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Meditation Practice Is Associated with a Values-Oriented Life: the Mediating Role of Decentering and Mindfulness

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Clarification of personal values and meditation practice has been associated in most meditation traditions and in academic texts. Both values-related behavior and meditation practice increases well-being, but their relationship has not been well studied. It has been suggested that values, together with self-regulation, psychological flexibility, and exposure, are key mechanisms of action in mindfulness. The aims of this study were to explore the association between meditation and values and to examine the processes involved in this relation. A sample of 235 meditation-naïve participants and 274 subjects with varying levels of experience in meditation practice completed an online assessment protocol composed of Five Facets of Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ), Decentering Questionnaire (EQ), Valued Living Questionnaire (VLQ), and Engagement with Life Scale (ELS). Results revealed that daily meditators were more consistent, aware, and life-fulfilled about their values; moreover, these measures correlated with the mindfulness process and decentering. The relation between meditation practice and values-related behavior (assessed by the VLQ) was mediated by decentering. The association between meditation practice and Valued Living and Life Fulfillment (measured by the ELS) was mediated by the decentering, describing, and non-judging dimensions of mindfulness. The findings in this study support the relation between meditation and personal values, mediated by the decentering, describing, and non-judging facets of mindfulness.
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ORIGINAL PAPER
Meditation Practice Is Associated with a Values-Oriented Life:
the Mediating Role of Decentering and Mindfulness
Alba Franquesa
1,2
&Ausiàs Cebolla
3
&Javier García-Campayo
4
&Marcelo Demarzo
5
&
Matilde Elices
6,7
&Juan Carlos Pascual
2,6
&Joaquim Soler
6,7
#Springer Science+Business Media New York 2017
Abstract Clarification of personal values and meditation
practice has been associated in most meditation traditions
and in academic texts. Both values-related behavior and med-
itation practice increases well-being, but their relationship has
not been well studied. It has been suggested that values, to-
gether with self-regulation, psychological flexibility, and ex-
posure, are key mechanisms of action in mindfulness. The
aims of this study were to explore the association between
meditation and values and to examine the processes involved
in this relation. A sample of 235 meditation-naïve participants
and 274 subjects with varying levels of experience in medita-
tion practice completed an online assessment protocol
composed of Five Facets of Mindfulness Questionnaire
(FFMQ), Decentering Questionnaire (EQ), Valued Living
Questionnaire (VLQ), and Engagement with Life Scale
(ELS). Results revealed that daily meditators were more con-
sistent, aware, and life-fulfilled about their values; moreover,
these measures correlated with the mindfulness process and
decentering. The relation between meditation practice and
values-related behavior (assessed by the VLQ) was mediated
by decentering. The association between meditation practice
and Valued Living and Life Fulfillment (measured by the
ELS) was mediated by the decentering, describing, and non-
judging dimensions of mindfulness. The findings in this study
support the relation between meditation and personal values,
mediated by the decentering, describing, and non-judging
facets of mindfulness.
Keywords Meditation .Mindfulness .Val u e s .Decentering
Introduction
The role of personal values in modern psychotherapy has be-
come increasingly important in recent years. Schwartz and
Bilsky (1987) defined values as follows: BValues (a) are con-
cepts or beliefs, (b) pertain to desirable end states or behaviors,
(c) transcend specific situations, (d) guide selection or evalu-
ation of behavior and events, and (e) are ordered by relative
importance.^
Among contemporary models of psychotherapy, accep-
tance and commitment therapy (ACT) is probably the model
that has most emphasized the relevance of applying values
work to psychotherapy (Hayes et al. 1999). ACT considers
valued-oriented behavior to be a primary therapeutic goal,
and values are used to facilitate change (Hayes et al. 2001).
*Joaquim Soler
jsolerri@santpau.cat
1
Les Corts Centre dHigiene Mental, Barcelona, Spain
2
Departament de Psiquiatria i Medicina Legal, Universitat Autònoma
de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
3
Department of Personality, Evaluation and Psychological
Treatments, Universitat de Valencia, Valencia, Spain
4
Department of Psychiatry, Miguel Servet Hospital & University of
Zaragoza, Instituto Aragonés de Ciencias de la Salud, Red de
Actividades Preventivas y de Promoción de la Salud (REDIAPP),
Zaragoza, Spain
5
BMente Aberta^Brazilian Center for Mindfulness and Health
Promotion, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), São
Paulo, Brazil
6
Servei de Psiquiatria, Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau,
Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Centro de Investigación
Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM) (Madrid), Av.
Sant Antoni Mª Claret 167, Barcelona 08025, Spain
7
Departament de Psicología Clínica y de la Salut, Universitat
Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
Mindfulness
DOI 10.1007/s12671-017-0702-5
Based on the ACT framework, other third-generation ther-
apies (i.e., mindfulness and acceptance-based therapies) such
as dialectical behavior therapy (DBT; Linehan 2014) and be-
havioral activation for depression (Jacobson et al. 2001)have
also included values-oriented interventions. The notion of
Bwise mind^proposed in DBT (Linehan 1993,2014)canbe
also considered an example of the link between mindfulness
and values. Wise mind refers to the inner wisdom that we all
have, and by practicing mindfulness, we are able to access to it
in order to identify and use skillful means for attaining valued
ends (Linehan 1993). Similar to the proposal from self-
determination theory (Deci and Ryan 1985a,b; Sheldon and
Krieger 2014)which argues that an open awareness is nec-
essary for behaviors that are consistent with ones needs,
values, and intereststhe first step in the process is to identify
those values. Other approaches, such as the humanistic model
(Maslow 1962; Rogers 1971) and motivational interviewing
(Miller and Rollnick 1991), have also emphasized the impor-
tance of values in human psychology. For a more detailed
discussion of the differences in the conceptualization of values
among these various approaches, see Yadavaia and Hayes
(2009) and Páez-Blarrina et al. (2006).
The beneficial effects of acting in accordance with personal
values have been demonstrated in both clinical and non-
clinical samples. In a sample of students, Brunstein (1993)
show that commitment, attainability, and progress in goal
achievement linked to personal values play important roles
in subjective well-being. In fact, data from several other stud-
ies have confirmed that values-focused psychological inter-
ventions improve several aspects related to well-being, includ-
ing pain tolerance (Branstetter-Rost et al. 2009), stress re-
sponse (Crocker et al. 2008; Gregg et al. 2014), and quality
of life and physical and emotional functioning (McCracken
2013; Michelson et al. 2011; Vowles et al. 2011).
Mindfulness can be defined as the self-regulation of atten-
tion to ones experiences in the present moment with curiosity,
openness, and acceptance (Bishop et al. 2004). Mindfulness is
also effective for several mental health conditions (Khoury
et al. 2013) and in generating improvements in well-being
(Carmody and Baer 2008; Shapiro et al. 2008). Although data
are scant with regard to the relationship between values and
mindfulness, some authors have identified an expected posi-
tive link: Meditation is believed to help in fostering a deeper
awareness that may allow people to analyze goals to identify
their deepest values and thus engage in wiser actions (Campos
et al. 2016;Linehan2014; Williams and Penman 2011).
The practice of meditation may facilitate recognition and
clarification of values, and this has been suggested as a potential
mechanism for the beneficial effects of mindfulness (Kocovski
et al. 2009). Meditation could exert this beneficial effect by
diminishing an individuals tendency to be on Bautomatic pilot^
in which quick decisions influenced by external factors (e.g.,
pushes and pulls) are prioritized over internal values, thus
narrowing consideration of the full range of options and re-
sponses; consequently, decisions and behaviors may not be
directed towards an individuals true needs and values.
In one study involving mindfulness-based cognitive thera-
py for chronically depressed participants with a history of
suicidality, many of the patients reported more clarity about
their important goals, and this perceived clarity increased their
confidence in their capacity to move in valued life directions
(Crane et al. 2012). Shapiro et al. (2006) suggested that mind-
fulness practice produces certain shifts in the perception of
internal experiences, usually referred to as the capacity for
reperceiving or decentering. This capacity to separate oneself
from ones thoughts allows the person to observe his or her
experiences with greater clarity and therefore to choose more
wisely in accordance with personal values (Kocovski et al.
2009; Shapiro et al. 2006). Decentering is believed to facilitate
many health-related processes such as self-regulation, psycho-
logical flexibility, exposure, and values clarification.
Supporting this notion, Carmody et al. (2009) showed that
the association between mindfulness decentering and a reduc-
tion in physiological symptoms is mediated by values clarifi-
cation and flexibility.
Few studies have investigated the relation between mind-
fulness, meditation, and values. Brown and Ryan (2003)
found that individuals who scored higher on a mindfulness
scale were more autonomous in their activity and less likely
to be influenced by the demands and pressure of others. These
individuals spend more time doing things that they truly value
and enjoy. Brown and Kasser (2005)alsoshowedthathigh
dispositional mindfulness was related to more environmental-
ly responsible behavior and that mindfulness and intrinsic
values (together, but not separately) were relevant variables
implicated in the covariance between self well-being and eco-
logically responsible behavior.
In this context, the aim of the present was to explore the
relation between meditation practice and values-related be-
havior comparing subjects with meditative experience and
without meditative experience and also explore decentering
and mindfulness as mediational variables. We expected that
meditation would have a positive effect on values-influenced
conduct. We also expected that greater mindfulness practice
would be positively associated with decentering and mindful-
ness capacities and that these capacities would, in turn, pro-
mote values-related behavior.
Method
Participants
We obtained data from 698 individuals. However, due to in-
complete information about meditation practice, 189 of these
were excluded from analysis. Thus, a total of 509 individuals
Mindfulness
completed the survey and were therefore included in the final
study sample; of these, 235 did not practice meditation (non-
meditation practitioners (NMP)). In a previous study of our
group, we found that the frequency of the practice was the
parameter most related to measures of mindfulness and
decentering (Soler et al. 2014a). Therefore, the subsample of
meditators was divided considering how frequently they prac-
ticed: daily meditation practitioners (DMP; n= 143), those
that practice three to four times a week (3-4MP; n=92),and
those that practice 2 times per week (2-LESSMP; n=39).
Demographic data are displayed in Table 1.
Most participants practiced more than one type of medita-
tion. The most common practices included body scan (14.2%),
vipassana (18.6%), concentrative practices (19.3%), informal
practices (27%), imagination practices (38.3%), mantras
(44.5%), and compassion-based practices (49.6%).
Procedure
Participants completed an assessment protocol via a commer-
cial online survey system (www.surveymonkey.com). A link
to this protocol was posted on several Spanish websites about
mindfulness, meditation, and psychology (scientific
associations, mindfulness associations, monasteries, etc.), as
well as on non-professional social networks (i.e., Facebook).
The study protocol was approved by the hospitalsEthics
Committee, and all participants signed a consent form indicat-
ing their willingness to participate. Participants were informed
about the purpose of the study and told that their answers
would be treated confidentially.
Measures
Sociodemographic and meditation practice information:
Sociodemographic data, including age, sex, education, and
meditation practice, were obtained. Frequency of meditation
practice was assessed with a brief, purpose-designed question-
naire: Participants were asked to indicate the frequency of
their meditation practice (daily, three to four times/week, 2
times/week, or never).
The Valued Living Questionnaire (VLQ) (Wilson et al. 2011)
is a two-part instrument to assess values-related behavior. First,
participants rate the importance of 10 life domains (importance
scores) on a 10-point Likert-style scale (1 = not at all important;
10 = extremely important), as follows: (1) family (other than
parenting and intimate relations), (2) marriage/couples/intimate
relations, (3) parenting, (4) friendship, (5) work, (6) education,
(7) recreation, (8) spirituality, (9) citizenship, and (10) physical
self-care. In the second part of the questionnaire, subjects rate
the extent to which their behavior over the last week reflected
their values (1 = not at all consistent; 10 = extremely consistent;
consistency scores). Responses from both of these domains (i.e.,
importance and consistency) were used to calculate a composite
index (i.e., BValued Living composite^), which helps to quantify
the extent to which a participant is living congruently with his/
her values in everyday life. The Valued Living composite index
was calculated by multiplying the importance and consistency
responses for each domain and then calculating the mean of
those scores. The resulting Valued Living composite scores
range from 10 to 100. In our sample, the internal consistency
for this composite index was considered adequate (α=0.65).
The Engagement with Life Scale (ELS; Trompetter et al.
2013) is a 16-item scale, with each item rated on a five-point
Likert scale ranging from 1 (completely disagree)to5
(completely agree). Results provide a general underlying factor
and two subscales: Valued Living (10 items) and Life
Fulfillment (6 items). The scores on Valued Living reflect the
recognition and knowledge of personal values and the under-
lying behavioral actions congruent with these values. The Life
Fulfillment subscale is composed of items measuring the sense
of fulfillment in life as a consequence of recognizing and living
in accordance with personal values. In our sample, the
Tabl e 1 Sociodemographic characteristics by group
Frequency of
meditation
practice
Daily n=143 3or4timesa
week n=92
2 times a week
n=39
No meditation
practice n=235
Mean (SD) Mean (SD) Mean (SD) Mean (SD) F(p)
Age 45.42 (9.97) 42.04 (10.40) 42.85 (11.75) 39.26 (11.62) 9.23 (<0.0001)
N(%) N(%) N(%) N(%) χ
2
(p)
Sex 2.47 (0.48)
Male 51 (35.7) 29 (31.5) 13 (33.3) 66 (28.1)
Female 92 (64.3) 63 (68.5) 26 (66.7) 169 (71.9)
Education 8.24 (0.22)
Primary 1 (.7) 0 0 4 (1.7)
Secondary 18 (12.6) 6 (6.5) 1 (2.6) 18 (7.7)
University 124 (86.7) 86 (93.5) 38 (97.4) 213 (90.6)
Mindfulness
Cronbachs alpha for both subscales and the total scale of the
ELS revealed excellent internal consistencies: 0.93 for the total
scale, 0.90 for Valued Living, and 0.89 for Life Fulfillment.
The Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ; Baer
et al. 2008) is an instrument based on five independently de-
veloped mindfulness questionnaires and consists of a 39-item
scale rated on a five-point Likert scale (1 = never or very rarely
true to 5 = very often or always true) with five subscales:
observe, describe, act with awareness, non-judge of inner ex-
perience, and non-react to inner experience. Observe refers to
noticing or attending to internal and external experiences such
as sensations, thoughts, or emotions. Describe refers to label-
ing internal experiences with words. Act with awareness de-
scribes focusing on activities in the moment as opposed to
behaving mechanically. Non-judge of inner experience refers
to taking a non-evaluative stance towards thoughts and feel-
ings. Non-react to inner experience is defined as allowing
thoughts and feelings to come and go, without getting caught
up in or carried away by them. Cronbachsαfor the Spanish
version of the FFMQ range from 0.8 to 0.91 (Cebolla et al.
2012). In our sample, the Cronbachsαfor the subscales
ranged from 0.84 to 0.93.
The Experiences Questionnaire-Decentering (EQ-D; Fresco
et al. 2007) is an 11-item self-report measure of decentering.
Items are rated on a five-point Likert scale (1 = never to 5 = al-
ways). Spanish validation of the EQ-D scale showed high in-
ternal reliability (Cronbachsα= 0.89) (Soler et al. 2014b). In
our sample, Cronbachsαwas also 0.89.
Data Analyses
To explore sociodemographic differences between groups, we
used ANOVAs and chi-squared tests. Differences between
groups in terms of VLQ, ELS, FFMQ, and EQ scores were
examined by means of a multivariate ANOVA; in all cases,
age was entered as a co-variable.
To examine the association between decentering and mind-
fulness (EQ and FFMQ) and values (VLQ and ELS), partial
correlation analysis was carried out, controlling for the effect
of age. Finally, to test if mindfulness mediates the relation
between meditative practice and valued living, we conducted
a hierarchical regression analysis for values-related tests (i.e.,
VLQ composite, Valued Living, and Life Fulfillment), includ-
ing the following as predictors: age in the first step, meditation
practice in the second step, and EQ-D and FFMQ subscales in
the third step. Then, using Preacher and Hayes(2004)ap-
proach for SPSS, multiple mediation analysis, adjusted for
age, was applied to the values-related measures, including
meditative practice as an independent variable, the values-
related measures as dependent variables, and the EQ-D and
FFMQ subscales that were significant in the previous regres-
sion model as mediators. To test the hypothesis that EQ-D and
FFMQ subscales mediate the meditation-values relationship, a
bootstrap regression analysis was carried out.
Results
Differences in Sociodemographic Variables
Between Groups with Different Meditation Frequency
Analysis of sociodemographic variables revealed significant
differences between groups for age, indicating that this vari-
able should be controlled in the subsequent analyses. No dif-
ferences were found for level of education or sex. Table 1
shows the sociodemographic characteristics of each group.
Between-Group Differences in Values-Related Measures,
Mindfulness, and Decentering
Results of the MANCOVA show significant differences be-
tween groups on the VLQ composite, the Valued Living sub-
scale, and the Life Fulfillment subscale. Post hoc analyses
showed that daily meditators had significantly higher scores
on all values-related measures. However, no significant differ-
ences between non-meditators and the other two groups (i.e.,
meditative practice twice a week or less and meditative prac-
tice three or four times a week) were observed. Effect sizes for
significant differences in the VLQ composite, Valued Living,
and Life Fulfillment between groups were small or medium
(ranging from 0.40 to 0.60) (Table 2).
Significant between-group differences were also observed
for EQ-D and all FFMQ scores. Effect sizes between daily
meditators and non-meditators on the EQ-D and FFMQ scores
were medium or large. Significant differences were also ob-
served between the groups of meditators on several variables:
EQ-D, FFMQ observe, FFMQ act with awareness, and FFMQ
non-react to inner experience. (Table 2shows post hoc
analyses and effect sizes).
Correlation Between Decentering, Mindfulness,
and Values
Correlational analyses (Table 3) showed significant associa-
tions between decentering (EQ-D), mindfulness (FFMQ), and
values-related measures. Correlations between Valued Living,
Life Fulfillment, and mindfulness measures were moderate,
while associations between VLQ and mindfulness were small.
Predictive Effect of Meditation Practice, Decentering,
and Mindfulness Facets on Values-Related Behavior
Given the association between age and meditation practice,
we included age in the regression models. Since our primary
interest was to study the effects of meditation practice on
Mindfulness
values-related behaviors, the first model included only age
and meditation practice. In a second step, we examined
whether meditation practice, decentering, and mindfulness
facets contribute independently to the prediction of values-
Tabl e 2 Differences between groups on the mean scores of values-related measures, EQ-D, and FFMQ controlled by age
Mean (SD) MANCOVA FSignificant post hoc
differences
Cohensd
NMP 2-LESSMP 3-4MP DMP
VLQ composite 59.72 (13.65) 60.25 (14.52) 61.217 (13.966) 67.048 (12.462) 6.62** DMP > 3-4MP 0.44
DMP > 2-LESSMP 0.50
DMP > NMP 0.56
Valued Living 40.058 (5.918) 40.743 (5.838) 41.141 (5.244) 53.088 (4.696) 8.421** DMP > 3-4MP 0.39
DMP > 2-LESSMP 0.44
DMP > NMP 0.57
Life Fulfillment 21.447 (4.604) 22.514 (3.752) 22.411 (4.338) 24.056 (4.045) 9.044** DMP > 3-4MP 0.39
DMP > NMP 0.60
EQ-D 36.774 (6.429) 39.833 (5.964) 40.716 (6.067) 43.320 (4.956) 27.379** DMP > 3-4MP 0.47
DMP > 2-LESSMP 0.64
DMP > NMP 1.14
3-4MP > NMP 0.63
2-LESSMP > NMP 0.49
FFMQ observe 25.165 (5.626) 27.622 (5.659) 30.067 (5.165) 31.053 (4.176) 29.002** DMP > 2-LESSMP 0.69
DMP > NMP 1.19
34 > 2-LESSMP 0.45
34 > NMP 0.91
2-LESSMP > NMP 0.43
FFMQ describe 29.767 (5.573) 31.243 (4.304) 31.292 (6.049) 32.056 (4.937) 3.553* DMP > NMP 0.44
3-4MP > NMP 0.26
FFMQ act with
awareness
27.470 (5.960) 26.027 (5.833) 27.595 (5.738) 29.962 (5.092) 5.578** DMP > 3-4MP 0.4
DMP > 2-LESSMP 0.72
DMP > NMP 0.45
FFMQ non-judge 28.262 (6.692) 31.918 (6.139) 31.820 (7.204) 33.106 (5.695) 13.847** DMP > NMP 0.78
3-4MP > NMP 0.51
2-LESSMP > NMP 0.57
FFMQ non-react 21.379 (4.606) 23.135 (3.875) 24.101 (4.131) 26.045 (3.673) 24.034** DMP > 3-4MP 0.50
DMP > 2-LESSMP 0.77
DMP > NMP 1.12
3-4MP > NMP 0.62
2-LESSMP > NMP 0.41
NMP not meditative practice, 2-LESSMP meditative practice twice a week or less, 3-4MP meditative practice two or four times a week, DMP daily
meditative practice
*p0.05; **p0.005
Tabl e 3 Partial correlations, controlled by age
EQ FFMQ
observe
FFMQ
describe
FFMQ act
aware
FFMQ
non-judge
FFMQ non-react VLQ composite Valued
Living
VLQ composite 0.305** 0.191** 0.188** 0.107* 0.176** 0.212** ––
Valued Living 0.528** 0.284** 0.438** 0.349** 0.379** 0.446** 0.494**
Life Fulfillment 0.552** 0.348** 0.371** 0.335** 0.391** 0.434** 0.475** 0.692**
*p0.05; **p0.005
Mindfulness
related behavior (as assessed by the VLQ composite, Valued
Living, and Life Fulfillment). Models included VLQ compos-
ite, Valued Living, and Life Fulfillment as dependent vari-
ables. In the first step, meditation practice was a significant
predictor of all values-related behavioral measures: The
models explained 4% of VLQ composite, 7% of Valued
Living, and 8% of Life Fulfillment. In the second step, when
EQ-D and FFMQ subscales were included as independent
variables, meditation practice was no longer statistically sig-
nificant in the three models. EQ-D was the only significant
predictor of VLQ composite, with the model explaining 10%
of the variance. EQ-D, FFMQ describe, and FFMQ non-judge
were significant predictors of Valued Living and Life
Fulfillment, explaining 37% of the variance for Valued
Living and 35% of Life Fulfillment.
Mediational Role of Decentering and Mindfulness
Between Meditation and Values
In our proposed mediation models, we included meditation
practice as the independent variable, while EQ-D and the sig-
nificant FFMQ facets in the previous regression models
(describe and non-judge) were included as mediation vari-
ables, with VLQ composite, Valued Living, and Life
Fulfillment as dependent variables. Because of the significant
relationship shown earlier between age and meditation prac-
tice, age was included as a co-variable.
According to Baron and Kenny (1986), several conditions
are necessary to support a mediational hypothesis. First, if the
data were collected at a single time point, there must be a
theoretical basis to justify the role for each variable in the
model. We tested the idea that meditation practice increases
mindfulness skills and decentering, which, in turn, led to im-
proved awareness of values and values-related behavior. In
addition, the independent, mediator, and dependent variables
must be significantly inter-correlated. This condition was con-
firmed in a previous correlational and regression analysis and
in several previous publications (Baer et al. 2008; Soler et al.
2014a). Finally, when the independent variable and mediator
variables are entered simultaneously in the model to predict
the dependent variables (VLQ composite, Valued Living, and
Life Fulfillment), the relationship between the independent
variable and the dependent variables must be reduced. This
condition was confirmed in the second step of the regression
model (Table 4).
Mediational analysis (Fig. 1ac) shows that meditation
practice has an effect on VLQ composite, Valued Living,
and Life Fulfillment; however, the direct effect of meditation
practice on values was not significant when mediational var-
iables were included in the analysis; otherwise, indirect effects
remain significant. The indirect effect of meditative practice
on decentering was shown to be significant on the VLQ com-
posite, and other indirect effects of meditative practice
(decentering, FFMQ describe, and FFMQ non-judge) remain
significant on Valued Living and Life Fulfillment.
Bootstrapping analysis shows a significant indirect effect
of meditation practice (by decentering) on the VLQ compos-
ite (95% bootstrap confidence interval of 0.060.17). For
Valued Living, indirect effect of meditation practice was sig-
nificant, as follows: decentering (95% bootstrap confidence
interval of 0.100.22), describe (95% bootstrap confidence
interval of 0.020.08), and non-judge (95% bootstrap confi-
dence interval of 0.010.08). For Life Fulfillment, the
bootstrapping analysis also showed significant indirect effects
of meditative practice as follows: decentering (95% bootstrap
confidence interval of 0.120.23), describe (95% bootstrap
confidence interval of 0.010.06), and non-judge (95% boot-
strap confidence interval of 0.020.69). In summary, bootstrap
regression analysis supports the model of decentering as a
partial mediator between meditation practice and VLQ com-
posite scores and also for decentering, describe, and non-
judge as independent partial mediators on the effect of medi-
tation practice on Valued Living and Life Fulfillment.
Discussion
As expectedand previously described in many meditation
traditionsour findings indicate that there is a relation be-
tween meditation practice and values. Interestingly, compared
to the less frequent meditators, the daily meditation group
showed a greater capacity for behaving according to values
and also higher scores on Life Fulfillment. Importantly, no
significant differences on any of the values-related variables
were found between subjects who practiced meditation less
frequently and the mediation-naïve subjects. These results
suggest that daily meditation is necessary to significantly in-
fluence values.
We also found that, in mostcases, meditation practice had a
significant impact on decentering and on all mindfulness in-
dexeseven when practice was less than dailyparticularly
on decentering scores and on the observing and non-react
facets of the FFMQ. These results are congruent with previous
studies which have reported a relation between mindfulness
practice and improvements on these facets (Soler et al. 2014a).
Decentering and all mindfulness facets (describe, non-re-
act, act with awareness, non-judge, and observe) also corre-
lated with values-related measures. Although meditative prac-
tice has an impact on values-related behavior (recognition,
behavior congruence, and life fulfillment), when decentering
and mindfulness facets are considered as a whole, they have
the greatest influence on values-related measures; this is par-
ticularly true for decentering, describe, and non-judge, which
are the three facets that determine a large part of values iden-
tification, committed behavior, and life fulfillment, regardless
of the direct influence of meditative practice.
Mindfulness
Interestingly, while meditative practice does not show a
direct relation with values when mindfulness facets and
decentering are included as independent variables, meditative
practice improves all of these process variables. Mediational
analysis supports this finding, since the direct effects of med-
itative practice on values disappear when mediational vari-
ables (decentering, describe, and non-judge) are considered.
It is important to note that mediational variables are influenced
by meditative practice in all cases and that the indirect effects
of mediational variables from meditative practice are high. At
the same time, mediational variables also have a direct impact,
regardless of meditative practice, which leads us to believe
that other therapies or practices that increase decentering, de-
scribing, and non-judging, such as meta-cognition-based ther-
apies, CBT (Teasdale et al. 2002) or even dispositional mind-
fulness (Brown and Ryan 2003; Nitzan-Assayag et al. 2015),
or education (Soler et al. 2014a) can influence values.
The theoretical model proposed by Shapiro et al. (2006)
hypothesized that changes in reperceiving (decentering) me-
diate changes in values clarification, flexibility, self-regula-
tion, and exposure, which, in turn, contribute to well-being.
Our results confirm the relationship between meditation prac-
tice and values mediated not only by the decentering process
but also by other processes involved in mindfulness, such as
describe and non-judge.
Our findings were similar to those observed by Baer et al.
(2008), who found that describe, non-judge, and non-react were
significant mediators between meditation experience and well-
being. Three mediational processes appear again, and two of
these coincide: acceptance operationalized by non-judge and
verbal labeling operationalized by describe. Both of these are
well-established processes involved in emotion regulation and
well-being (Creswell et al. 2007; Kashdan et al. 2006).
The ability of being non-judgmental might be associated
with the pursue of ones real interest, regardless of cognitive
assessments (in terms of what is Bright or wrong^). The con-
cept of Bjudging^is embedded in behaviors that are guided for
Bwhat it should be done^rather than Bwhat I would like to
do,^called language traps in ACT (Dahl et al. 2009).
Differentiating between both types of behaviors is a common
and fundamental issue for interventions that aimed at value
clarification (Harris 2011). Additionally, judging has an im-
portant effect on emotions. By judging ones primary emo-
tionusually a natural and evolution-tailored reaction to a
given situationswitches to a secondary emotional response,
frequently related to the individuals learning experiences,
rather than to the current context (the one that elicited the
emotional response). These secondary responses are less like-
ly to be adaptive (Fruzzetti and Iverson 2006; Greenberg and
Johonson 1990), for example, feeling anger for having felt
rejection on a given social interaction or feeling shame for
having felt fear. These changes in the emotional response en-
tail changes in the expression, motivation, and aims, easily
leading to a confusion on our inner interests (Fuzzeti and
Iverson 2006; Greenberg and Johnson 1990). The capacity
of non-judging and being able to skillfully describe the expe-
rience is crucial for a balanced self (Fruzzeti and Iverson
2006).
Describe refers to labeling the internal experience with
words; this process tends to dampen affective responses
(Lieberman et al. 2011;Linehan1993)andwouldfacilitatea
more flexible response to address the intrinsic motivations of
the individual. Description has the power to defuse the inter-
ference of judgments, secondary emotions, and misunder-
standings (Fruzzetti and Iverson 2006; Linehan 2014).
The third element in Baersstudy(2008) was non-react,
decentering in our study, but both of these facets highly over-
lap (Soler et al. 2014b). Decentering allows the person to
observe his or her experiences with greater clarity and there-
fore to choose wisely in accordance with personal values. The
Tabl e 4 Three hierarchical regression analysis
Age Medit prac. EQ-D FFMQ obs. FFMQ desc. FFMQ act. FFMQ non-jud. FFMQ non-re.
R
2
Beta Beta Beta Beta Beta Beta Beta Beta
Step 2
VLQ 0.05 0.07 0.21**
Val. Liv. 0.07** 0.14** 0.20**
Life Ful. 0.08** 0.13** 0.22**
Step 3
VLQ 0.10** 0.05 0.09 0.28** 0.01 0.07 0.05 0.05 0.05
Val. Liv. 0.37** 0.09* 0.03 0.34** 0.06 0.22** 0.07 0.12* 0.07
Life Ful. 0.35** 0.08 0.03 0.40** 0.02 0.13** 0.05 0.18** 0.01
Medit prac. meditative practice, FFMQ obs.FFMQobserve,FFMQ desc.FFMQdescribe,FFMQ act. FFMQ act with awareness, FFMQ non-jud.
FFMQ non-judge of inner experience, FFMQ non-re. FFMQ non-react to inner experience, VLQ VLQ composite, Val. Liv.ValuedLiving,Life Ful.Life
Fulfillment
*p0.05; **p0.005
Mindfulness
main limitation of this study is the design: Strictly speaking,
mediation/moderation studies require at least two consecutive
measures, which our study did not have. Mediation analysis
with only one measure should be considered tentative and
analyzed with caution (Judd et al. 2001). In addition, in our
analysis, we did not consider the type of meditative practice
and the duration of each practice session, both of which could
have influenced our findings. Also, this is a cross-sectional
study and characteristics of the sample, including the ability
of maintaining a daily meditation routine, personality charac-
teristics, or types and context of practice, could also be affect-
ing these results. Although most participants were recruited in
lay meditation centers, we do not know if the daily meditator
group included individuals with religious formal training as
for example monks. This might have impacted our study, and
therefore, we consider this lack of information as a limitation.
Moreover, considering the fundamentally experiential and
temporal nature of values, the use of self-report questionnaires
could easily be influenced by the desirability or preconceived
ideas about oneself, especially in individuals with less aware-
ness of the experience. In this sense, it would be desirable in
future studies to find alternative methods of assessing values,
such as implicit behavioral assessments, that may be more
sensitive to experience and less influenced by judgments or
social expectations. Finally, although some studies suggest
that there are gender-related differences in values on some life
domains (Bookwala et al. 2001), we did not perform a sepa-
rate analysis based on gender.
Values have a high priority in mindfulness and acceptance-
based psychotherapy (Germer et al. 2013; Roemer and Orsillo
2009). For some people, recognizing values is not easy, and
therefore, at least part of therapeutic work needs to focus on
identifying personal values. ACTand DBT, for example, both
include exercises to help patients discover their values and to
identify obstacles to achieving their values-related goals
(Linehan 2014; Roemer and Orsillo 2009). In ACT, values
and committed action are two out of the six core process that
serve to increase psychological flexibility. All handbooks and
protocols include techniques to clarify values and increase
behavior regulation by it (Hayes 1999; Páez 2006). With re-
gard to DBT, working with values is especially relevant for the
fourth stage of individual therapy in which the work is focused
in attaining a sense of connectedness, joy, and freedom
(Linehan 1993). Clarifying the clients values is a core aspect
to achieve this. In fact, to this end, the last version of DBTs
skills training includes several skills to help clients to work
towards valued actions (Linehan 2014). The present study
demonstrates that the association between meditative practice
and values is primarily a question of improving mediational
variables; as a result, any other practices or interventions that
increase these capacities may also positively influence values.
Other studies will be necessary to clarify the association be-
tween mediational variables and values and also the interac-
tion between mediational variables and interventions specifi-
cally designed to clarify values and regulate behavior.
Acknowledgements We would like to thank all participants of the
study. JS, AC, and JGC were supported by PROMOSAM:
Investigación en procesos, mecanismos y tratamientos psicológicos para
la promoción de la salud mental (Red de Excelencia PSI2014-56303-
REDT) founded by Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (2014).
The authors thank Bradley Londres for his assistance in editing and im-
proving the text.
Author Contributions AF: designed the study, analyzed the data, and
wrote the first draft of the paper. AC: collaborated in the design of the
study, the data collection, and the data analyses. JGC: collaborated in the
design of the study, the data collection, and the data analyses. MD: col-
laborated in the design of the study, the data collection,and writing of the
Fig. 1 a,b,cThree mediational analyses. All values are beta-
standardized coefficients. The values in parentheses show the relationship
between meditative practice and values when indirect effect of EQ,
FFMQ describe, and FFMQ non-judge are excluded. Signification of
indirect effects was calculated by the Sobel test. *p0.05;
**p0.005. Medit. practice meditative practice
Mindfulness
final manuscript. ME: collaborated in the writing of the manuscript. JCP:
collaborated in the writing of the final manuscript. JS: collaborated in the
design, data analyses, and the writing of the final manuscript.
Compliance with Ethical Standards
Ethical Approval All procedures performed in studies involving hu-
man participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the
institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964
Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical
standards.
Informed Consent Informed consent was obtained from all individual
participants included in this study.
Conflict of Interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of
interest.
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I: Background.- 1. An Introduction.- 2. Conceptualizations of Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination.- II: Self-Determination Theory.- 3. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Perceived Causality and Perceived Competence.- 4. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Interpersonal Communication and Intrapersonal Regulation.- 5. Toward an Organismic Integration Theory: Motivation and Development.- 6. Causality Orientations Theory: Personality Influences on Motivation.- III: Alternative Approaches.- 7. Operant and Attributional Theories.- 8. Information-Processing Theories.- IV: Applications and Implications.- 9. Education.- 10. Psychotherapy.- 11. Work.- 12. Sports.- References.- Author Index.
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The Book is the Italian Edition of M-M: Linehan DBT skills training manual pp.900
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