli gagal di sekolah? Jurnal
Pengajian Umum, 8, 51-75. Retrieved from http://www.myjurnal.my/public/issue-
view.php?id=3576&journal_id=307#
Kamaruddin, K. & Jusoh, O. (2008) Educational policy and opportunities of Orang Asli: a study
on Indigenous people in Malaysia. The Journal of Human Resource and Adult Learning, 4(1),
86-97.
KPM (2008). Malaysia education for all: mid-decade assessment report 2000-2007. Putrajaya:
Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia. Retrieved on 24 September 2012, from,
http://planipolis.iiep.unesco.org/upload/Malaysia/Malaysia_EFA_MDA.pdf

International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences
2016, Vol. 6, No. 12
ISSN: 2222-6990
162
www.hrmars.com
KPM (2013). Malaysia education blueprint: 2013-2025. Putrajaya: Ministry of Education,
Malaysia.
Ladson-Billings, G. (1995). But that’s just good teaching! The case for culturally relevant
pedagogy. Theory into Practice, 34(3), 159-165. Retrieved on 28 September 2012, from,
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1476635.
Louis, K. S., Leithwood, K., Wahlstrom, K. L. and Anderson, S. E. (2010). Investigating the links to
improved student learning. Final Report of Research to the Wallace Foundation. University of
Minnesota: Center For Applied Research and Educational Improvement. Retrieved on 5 April
2010, from, http://www.wallacefoundation.org/knowledge-center/school-leadership/key-
research/Documents/Investigating-the-Links-to-improved-Student-Learning.pdf
Lye, T. P. (2011). A history of Orang Asli studies: landmarks and generations. Kajian Malaysia,
29(1), 23-52. Retrieved from http://web.usm.my/km
Mahmud, Z, Amat, S. and Yaacob, M. (2008). Educational issues of Orang Asli Students in
Malaysia. The International Journal of Diversity in Organisations, Communities and Nations,
8(6), 121-128.
McCallin, A. M. (2003, 2006a) Grappling with the literature in a grounded theory study.
Contemporary Nurse, 15(1-2), 61-69. Reprinted and discussed in, The Grounded Theory
Review (2006), Vol. 5(2/3), 11-28.
McCallin, A. M. (2006b) Methodological issues: have we forgotten the place of thinking here?
The Grounded Theory Review, 5(2/3), 51-57.
Merriam, S.B. (2009). Qualitative research: a guide to design and implementation. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Misnaton Rabahi (2001). A case study of leadership in a self-managing school: A quality
management perspective. (With specific reference to an independent school in the U.K.).
Unpublished MA Dissertation. University of Wolverhampton, U. Kingdom.
Misnaton Rabahi, Hamidah Yusof & Marinah Awang (2015). Leading learning: A grounded
theory perspective of Orang Asli parental involvement and engagement. Procedia - Social and
Behavioral Sciences, 211 (2015), 94-103. DOI: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.11.015
MOE (2013). Malaysia education blueprint 2013-2025: preschool to post-secondary education.
Putrajaya: Ministry of Education (MOE) Malaysia. Retrieved from
http://www.moe.gov.my/cms/upload_files/articlefile/2013/articlefile_file_003108.pdf
Mohd Asri, M. N. (2012). Advancing the Orang Asli through Malaysia’s Clusters of Excellence
Policy. Journal of International and Comparative Education, 1(2),90-103.
Moreland, N., Jawaid, A. & Dhillon, J. (2000). Quality improvement in the TESOL curriculum: a
generic benchmarking approach. Quality Assurance in Education, 8(2), 57-62.
Nelson, S. (2002). Learn-Ed nations inventory-a tool for improving schools with American Indian
and Alaska native students. Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, USA. Retrieved on 10
June 2012, from, educationnortwest.org/web_send/197
Nicholas, C. (2006). The state of Orang Asli education and its root problems. An article prepared
in July 2006 for the Human Rights Commission of Malaysia (SUHAKAM). Retrieved on, 13
March 2012, from,
http://www.coac.org.my/codenavia/portals/coacv2/images/articles/OA%20Education.pdf

International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences
2016, Vol. 6, No. 12
ISSN: 2222-6990
163
www.hrmars.com
Norwaliza A Wahab, Ramlee B Mustapha & Abdul Razaq Ahmad (2016). The Roles of
Administrators in Aboriginal Schools: A Case Study in a Malaysian State. International Journal
of Social Science and Humanity, 6(5), 370-374. DOI: 10.7763/IJSSH.2016.V6.674
Oberg, A., Blades, D. & Thom, J. S. (2007). Untying a dreamcatcher: Coming to understand
possibilities for teaching students of Aboriginal inheritance. Educational Studies, 42(2), 111-
139. DOI: 10.1080/00131940701513185
Peters, M., Seeds, K., Goldstein, A. & Coleman, N. (2008). Parental involvement in childrens’
education 2007. Research Report DCSF-RR034. Department for Children, Schools and
Families, UK: BMRB. Retrieved on 14 June 2012, from,
www.education.gov.uk/publications/eOrderingDownload/DCSF-RR034.pdf
Ramlah Jantan & Aslina Ahmad (2013). Literacy and psychosocial problems among aboriginal
students in primary school in Cameron Highlands (Malaysia). International Journal of
Education and Research, 1(9), 1-8. Retrieved from http://www.ijern.com/journal/September-
2013/27.pdf
Ramle Abdullah, Wan Hasmah Wan Mamat, W. A. Amir Zal & Asmawi Mohamad Ibrahim
(2013). Teaching and learning problems of the Orang Asli education: students’ perspective.
Asian Social Science, 9(12), 118-124. DOI:10.5539/ass.v9n12p118
Ramlee Mustapha (2013). Attributes that affect self-efficacy and career development of Orang
Asli youth in Peninsular Malaysia. Journal of Southeast Asian Education, 6(1), 1-24. Retrieved
from http://www.academia.edu/7555756
Richard-Amato, P. A. & Snow, M. A. (Eds.) (2005). Academic success for English language
learners. New York: Pearson.
Senge, P. (1990). The fifth discipline: the art & practice of the learning organization. New York:
Currency Doubleday.
Sharifah Md Nor, Samsilah Roslan, Aminuddin Mohamed, Kamaruddin Hj Abu Hassan,
Mohamad Azhar Mat Ali & Jaimah Abdul Manaf (2011). Dropout prevention initiatives for
Malaysian Indigenous Orang Asli children. The International Journal on School Disaffection,
8(1), 42-56.
Sidorkin, A. M. (2002). Learning relations. New York: Peter Lang.
Scholtes, P. R., (1998). The leaders handbook. New York: McGrawHill.
Strauss, A. & Corbin, J. (1998) Basics of qualitative research: grounded theory procedure and
techniques (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Suddaby, R. (2006) What grounded theory is not. Academy of Management Journal, 49(4), 633-
642. Retrieved on 09 October 2012, from,
http://dorkatron.com/docs/CIS703/Readings/Suddaby2006.pdf
SUHAKAM (2015). Need for equal footing in education. The Human Rights Commision of
Malaysia (SUHAKAM). The New Straits Times Online (18 October 2015). Retrieved from
http://www.nst.com.my/news/2015/10/need-equal-footing-education
Tarmiji Masron, Fujimaki Masami & Norhasimah Ismail (2013). Orang Asli in Peninsular
Malaysia: Population, Spatial Distribution and Socio-Economic Condition. Ritsumeikan Journal
of Social Sciences and Humanities, 6, 75-115. Retrieved from
http://www.ritsumei.ac.jp/acd/re/k-rsc/hss/book/ki_en_006.html

International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences
2016, Vol. 6, No. 12
ISSN: 2222-6990
164
www.hrmars.com
Tikly, L. (2010). Towards a framework for understanding the quality of education. EdQual
Working Paper No. 27. University of Bristol: EdQual. Retrieved on 25 September 2012, from,
http://94.126.106.9/r4d/PDF/Outputs/ImpQuality_RPC/edqualwp27.pdf
Tribus, M. (1994). Total quality management in education: the theory and how to put it to
work. In Doherty, G. D. (Ed.), Developing quality systems in education (pp. 3-34). London:
Routledge.
UNICEF (2000). Defining quality in education. Working paper series. A paper presented by
UNICEF at the meeting of the International Working Group on Education, Florence, Italy.
Retrieved on 20 March 2012, from
http://www.unicef.org/education/files/QualityEducation.PDF
United Nation (2011). Malaysia: the millennium development goals at 2010 overview. Kuala
Lumpur: United Nation Country Team, Malaysia. Retrieved on 14 May 2012 from
http://www.unicef.org/malaysia/Malaysia-MDGs-overview-English-2010.pdf
Valencia, R. R. (1997). The evolution of deficit thinking: educational thought and practice. The
Stanford Series on Education and Public Policy. London: Falmer Press.
Valencia, R. R. (2010). Dismantling contemporary deficit thinking: educational thought and
practices. New York: Routledge.
Villegas, A. M. & Lucas, T. (2002). Educating culturally responsive teachers: A coherent
approach. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes.
Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press.
Vygotsky, L. (2005). Interaction between learning and development. In Richard-Amato, P. A. and
Snow, M. A. (Eds.) Academic success for English language learners (pp.103-111). New York:
Pearson.
Wan Afizi Wan Hanafi, Shaharuddin Ahmad & Noraziah Ali (2014). Faktor budaya dan
persekitaran dalam prestasi pendidikan anak Orang Asli Malaysia: Kajian kes di Kelantan.
Geografia: Malaysian Journal of Society and Space, 10(5), 107-122. Retrieved from
http://www.ukm.my/geografia/images/upload/10x.geografia-okt14-wan%20afizi-edam.pdf

International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences
2016, Vol. 6, No. 12
ISSN: 2222-6990
165
www.hrmars.com
Figure 1
Figure 1: Conceptual Model of Leading Learning