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Outdoor experiment investigation on the effect of clothing color to surface temperature variation
Abstract
The effects of reflectance of solar radiation have been well studied in terms of the paints used on paving and on building surfaces. However, there is insufficient information on reflectance in terms of clothing color, which is important for outdoor thermal comfort. Moreover, since the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant accident in March 2011, there has been an emphasis on the need to save on electricity use by limiting air-conditioning in summer. We observed surface temperatures of polo shirts of the same material and design but different colors; the shirts were hung in unshaded outdoor open space on the campus of NIES (National Institute for Environmental Studies), Tsukuba, Japan, on sunny days in August 2011. Color brightness is considered to represent the reflectance of visible light. In the early stage of this observation (morning), the order of the colors in terms of the observed surface temperatures was nearly exactly the reverse order of the color brightness values. Brightness is an important determinant of solar radiation albedo. The maximum difference between black and white was almost 20 °C and was greatest when the solar radiation was strong. Reflection performance in the near-infrared band is also an important determinant of surface temperature.
... We have discussed the following issue in our previous study (Lin and Ichinose 2014). When the reflectance at all visible light wavelengths is almost the same, namely, when the hue values (Smith 1978) are the same but only the brightness of the colors differ from each other (such as white, grey, and black), the characteristics of reflection are generally the same for the visible bands and the near-infrared (NIR) bands (i.e., the shape of the spectrum is flat). ...
... Since 2011, Lin and Ichinose (2014) have measured the surface temperatures of polo shirts of the same material and design but different colors (manufactured by the "U" company, 77% cotton, 23% polyester) on sunny days in summer. The shirts were worn by children or mannequins in unshaded, outdoor open spaces (Fig. 1). ...
... N, 140.08° E), we tried to observe and measure the surface temperatures of sample shirts, the same shirts used by Lin and Ichinose (2014) (the "U" company polo shirts), under strong solar radiation ( Fig. 1). Because there were accuracy problems with the observation method used by Lin and Ichinose (2014), we used the following method. ...
The purpose of this study is to understand a physical mechanism to determine the surface temperature of clothes in calm and fine conditions of outdoors. We observed surface temperatures of polo shirts of the same material and design but different colors. The shirts were placed in unshaded and well-ventilated outdoor, open spaces on sunny summer days. The maximum difference between dark green or black and white was more than 15°C during calm, fine weather and was greatest when the solar radiation was strong. If the transmission of solar radiation energy through a shirt is ignored to calculate the absorption by the shirt, the difference in solar radiation absorption due to different colors is as much as 24% in the maximum, and if considered, we concluded that an absorption difference of 34% led to a temperature difference of 15℃. When we compared the brightness of the colors, we found that the albedo of both the visible and NIR bands explained why the red and green colors were so different with respect to the surface temperatures we observed. The reflection in the NIR bands was also an important determinant of the surface temperature. An additional experiment using masks showed that the temperature difference between white and black was almost eliminated at a wind speed of ~3 m/s. The color of clothing is therefore a target for small-scale adaptation to climate change.
The color and brightness of pedestrian clothing are among the factors that could increase the severity of their accidents due to the lack of visibility, especially at night. Today, as most Iranian females tend to wear hijab or dark clothing, the necessity of investigating female pedestrian accidents influenced by clothing color is important. Many studies have been performed to analyze the severity of pedestrian accidents, but a study has not yet been conducted to determine the effect of the dark clothing color of female pedestrians on the severity of accidents. Therefore, in this study, 12 independent variables affecting the severity of female pedestrian accidents such as clothing color, age, accident time, day, weather condition, education, pedestrian action, crossing facilities, crossing permit, job, road classification, and fault status were studied. Frequency analysis, Friedman test (FT), and Factor Analysis (FA) methods, as well as modeling methods of Multiple Logistic Regression (MLR) and Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) using Multilayer Perceptron (MLP) and Radius Basis Function (RBF), were used. Results indicated that clothing color had a significant influence on pedestrian accidents, and chador and dark clothing color increased the probability of accidents, especially at night. The MLP model had a better prediction percentage than the rest, the prediction accuracy of which was 94.6%. Finally, safety solutions were presented according to the results to reduce pedestrian accidents and increase road safety.
Wear comfort is a fundamental and universal need for consumers and depends on a multitude of factors among which thermo-physiological comfort, tactile comfort and garment construction parameters such as design and fit.
This paper discusses three case-studies which demonstrate the importance of the design, fit and fabric finish on wear comfort. The studies involved (1) the application of phase change materials (PCMs) to the fabric used in unisuits for rowers to better maintain their thermal balance during exercise, (2) improving the design of workwear for nursing staff and (3) the development of well fitted functional body wear involving moisture regulating fabrics to prevent non-aesthetic sweat stains on shirts and blouses.
The results have shown that minor adaptations to the design and fit which is well adjusted to the body shape of the wearer can have a major impact on the thermo-physiological and tactile comfort feeling of the wearer. On the other hand, the use of phase change materials had little effect on the skin temperature of the wearer which was in stark contrast with the use of moisture regulating fabrics that indeed largely influence overall comfort sensation of garments. These insights were very valuable to the garment manufacturers which meanwhile have implemented these results into their products. The adapted nursing uniforms were taken into production and enthusiastically welcomed by the end users. Shortly the functional body wear will also come available on the market
We tested whether the colour temperature of the illumination (realised through manipulating the ceiling light) impacted on thermal comfort, based on the hypothesis that a lower colour temperature is associated with feeling warmer and a higher colour temperature with feeling cooler. If confirmed, then light might be a tool for energy-saving through allowing ambient air temperatures to vary over a wider range and hence reducing the need for space heating and cooling.
Testing took place in a climate chamber. In Study 1, comfort ratings were collected using thermal comfort surveys (N = 32). In Study 2, an observational design was used, where changes in clothing level, interpreted as thermal discomfort responses, were observed (N = 32). We compared comfort ratings and changes in clothing level under light with a colour temperature of 2700 K vs. 6500 K. Results partly confirmed the hypotheses: both self-report and observation indicated higher comfort under the low colour temperature. Further research will need to replicate findings in a real-world setting to see if light might indeed be a tool to modulate thermal comfort, and hence reduce usage of heating and cooling.
In this paper, a novel algorithm for estimating clothing insulation is proposed to assess thermal comfort, based on the non-contact and real-time measurements of the face and clothing temperatures by an infrared camera. The proposed method can accurately measure the clothing insulation of various garments under different clothing fit and sitting postures. The proposed estimation method is investigated to be effective to measure its clothing insulation significantly in different seasonal clothing conditions using a paired t-test in 99% confidence interval. Temperatures simulated with the proposed estimated insulation value show closer to the values of actual temperature than those with individual clothing insulation values. Upper clothing’s temperature is more accurate within 3% error and lower clothing’s temperature is more accurate by 3.7%~6.2% error in indoor working scenarios. The proposed algorithm can reflect the effect of air layer which makes insulation different in the calculation to estimate clothing insulation using the temperature of the face and clothing. In future, the proposed method is expected to be applied to evaluate the customized passenger comfort effectively.
Absorptance of clothing for short-wave radiation is an important factor in thermal comfort assessment based on the human body heat budget outdoor. Many researchers have adopted value of 0.7 prescribed in VDI 3787 as the solar absorptance of human body. However, the solar absorptance of human body should depend on material and color of clothing fabric substantially. The objective of this research is to identify solar absorptances of ten different clothing fabrics combining of two materials (100% cotton, 65% polyester/35% cotton) and five colors (black, white, gray, red and blue). The measurement was carried out in October and November, 2007. By using the pyranometers, total solar radiation, reflected solar radiation by the target fabric and surrounding ground surface, and transmitted solar radiation through the target fabric were measured. In a calculation of the solar absorptance, the reflected component from outside of the target fabric was separated from the measured reflected radiation by taking into consideration a configuration factor between the measuring sensor and the fabric. The following findings were obtained through the experiment. The identified solar absorptances of 100% cotton fabric were 0.61 for black, 0.17 for white, 0.36 for gray, 0.47 for red and 0.57 for blue. The identified solar absorptances of 65% polyester/35% cotton fabric were 0.61 for black, 0.17 for white, 0.35 for gray, 0.44 for red and 0.49 for blue. The solar absorptance of clothing fabric does not depend on direct and diffuse solar radiations. The solar absorptance of clothing fabric depends on material and color of fabrics.
The UC Berkeley Comfort Model is a helpful simula- tion tool for the assessment of thermal comfort in non-uniform environments. A major element of the model is the implementation of a clothing node, which considers both heat and moisture capacitance of clothing. Heat capacity of the clothing has been demonstrated to be important when considering tran- sient effects. Moisture capacitance is important to correctly model evaporative heat loss from the body through clothing. The moisture model uses the regain approach to calculate the amount of moisture that a specific fabric will absorb at a given humidity.
In the assessment of thermal comfort in buildings, the use of the Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) model is very popular. For this model, data on the climate, on clothing and on metabolic heat production are required. This paper discusses the representation and measurement of clothing parameters and metabolic rate in the PMV context. Several problems are identified and for some of these solutions are provided. For clothing insulation it was shown that effects of body motion and air movement are so big that they must be accounted for in comfort prediction models to be physically accurate. However, effects on dry heat exchange are small for stationary, light work at low air movement. Also algorithms for convective heat exchange in prediction models should be reconsidered. For evaporative heat resistance of the clothing worn, which is currently not an input factor in the PMV model, it was shown that in cases where special clothing with high vapour resistance is worn (e.g. clean-room clothing), comfort may be limited by the clothing as it will induce a high skin wettedness. Thus, for such cases clothing vapour resistance should not be neglected in the calculation of comfort using the PMV model, or the induced skin wettedness should be calculated separately. The effects on thermal comfort of reductions in vapour resistance due to air and body movements are also shown to have a substantial impact on the comfort limits in terms of skin wettedness and cannot be neglected either. For metabolic heat production it was concluded that for precise comfort assessment a precise measure of metabolic rate is needed. In order to improve metabolic rate estimation based on ISO 8996, more data and detail is needed for activities with a metabolic rate below 2 MET. Finally, it was shown that the methods for determining metabolic rate provided in ISO 8996 (typically used in comfort assessment and evaluations) do not provide sufficient accuracy to allow determination of comfort (expressed as PMV) in sufficient precision to classify buildings to within 0.3 PMV units as proposed in the upcoming revision of ISO 7730.
The UTCI-Fiala mathematical model of human temperature regulation forms the basis of the new Universal Thermal Climate Index (UTC). Following extensive validation tests, adaptations and extensions, such as the inclusion of an adaptive clothing model, the model was used to predict human temperature and regulatory responses for combinations of the prevailing outdoor climate conditions. This paper provides an overview of the underlying algorithms and methods that constitute the multi-node dynamic UTCI-Fiala model of human thermal physiology and comfort. Treated topics include modelling heat and mass transfer within the body, numerical techniques, modelling environmental heat exchanges, thermoregulatory reactions of the central nervous system, and perceptual responses. Other contributions of this special issue describe the validation of the UTCI-Fiala model against measured data and the development of the adaptive clothing model for outdoor climates.
The cooling performance of garments can play an important role of enabling comfortable human activities under extreme environments. Imparting extra cooling performance to a garment in a passive way is extremely challenging under the sunlight which provides a huge energy influx to the garment, especially made of black colored textile. In this study, a solar-adaptive-textile (SAT) has been designed and experimentally demonstrated. Near-infrared (NIR) transmittance to the human skin from the solar irradiance has been intercepted by incorporating a nanoscale sputtered thin aluminum metal film underneath the textile layer facing the skin. The high-pressure sputtering employed allows a deep penetration of aluminum into the fabric structure for enhanced solar-energy-blocking effect and film stability. The aluminum layer effectively reduces the solar irradiance as well as the thermal radiation from the textile, which gets heated in lieu of the human skin. The outdoor, under-the-sun measurements with a simulated skin showed an outstanding 2 ℃ cooling effect compared to the normal textile without the metal film, while preserving most of the given textile properties such as colors, air permeability and wicking behavior.
Clothing insulation is one of the six parameters used to calculate the predicted mean vote (PMV) and the new standard effective temperature (SET*). Various studies have confirmed the effects of airspeed, wind direction, and posture on clothing insulation. However, there is a lack of clarity on how these factors affect the prediction of thermal comfort by impacting clothing insulation. This study presents the clothing insulation of eight sets of current typical clothing ensembles under various airspeeds and wind directions using a manikin experiment. Furthermore, the effects of airspeed, wind direction, and posture on the calculation of PMV and SET* were investigated. The results of the study highlight that (1) the clothing insulation for the standing posture was 10% higher than that of the sitting posture; The clothing insulation decreased with the increase in airspeed. (2) The PMV and SET* for the standing posture were higher than those of the sitting posture. The PMV value under the crosswind was, at the maximum, 0.23 larger than that under other wind directions. The SET* for the crosswind was, at a maximum, 0.85 °C higher than that under other wind directions. (3) The PMV and SET* values considering the reduction of clothing insulation due to airspeed had smaller values than those that do not consider the reduction of clothing insulation. Thus, it is essential to consider the conditions of wind direction, posture, and reduction of clothing insulation caused by airspeed to achieve reliable prediction of thermal comfort.
Clothing is important for keeping the human body warm in cold environments. In Fanger's predicted mean vote (PMV) model, clothing insulation is a single input parameter that describes the dressing status of the whole body. The objective of this study was to examine the effects of the clothing insulation distribution between half-bodies. The distribution index (DI) was defined to describe the uneven level of the clothing insulation distribution. An experiment with 20 subjects and 9 different clothing conditions was conducted in a climate chamber. Subjects were asked to be sedentary and wear specified sets of garments in a 20 °C environment. The thermal insulation values of the garment sets were measured by using a thermal manikin. The nine clothing conditions were divided into four groups. Although their thermal insulations were very close, the DI values were quite different in each group. Subjective evaluations of thermal comfort were collected, and seven-point skin temperatures were measured. To investigate this topic with a wider temperature range and greater clothing diversity, a one-year continuous field study was conducted with 18 subjects. The results indicated that the subjective thermal evaluations were different when the clothing insulation levels were close and the DI values were different. Sets of garments with a lower DI were more likely to lead to lower thermal sensation vote (TSV) and more subjects preferring a warmer environment. Clothes with an uneven DI (<0.75 or >1.25) and less clothes on the lower body (DI < 1) made people more sensitive to cold environments.
Effectively regulating heat flow between the human body and its environment not only increases thermal comfort but also presents a novel and potentially cost-effective approach to reducing building energy consumption. Infrared property-engineered textiles have been shown to passively regulate radiative heat dissipation for effective cooling and warming of the human body. However, a lack of dyes that can tune the textile color without compromising the infrared properties remains a major impediment to textile commercialization. Here, we report a new strategy utilizing inorganic nanoparticles as a coloring component for scalable brightly colored, infrared-transparent textiles. The as-fabricated composite textiles not only show a high infrared transparency of ∼80% and a passive cooling effect of ∼1.6°C–1.8°C but also exhibit intense visible colors with good stability against washing. This facile coloration approach will promote the commercialization of radiative cooling textiles in temperature-regulating wearable applications for effective energy savings.
According to hue-heat hypothesis, colours may have effect on temperature perception. Results of existing research are ambiguous regarding the association between colour and thermal perception. And the colours tested were quite limited. This study aims to find the possible influence of colour on thermal sensation and comfort. Experiments have been carried out to explore this effect. Sixteen Chinese subjects participated in the experiments, which contained three temperature levels and seven coloured wall conditions. Subjects’ thermal sensation vote (TSV), thermal comfort vote (TCV) and colour satisfactory vote (CSV) were collected and heart rate (HR) was tested. The results show that coloured walls do have impact on thermal sensation and comfort in different air temperature conditions. Subjects’ TSV was increased at warm colours and decreased at cool colours compared to neutral colours. And TCV was also affected by colours. Subjects felt that cool colours were more comfortable in warm environment, and warm colours were more comfortable in cold environment. The results of CSV showed that cool colours became more satisfactory in warm environment, while warm colours were more popular in cool environment. The variation of HR was related to temperature and colours. HR increased as temperature increased. And HR in warm colours was a little higher than that in neutral and cool colours. The changes of subjective voting and physiological parameters were consistent in supporting the thermal effect of colours. Considering this effect of colours, integrating warm or cool colours in indoor spaces can optimize thermal perception against occupants’ actual thermal condition, which has positive significance for energy saving in building environment.
The thermal behavior in a clothing microclimate is an important aspect related to thermal comfort. Situation-dependent analyses are required to understand the heat transfer of clothing; thus, the heat transfer and temperature distributions in a double-layered human–clothing–environment system in the presence of solar radiation are investigated as practical application in this study. A new heat transfer model modified from the previously proposed outdoor thermal model with single-layered clothing is developed. The new model integrates the radiative effects on clothing, the heat conduction within the air layer, and the heat convection on the outer surface of clothing. Radiation heat transfer is included as a source term for the clothing. Measurements of the temperature distributions are obtained under typical summer and winter atmospheric conditions with or without solar radiation to validate the model. A comparison confirms that the prediction model is valid. Subsequently, the effects of layered clothing are analyzed. Since insulation fundamentally influences the temperature distributions in the steady-state system, the temperatures at the boundary and air gap determine the slopes of the temperature distribution. Since the absorbed solar energy is more influential than the release of heat by conduction or even convection for clothing, the solar radiation and radiative properties are relatively dominant at the temperature distribution of clothing and consequently the entire system. Overall, the effects of solar radiation and the properties related to radiation are essential for evaluating the microclimate inside clothing.
The ‘hue-heat’ hypothesis states that an environment which has wavelengths predominantly toward the red end of the visual spectrum feels ‘warm’ and one with wavelengths mainly toward the blue end feels ‘cool’. In order to test the hypothesis and to study the impacts of the correlated colour temperature of a light source on thermal sensation and thermal comfort, a study was conducted in a test room illuminated with an Light Emitting Diode (LED) lighting system with an adjustable correlated colour temperature where air temperature, air velocity, and relative humidity were kept constant. The correlated colour temperature of lighting inside the test room was changed gradually while keeping the colour rendering index values greater than 90, an illuminance level of 500 lx, and chromaticity difference (Duv) values within the limits of ±0.005. Sixteen study subjects were exposed to a ‘high room temperature’ (25℃) and a ‘low room temperature’ (20℃) on different days. The subjects were adapted to low correlated colour temperature (2700 K), medium correlated colour temperature (4000 K), and high correlated colour temperature (6200 K) lighting for 10 min and subsequently completed the questionnaire about their thermal comfort and thermal sensation. The results of this survey did not provide support for the hue-heat hypothesis and indicated that people felt thermally more comfortable in an indoor workplace at the correlated colour temperature of 4000 K than at the correlated colour temperature of 2700 K or 6200 K.
The present study investigates heat transfer in the human–clothing–environment system under solar radiation. A new thermal model integrating the solar radiation absorption by clothing, as well as heat conduction within the air layer and heat convection on the clothing surface, is presented. The heat transfer in this system is simply explained based on the heat conduction equation; heat transfer relating to solar radiation is added as the source of heat generation at the surface of clothing. The temperature distributions inside clothing are well predicted with variations in the amount of solar radiation, ambient temperature, air gap depth, and radiative properties. Temperatures are increased or decreased linearly with changes in the air gap distance, confirming that the temperature of the air layer inside clothing is governed by conduction. Temperature distributions differ depending on solar radiation and also radiative properties, particularly absorptance, indicating that radiative heat transfer must be included to evaluate clothing heat transfer.
Heat islands are urban and suburban areas that are significantly warmer than their surroundings. Traditional, highly absorptive construction materials and a lack of effective landscaping are their main causes. Heat island problems, in terms of increased energy consumption, reduced air quality and effects on human health and mortality, are becoming more pressing as cities continue to grow and sprawl. This comprehensive book brings together the latest information about heat islands and their mitigation. The book describes how heat islands are formed, what problems they cause, which technologies mitigate heat island effects and what policies and actions can be taken to cool communities. Internationally renowned expert Lisa Gartland offers a comprehensive source of information for turning heat islands into cool communities. The author includes sections on cool roofing and cool paving, explains their benefits in detail and provides practical guidelines for their selection and installation. The book also reviews how and why to incorporate trees and vegetation around buildings, in parking lots and on green roofs.
In this study, We endeavored to revaluate the effects of different types of clothing and colors on clothing microclimate in the subjects wearing sports wear at sunlight environment. This study was conducted 4 different kinds (cotton 100%) of clothing ensembles, that was W-1(long trousers and shirt of white color), B-1 (long trousers and shirt of black color), W-s (short trousers and shirt white color), B-s (short trousers and shirt black color) and were done in a climate chamber under sunlight ambient temperature (, ) by three males subject who are in good healthy. Start a 20-min rest period, 20-min bouts of exercise and final 20-min recovery period were performed. The kinetic load was given for 20 minutes under the condition of 6.0 km/hr walking speed on the treadmill. The results is as followed In case of same type of garment, temperature within clothing which is based on difference of color the white ensemble keeps higher temperature than black one. According to distribution chart of temperature within clothing in case of chest, white one shows higher temperature than black one, in case of back, black one shows higher temperature than white one. Difference of heart rate was so clear and sequence is W-1>B-1>W-s>B-s, so we could find same tendency with temperature within clothing.
This book is a practical guide that presents the current state of knowledge on potential environmental and economic benefits of strategic landscaping and altering surface colors in our communities. The guidebook, reviews the causes, magnitude, and impacts of increased urban warming, then focuses on actions by citizens and communities that can be undertaken to improve the quality of our homes and towns in cost-effective ways.
Measurements are reported of the influence of net radiative energy fluxes on the sensible heat flux transmitted through clothing. Measurements with heat flow discs illustrate the effects of clothing colour and reflectance on the sensible heat load. For the same incident short-wave radiant load the difference between the energy flux passing lo the skin through black and through white shirts was 190 W m when the net radiation to the black shirt was 780 Wm. The results are consistent with simple linear models of heat transfer through clothing assemblies.
A roof with high solar reflectance and high thermal emittance (e.g., a white roof) stays cool in the sun, reducing cooling power demand in a conditioned building and increasing summertime comfort in an unconditioned building. The high initial solar reflectance of a white membrane roof (circa 0.8) can be lowered by deposition of soot, dust, and/or biomass (e.g., fungi or algae) to about 0.6; degraded solar reflectances range from 0.3 to 0.8, depending on exposure. We investigate the effects of soiling and cleaning on the solar spectral reflectances and solar absorptances of 15 initially white or light-gray polyvinyl chloride membrane samples taken from roofs across the United States. Black carbon and organic carbon were the two identifiable strongly absorbing contaminants on the membranes. Wiping was effective at removing black carbon, and less so at removing organic carbon. Rinsing and/or washing removed nearly all of the remaining soil layer, with the exception of (a) thin layers of organic carbon and (b) isolated dark spots of biomass. Bleach was required to clear these last two features. At the most soiled location on each membrane, the ratio of solar reflectance to unsoiled solar reflectance (a measure of cleanliness) ranged from 0.41 to 0.89 for the soiled samples; 0.53 to 0.95 for the wiped samples; 0.74 to 0.98 for the rinsed samples; 0.79 to 1.00 for the washed samples; and 0.94 to 1.02 for the bleached samples. However, the influences of membrane soiling and cleaning on roof heat gain are better gauged by fractional variations in solar absorptance. Solar absorptance ratios (indicating solar heat gain relative to that of an unsoiled membrane) ranged from 1.4 to 3.5 for the soiled samples; 1.1 to 3.1 for the wiped samples; 1.0 to 2.0 for the rinsed samples; 1.0 to 1.9 for the washed samples; and 0.9 to 1.3 for the bleached samples.
Six subjects exercised for 60 min on a cycle ergometer. Their backs were exposed to an artificial 'sun' with a spectral distribution similar to sunlight and an intensity of 724 W m-2. Each subject took part in four experiments in random order: wearing suits of polyester (insulation value = 0.5 clo), white (WP) or black (BP), or cotton (0.6 clo), white (WC) or black (BC). Measured by partitional calorimetry, the calculated heat losses and gains for the four conditions balanced within less than 10%. The differences between the short-wave radiation gains of subjects in white or black garments were small. This is due to the transparency of the white materials, which allows a larger percentage of the radiation to penetrate the clothing. The surface temperatures of the sun-exposed areas were very high, especially in the black suits. This promotes dry heat loss. Therefore the sweat loss in the black suits and the differences between the black and white clothes became relatively small. The physiological strain in steady-state exercise, as expressed by average heart rates, was 142 (WP), 154 (BP), 151 (WC), and 160 (BC) beats min-1; the sweat losses were 649 (WP), 666 (BP), 704 (WC), and 808 (BC) g. For both of these measures values for white polyester were significantly less than those for black cotton.
Infrared heat radiation was directed onto the backs of healthy female subjects wearing a white or a black dress. Local skin thermal reactions of the back and the thigh were observed with reference to clothing color in a climate chamber where the ambient temperature was set at 20, 25 or 30 degrees C. Heat flow, skin temperature and air temperature under the clothing were measured. In the absence of radiation, skin temperature was higher than air temperature under clothing on the back and the thigh. Heat radiation caused both skin temperature and air temperature under clothing to rise, but the rise was considerably greater with black clothing than with white. As the effect of radiation was indirect, heat flow direction at the thigh was the same as in the absence of radiation. The thermal resistance index was calculated from skin temperature, air temperature under clothing and heat flow. Upon radiation exposure, the index of a black-clothed back tended to decrease with rising globe temperature. On the contrary, the index of a white-clothed back increased from a low negative value. This index is useful in assessing the skin-cloth system.
The experiment is aimed at knowing the effect of "body heating" on color preference. Eleven subjects with normal color vision served as subjects. Two tests, one of the "No Bath" and the other of the "Bath" were conducted. Hot bath immersion with 38.5 degrees C was performed for 30 min from 07:30 h to 08:00 h. Then, they were instructed to choose a single colored cloth out of 41 cloth colors (24 x 52 cm), preferred by themselves, every five min from 08:00 h to 09:00 h under the ambient temperature (Ta) of 27 degrees C. Most subjects preferred cooler color after "body heating" than after "not body heating". This finding was discussed in terms of greater differences between core temperature and its set point after "body heating", because cooler color would be helpful psychologically in allowing raised core temperature approach its set point.
A meta-analysis of the effect of body and air movement on the insulation provided by workwear and cold-weather clothing [1.22 clo (0.189 m
2 °C W
−1) <I
T<4.14 clo (0.642 m
2 °C W
−1)] using data from different sources was performed. For the effect of walking, datasets could be merged and a single prediction equation produced (r
2=0.91). For the effect of wind, and interaction of movement and wind, separate equations were required for regular workwear (r
2=0.93) and cold-weather clothing (r
2=0.97). Differences were mainly due to the different amounts of nude surface area. An interaction between wind and walking effects was present (the size of the combined effects is less than the sum of the separate effects), and for cold-weather clothing an effect of clothing air permeability (p) was present (high p→bigger effect). The resulting prediction equations will be proposed for inclusion in European and ISO standards on protective clothing to assist the user in determining the real-life clothing insulation value.
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