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Terrestriality of Wild Sapajus cay (Illiger, 1815) as Revealed by Camera Traps
Abstract
Although primarily arboreal, the capuchin monkey (Sapajus cay) descends to the ground for several reasons. We used terrestrial records obtained by camera-trapping surveys to investigate seasonality in the terrestriality of capuchin monkeys, reasons to descend to the ground, and periods of the day when terrestriality was more pronounced. We carried out the study in the Urucum Massif, Brazilian Pantanal. We obtained data from 2 camera-trapping surveys carried out in the dry and rainy seasons. Terrestrial behaviours were categorized, and terrestrial activity patterns were described using a kernel density approach. We observed a seasonal effect on the frequency of terrestrial behaviours of capuchin monkeys, who used the ground more during the dry season. We identified 6 different types of terrestrial behaviour, but travelling (33.3%), foraging (23.3%), and drinking water (23.3%) were the most frequently observed. All records occurred during the day, with 2 peaks in terrestrial activity. Seasonal terrestriality was mainly linked to ecological needs during periods of scarce food and water.
... K. A. Wright et al. showed opposite results). However, S. cay has been recorded as substantially terrestrial mainly during the dry season, a pattern that is related to food and water scarcity (Porfirio et al., 2017). That corroborates our findings of reduced body size for these savanna species, which we claim to be adaptive for a savanna dwelling lifestyle. ...
... Hence, there is a forward positioning of the zygomatic process (and the temporalis muscle), closer to the tooth row (see Figure 6), features that could contribute to strengthening bite force in these savanna species (see also Hendges et al., 2019 for a comparative approach with other mammals and also Andrews, 2020 for early hominins). That is associated with proportionally large molars (M1 and M2, Figures 6 and 7, and a reduction of M3; B. Wright, 2005) and thicker enamel ( Wright, 2005) and increased terrestriality (Porfirio et al., 2017), as seen in S. libidinosus (K. A. Wright et al., 2015), and are expected for primate species living in the savanna environment (Okecha & Newton-Fisher, 2006;, including basal hominins (Andrews, 2020). ...
There are strong physiological and behavioral differences that allow animals to live in forests versus savannas. For example, terrestrial forest-dwelling mammals tend to be small compared to species living in savannas. Robust capuchin monkeys (genus Sapajus) are widespread in tropical South America, occurring in both forest and savanna environments, with forest species considered basal in an evolutionary context. Whether or not skull shape and size variations are associated with variation in resource use remains unknown, particularly for the two species living in savanna (Sapajus libidinosus and S. cay). Here we show that savanna species present convergent size and skull characteristics that may facilitate living in this new environment. Geometric morphometric methods were used to assess skull size and shape variation for 184 Sapajus specimens distributed across South America. We used phylogenetic generalized least squares to test size against environmental variables and multivariate morphological trajectories/partial least square analyses on the skull shape to detect shape differences in specimens between forest and savanna biomes. Our findings reveal Sapajus size reduction in the evolutionary transition from forest to savanna, a process related to increasing seasonality. Moreover, we found morphological parallelism in the skull (e.g., muzzle shortening) and (large) molars in the two savanna species, features that may facilitate the processing of harder food such as fallback resources. We associate these phenotypic differences to the evolutionary process of colonizing the savannas by primates (including early hominins), leading to morphological adaptations to tolerate stressful, seasonal environments, such as body size reduction and ingestion and mastication of tough foods.
... This corresponds to the period of lowest activity of an important terrestrial predator; the ocelot Suselbeek et al., 2014). These results from the mainland are consistent with other studies that have documented a midday peak in terrestrial activity in both gracile (Cebus) and robust (Sapajus) capuchins (Gilbert and Stouffer, 1995;Porfirio et al., 2017). In contrast, capuchins on Coiba and Jicaron show a much less pronounced midday peak in terrestrial behavior, spending time on the ground both before sunrise and after sunsetdperiods when they would be especially vulnerable to predation if ocelots were found on the islands. ...
... Activities such as foraging, feeding, and interacting socially were rarely observed on the camera traps in sites with mammalian predators. These findings suggest that arboreal travel may impose costs that capuchins avoid by traveling on the ground when it is possible, consistent with past research demonstrating a shift in capuchins' terrestrial activity patterns wherein anthropogenic activities have reduced predator abundance (Gilbert and Stouffer, 1995;Stern et al., 2002;Porfirio et al., 2017). ...
An arboreal lifestyle is thought to be central to primate origins, and most extant primate species still live in the trees. Nonetheless, terrestrial locomotion is a widespread adaptation that has arisen repeatedly within the primate lineage. The absence of terrestriality among the New World monkeys (Platyrrhini) is thus notable and raises questions about the ecological pressures that constrain the expansion of platyrrhines into terrestrial niches. Here, we report the results of a natural experiment, comparing patterns of terrestrial behavior in white-faced capuchin monkeys (Cebus capucinus imitator) living on two islands off the Pacific coast of Panama that lack mammalian predators (island sites) with the behavior of capuchins at three sites in central Panama with more intact predator communities (mainland sites). Surveys with camera traps revealed increased terrestriality in island vs. mainland sites. Capuchin detection rates were higher, the range of party sizes observed was larger, and individuals engaged in a wider range of terrestrial behaviors on the islands lacking mammalian predators. Furthermore, females carrying infants were frequently photographed on the ground at the island sites, but never at the mainland sites. These findings support the long-standing hypothesis that predators constrain the exploitation of terrestrial niches by primates. These results are also consistent with the hypothesis that arboreal locomotion imposes costs that primates will avoid by walking on the ground when predation risk is low.
... Azaras's capuchin monkeys are diurnal, with arboreal preferences, although they can use the ground, and show a slight sexual dimorphism, with adult males weighing more than females (Porfirio et al. 2017;Smith et al. 2018). Other species of capuchin monkeys (Sapajus spp.) live in social groups, which can reach up to 44 individuals, and even though more than one male is typically present in a group, only one plays the dominant role (Fedigan 1993;Di Bitetti & Janson 2001a;Agostini & Visalberghi 2005). ...
... In general, adult males are more engaged in vigilance behaviors, spend more time on or near the ground, and devote less time to feeding and foraging than do females (Fedigan 1993;Rose 1994). However, regardless of age category and sex, studies carried out in different geographic distribution areas have shown that capuchin monkeys generally spend most of their time moving across sites and foraging (Zhang 1995;Pinto 2006;Porfirio et al. 2017). The high percentage of time spent traveling and foraging is usually related to the search for sparsely distributed food resources in the environment (Oates 1987;Zhang 1995). ...
Azaras’s capuchin monkey (Sapajus cay) is a poorly studied species in ecological aspects. We investigated behavioral activities and diet of a group of S. cay in a remnant of the Brazilian Cerrado. We sought to identify the most frequent behavior that the group engaged in, as well as to verify possible differences in behavioral patterns and diet between adult males and females. From January to July 2012 we collected behavioral and foraging data for a group of 21 individuals using scan sampling. Behaviors and food items consumed were analyzed using percentages and two proportions Z-tests to assess differences between males and females. We obtained 878 scans in approximately 202 hours of sampling effort, resulting in 4,159 individual activity records of capuchin monkeys. The group allocated time to traveling (41.3%), resting (25.5%), feeding (14.3%), foraging (13.7%), and social activities (5.1%). Females spent more time foraging and feeding, while males spent more time resting. Fruits (61.4%), invertebrates (15.3%), and seeds (14.3%) were the most common food items consumed. We did not find differences in food consumption between sexes. Behavioral activities may be influenced by habitat quality of the studied area, opportunistic habits, and plasticity in the diet.
... Habitat loss not only reduces population sizes but also has negative impacts on foraging, breeding, and dispersal of different taxa (reviewed inFahrig, 2003). Fragmented landscapes from the Brazilian Amazon, for example, reduced the range size and the proportion of fruits in the diet of primates(Boyle & Smith, 2010).Although primates of the genus Sapajus use the ground with some frequency(Meulman et al., 2012;Monteza-Moreno et al., 2020;Porfirio et al., 2017), the matrix permeating the fragments can be an important barrier that prevents their dispersion(Rylands & Keuroghlian, 1988;Silva et al., 2015), which can elevate levels of inbreeding within populations(Solórzano-García et al., 2021). The overall effects of habitat loss and fragmentation on the naturally small range size of the crested capuchin can be disastrous to this endemic species. ...
The crested capuchin monkey (Sapajus robustus) is endemic to the Atlantic Forest and its transition areas within Cerrado in Brazil. The species is currently threatened by habitat loss and has been classified as endangered by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species since 2015. We used ecological niche models built with MaxEnt to predict the potential impact of climate change on the distribution of this species. The models were projected onto the reference climate, considering six climate scenarios (three Global Climate Models and two Representative Concentration Pathways) from IPCC for 2050 and 2070. We showed that while the amount of suitable area is expected to change little across the species' range in most evaluated climate scenarios, climatic conditions may significantly deteriorate by 2070 in the pessimistic scenario, especially in currently warmer and dryer areas to the west. As seen on other capuchin monkeys, the potential use of tools by crested capuchins may increase the chances of the species adaptation to novel harsher environmental conditions. The major negative impacts across the species range also include habitat loss and fragmentation so that the conservation of the species relies on the protection of the forest remnants in the center of its distribution, which can harbor populations of the species in current and future climate scenarios.
... Still, a few populations living on islands with reduced predation rates display a high degree of terrestriality (Monteza-Moreno et al., 2020)and these are the only known populations of this species to have been observed using stone tools in the wild (Barrett et al., 2018). In Azara's capuchin monkeys (Sapajus cay), terrestriality was observed in a season of scarce food and water (Porfirio et al., 2017). Yet, none of those studies on capuchins indicate the monkeys' relative amount of time on the ground. ...
Terrestriality was an essential factor in human evolution. Hominins' extensive use of the ground allowed exploring a new range of environments and their objects, including new resources and potential tool raw materials. Capuchin monkeys are primarily arboreal primates but are also the most prolific tool users among platyrrhines, customarily using stone tools on the ground due to physical limitations and material availability.
Objectives:
Our goals were to (1) measure the terrestriality levels of a group of capuchin monkeys and (2) test the hypothesis that terrestriality has a positive effect on the stone tool use variability because the increased time on the ground would offer more opportunities to interact with the available stones, leading to more innovations of tool use behaviors. We predict a more diversified use of stone tools in the population with a higher degree of terrestriality.
Materials and methods:
This study was on a group of capuchin monkeys (Sapajus libidinosus) at Serra da Capivara National Park (SCNP), Brazil. Scan sampling was done for 23 months, recording the behavior and substrate used by the individuals.
Results:
The ground use rate was 41%, with no sex difference but an age difference: infants were less terrestrial than juveniles and adults.
Discussion:
Compared to a population with a more limited tool use repertoire (Fazenda Boa Vista), SCNP adult capuchins are more terrestrial (43% v. 27%). Stone tool use diversity and terrestriality in capuchins appear to be positively correlated. Our results support this hypothesis and provide terrestriality measurements of the wild capuchin population with the most complex stone tool kit.
... Additionally, S. paraguensis and T. terrestris are nocturnal, as observed for other regions (Gómez et al. 2005, Maffei et al. 2002, Porfirio et al. 2016, 2017b, and C. thous followed the crepuscular pattern found in the Cerrado . Porfirio et al. (2017a) and Rucco et al. (2019) discuss the activity patterns of Sapajus cay, Mazama americana and M. gouazoubira. Considering that (i) the observed patterns were similar to those reported in the literature, and (ii) since the samplings were carried out in a mining, agricultural area, we suggest that neither of the activities seem to exert direct influence on the activity patterns of the most detected species; however, it is worth further exploring their impact on a spatial scale. ...
The Urucum Massif (UM) is recognized as a region of flora and fauna endemism, and it is one of the few mountain ranges found in the western edge of the Brazilian Pantanal, in Mato Grosso do Sul state. Despite the lack of knowledge on mammalian species occurrence, several mining companies established in this region has rapidly changed its landscape. Therefore, this study aims to carry out an inventory of medium- to large-sized mammals in the UM to estimate their relative abundance and activity patterns using data provided by camera trapping surveys. Two main camera-trapping surveys were carried between October 2014 and July 2015, in addition to a small survey in July 2016. Results showed 25 species from medium- to large-sized mammals. Dicotyles tajacu, Dasyprocta azarae and Dasypus novemcinctus presented the highest relative abundance indices. Overall, D. azarae, Nasua nasua and Euphractus sexcinctus were diurnal, while Tamandua tetradactyla, D. novemcinctus, Tapirus terrestris and Sylvilagus paraguensis were nocturnal, in turn, D. tajacu and Cerdocyon thous were associated with the crepuscular period. Overall, 28 % (N = 7) and 12 % (N = 3) of the recorded species are threatened nationally and globally, respectively. Due to the scarcity of protected areas in the UM, we recommend long term monitoring of mammals and ecological studies to support conservation actions for this group in the region
... The capuchin monkey displays arboreal habits, although the young monkeys go to the ground to play and live in small groups [47][48][49][50][51]. Moreover, they can also use the ground in the Pantanal biome [52]. Capuchin monkeys are considered a generalist opportunistic species and present a variable diet that includes primarily fruits; however, they also feed on seeds, nuts, flowers, gums, nectar, fungi, sap, eggs, insects, small vertebrates, and even some oysters and crab species in mangrove regions [48,53]. ...
Trypanosoma rangeli is a generalist hemoflagellate that infects mammals and is transmitted by triatomines around Latin America. Due to its high genetic diversity, it can be classified into two to five lineages. In Brazil, its distribution outside the Amazon region is virtually unknown, and knowledge on the ecology of its lineages and on host species diversity requires further investigation. Here, we analyzed 57 T. rangeli samples obtained from hemocultures and blood clots of 1392 mammals captured in different Brazilian biomes. The samples were subjected to small subunit (SSU) rDNA amplification and sequencing to confirm T. rangeli infection. Phylogenetic inferences and haplotype networks were reconstructed to classify T. rangeli lineages and to infer the genetic diversity of the samples. The results obtained in our study highlighted both the mammalian host range and distribution of T. rangeli in Brazil: infection was observed in five new species (Procyon cancrivorous, Priodontes maximum, Alouatta belzebul, Sapajus libidinosus, and Trinomys dimidiatus), and transmission was observed in the Caatinga biome. The coati (Nasua nasua) and capuchin monkey (S. libidinosus) are the key hosts of T. rangeli. We identified all four T. rangeli lineages previously reported in Brazil (A, B, D, and E) and possibly two new genotypes.
... Despite the absence of morphological specializations for terrestriality (Aversi-Ferreira et al. 2013), 167 ground use is widespread in Neotropical primates as an occasional, although potentially important, part of their 168 behavioral repertoire. The frequency, duration, and context of terrestriality can vary substantially between 169 Neotropical primate species, and such behavior is relatively more common in genera such as Cebus and Sapajus 170 (Ottoni and Izar 2008;Porfírio et al. 2017), and rarer in such genera as Cacajao, Chiropotes and Pithecia 171 (Barnet et al. 2012a) (Table 1). As in other species, the availability of arboreal food resources and forest strata ...
For arboreal primates, ground use may increase dispersal opportunities, tolerance to habitat change, access to ground-based resources, and resilience to human disturbances, and so has conservation implications. We collated published and unpublished data from 86 studies across 65 localities to assess titi monkey (Callicebinae) terrestriality. We examined whether the frequency of terrestrial activity correlated with study duration (a proxy for sampling effort), rainfall level (a proxy for
food availability seasonality), and forest height (a proxy for vertical niche dimension). Terrestrial activity was recorded frequently for Callicebus and Plecturocebus spp., but rarely for Cheracebus spp. Terrestrial resting, anti-predator behavior, geophagy, and playing frequencies in Callicebus and Plecturocebus spp., but feeding and moving differed. Callicebus spp. often ate or searched for new leaves terrestrially. Plecturocebus spp. descended primarily to ingest terrestrial invertebrates and soil.
Study duration correlated positively and rainfall level negatively with terrestrial activity. Though differences in sampling effort and methods limited comparisons and interpretation, overall, titi monkeys commonly engaged in a variety of terrestrial activities. Terrestrial behavior in Callicebus and Plecturocebus capacities may bolster resistance to habitat fragmentation. However, it is uncertain if the low frequency of
terrestriality recorded for Cheracebus spp. is a genus-specific trait associated with a more basal phylogenetic position, or because studies of this genus occurred in pristine habitats. Observations of terrestrial behavior increased with increasing sampling effort and decreasing food availability. Overall, we found a high frequency of terrestrial behavior in titi monkeys, unlike that observed in other pitheciids.
... Ancrenaz et al., 2014; Ashbury et al., 2015;Loken et al., 2013;Porfirio et al., 2017)は， 「 ...
Camera trapping is a new method widely used to assess animal distribution, density and behaviour. Although recent studies have reviewed general patterns in camera trap studies and provided recommendations in their usage, primate studies using camera traps have yet to be thoroughly reviewed. Here, I conducted a systematic search for studies using camera traps in primatology (camera trap primate studies [CTPS]). Finding 57 papers published between 2001 and 2017, I recorded their study objectives and methodologies. The number of CTPS started to increase from 2010, and more than half of CTPS (64.9 %) focused on behaviours. The majority of behavioural CTPS investigated foraging behaviours, including tool use, geophagy and predation, while we also found studies exploring activity rhythms, terrestrial behaviour, habitat use and social behaviours. Some studies used camera traps to complete mammal checklists in study areas and confirm the presence of focal primate species. Some ecological CTPS estimated population density using spatial capture-recapture models and capture rates, and I also found a study calculating occupancy probabilities of arboreal primates. I then point out several issues we have to consider when deploying cameras (sensor sensitivity, image type and camera placement) and analysing images obtained (definitions of independent events and potential biases in detection probability). Unfortunately, several CTPS were not designed to test their study questions sufficiently, and many articles failed to report essential information to facilitate repeatability. I argue that future researchers conducting CTPS should focus on nocturnal primates, explore novel methodologies to use the camera-trap images themselves for primate colour and morphology, develop methodologies for density estimation of arboreal primates, and use sophisticated study designs and reporting. Primatologists will be able to test their existing hypotheses using new technologies.
Introduction
Trypanosomatids are parasites widely distributed in nature, parasitizing several host species in single or co-infections. Campo Grande (CG), capital of Mato Grosso do Sul State, is characterized by several green areas and forest fragments where wild mammals have been reported infected by diverse trypanosomatid species. In this study, we evaluated the parasitism by trypanosomatids in the non-human primates (NHP) Sapajus cay and Alouatta caraya sampled in three different areas of CG.
Material and methods
For the detection of infections and identification of trypanosomatid species, we made hemoculture, blood smears, molecular and serological tests.
Results
We detected trypanosomatids in 37/55 (67.3%) of sampled animals, all by the molecular test. DNA sequencing analyzes were performed on 32 samples, resulting in the following species identification: Trypanosoma cruzi , T. minasense , T. rangeli , Leishmania (L.) infantum and L. (L.) amazonensis (species already recorded in primates in Latin America), and for the first time T. lainsoni , a parasite related to small mammals, and Trypanosoma sp. DID, originally reported in marsupials Didelphis sp.
Discussion
The detection of trypanosomatids of public health importance as L. infantum , L. amazonensis and T. cruzi (genotypes TcI, TcII/TcVI and TcIV) indicates the enzootic character of these species in the studied area. Also, the presence of T. cruzi TcIV and T. minasense in the conservation area supports previous studies that these parasites would be associated with the arboreal stratum. We conclude that (i) the NHP at CG participate in a complex reservoir system for parasites of great importance for Public Health in the studied area, such as L. infantum , L. amazonensis and T. cruzi , and (ii) there is a great diversity of trypanosomatids circulating in the urban area of this city located in the Brazilian Midwest.
Geoffroy's spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi) satisfy their need for water mainly from food items and arboreal water sources, but climate change and other anthropogenic impacts can drive a more frequent use of ground water by this arboreal species. Here, we report 25 events of use of natural and artificial terrestrial water bodies by spider monkeys recorded using camera-trapping in the Calakmul region, Mexico. Interestingly, these events occurred during the rainy season in locations where we did not record large predators and in most cases involved adult male individuals. These records suggest that habitat disruptions such as those associated with changing weather patterns and selective logging of large trees holding water reservoirs can lead to a greater use of terrestrial water sources by spider monkeys.
Terrestriality in Platyrrhine primates is primarily associated with low arboreal resource availability, low predation risk when on the ground and increased contact time with human observers. To test the relationship between these variables and ground use frequency, we studied a group of endangered Coimbra-Filho’s titi monkeys (Callicebus coimbrai) in a 14-ha forest fragment in north-eastern Brazil. Terrestriality data were collected on a monthly basis (33 months) using scan sampling procedures from July 2008 to July 2012. Overall, Coimbra-Filho’s titi monkeys were recorded during 0.6% of observation time (113 out of 18,164 scans) on the ground. Most of the time on the ground was spent feeding on young leaves (71 records) and the least amount on fruits
(14 records). Availability of arboreal foods, rainfall, and time of contact with human observers did not influence overall terrestrial behaviour (ground use). However, the timing and nature of the monkeys’ terrestrial feeding was strongly related to the absence of arboreal fruit (b-estimate = -3.078) and young leaf (b-estimate = -3.515) food resources. We suggest that terrestrial feeding by Coimbra-Filho’s titi monkeys could be an adaptation to low arboreal fruit availability and the exploitation of
alternative food resources.
The buffy-tufted-ear marmoset (Callithrix aurita) is a small primate endemic to the montane regions of the southeastern Atlantic Forest in Brazil. The species was formerly listed as “Vulnerable” (VU) on the Brazilian Official National List of Threatened Fauna Species, but in December 2014 it was re-classified as “Endangered” (EN) as a result of habitat loss, forest fragmentation and, especially, competition and hybridization with invasive marmosets (Callithrix spp.). This article gives an overview of the current conservation status of and field research on C. aurita that includes the objectives set forth by the C. aurita Conservation Project (spearheaded in December 2014 by a group of C. aurita researchers), and the related set of integrated conservation actions. These actions include expanded geographical surveys of C. aurita populations, improvements to a captive C. aurita breeding program, and the establishment of new protected areas as part of a C. aurita metapopulation management program. Despite these current efforts, however, the strengthening and consolidation of urgent conservation actions to protect the buffy-tufted-ear marmoset still depend on a variety of factors, including increased institutional collaboration and augmented financial support. Enhancing institutional and financial backing for C. aurita conservation will improve our understanding of the various challenges involved and, facilitate the rapid development of alternative strategies to mitigate ongoing threats to the species.
We studied the diet of the ocelot and puma during the years 2007 and 2008 at the Feliciano Miguel Abdala Reserve, in Minas Gerais, south-eastern Brazil. We collected 49 faecal samples (scats) from cats, and identified the species of cat from 23 of them by the analysis of the microstructure patterns of hairs found in their faeces: 17 scats of the puma (Puma concolor) and six of the ocelot (Leopardus pardalis). In the puma scats, we identified three species of primates (Brachyteles hypoxanthus, Alouatta guariba and Sapajus nigritus), the remains of which were found in eight of 17 collected (47.1%), representing 26.7% of items consumed. For the ocelot, we detected capuchin monkey (S. nigritus) remains in three of the six scats (50%), accounting for 18.7% of items consumed by ocelot. We were unable to identify the cat species in the remaining 26 faecal samples, but we were able to analyse the food items present. Primates were found in five of these 26 faeces (19.2%) and represented 10.2% of the items found. Although the sample size is limited, our results indicate a relatively high consumption of primates by felines. We believe that this high predation may be the result of the high local density of primates as well as the greater exposure to the risks of predation in fragmented landscapes, which tends to increase the incidence of the primates using the ground.
The giant otter (Pteronura brasiliensis) is a social species that defends territories
along water bodies. Although some researchers have visually monitored otters
during long periods at night, no nocturnal activity of the species has been recorded
and giant otters are currently believed to be strictly diurnal. In this study, we present
information about the activity patterns of groups of giant otters in the Brazilian
Pantanal, using radio telemetry and camera trap data. We captured, implanted
transmitters in, and monitored three male giant otters from different groups in the
Miranda and the Vermelho Rivers between November 2009 and June 2011. The locations
and behavior of the group were recorded at 30-min intervals from 05:00 to 19:00.
Camera traps were positioned at the active dens and latrines of eight groups of giant
otters in the Miranda, Vermelho and Negro Rivers between June 2010 and October
2011. The groups of giant otters were mostly crepuscular and diurnal, but 31% of
the camera-trap recordings were nocturnal. Fishing was the most frequent (64%)
behavior recorded by telemetry. Giant otters were recorded exiting the den mostly
in the early morning (06:00) and entering the den at the end of the day (16:00 to
19:00). Nocturnal activity appeared to be associated with the need to defecate, prey
availability nearby the den and predation risk.
ABSTRACT Camera traps are standard tools for assessing populations of medium–large terrestrial mammals, particularly for rare, elusive or cryptic species, yet few researchers have attempted to employ camera traps to document rare primates in arboreal settings. We examined different arboreal camera-trap techniques to document the Critically Endangered greater bamboo lemur Prolemur simus in Madagascar. We documented P. simus at two sites, confirming presence at one site. Most species, including 86% of all lemur occurrences, were documented in low light conditions (c. < 105 lux). Our study suggests that camera traps can be effective in validating unconfirmed sightings of rare or secretive primate species. We recommend that future work with cameras in arboreal settings considers seasonal activity patterns, targets sites with high food densities, uses local knowledge, and utilizes available techniques (e.g. traditional trapping techniques) and landscape topography to concentrate animal movement (e.g. steep slopes or ridge lines).
Jaguars (Panthera onca) and pumas (Puma concolor) coexist throughout the Neotropics. Using camera trapping in four Brazilian biomes, we compare the daily activity patterns of the jaguar and puma, and their relationships with their main prey species. We used a kernel density method to quantify daily activity patterns and to investigate overlap between these predators and their main prey. Both cats showed intensive nocturnal and crepuscular activity (0.69 and 0.14 kernel density, respectively, for jaguars; 0.68 and 0.19 kernel density, respectively, for pumas). Only in the Pantanal did we observe a pattern of concentrated diurnal activity for both species. We found little temporal segregation between jaguars and pumas, as they showed similar activity patterns with high coefficients of overlapping (average 1=0.86; SE=0.15). We also observed a significant overlap between the activity patterns of the predators and their main prey species, suggesting that both predators adjust their activity to reduce their foraging energy expenditure. Our findings suggest that temporal partitioning is probably not a generalized mechanism of coexistence between jaguars and pumas; instead, the partitioning of habitat/space use and food resources may play a larger role in mediating top predator coexistence. Knowledge about these behavior aspects is crucial to elucidating the factors that enable coexistence of jaguars and pumas. Furthermore, an understanding of their respective activity periods is relevant to management and associated research efforts.
The diet of capuchin monkeys, Cebus apella, in a 250 ha semideciduous forest in south-east Brazil was studied for 44 consecutive months. Based on 367 feeding bouts the diet of capuchins was 53.9% fruit pulp, 16.0% seeds, 11.1% flowers, 6.3% leaves and new shoots, 1.5% roots and 13.9% corn from plantations surrounding the forest. Seventy-one plant species were consumed by capuchins. Food availability was markedly seasonal. During the dry season the fleshy fruit availability decreased, and at that time the capuchins became seed predators and flowereaters. Several fruits eaten by capuchins in the dry season were not consumed by other frugivorous vertebrates, such as howler monkeys, parrots or squirrels, allowing capuchins to avoid competition with other arboreal frugivores. In semideciduous forests where fleshy fruits are less abundant than in the wet forests capuchins are important seed predators.
Most living primates exhibit a daytime or nighttime activity pattern. Strict diurnality is thought to be the rule among anthropoids except for owl monkeys. Here we report the diel activity pattern of an Asian colobine, the Guizhou snub-nosed monkey Rhinopithecus brelichi, based on a methodology that relied on using 24-h continuously operating camera traps. We conducted the study in Fanjingshan National Nature Reserve in Guizhou, China from March 22 to May 19 and from June 17 to October 14, 2011. After standardizing all time elements to a meridian-based time according to the geographic coordinates of the study site, we showed unequivocally that the monkeys, though predominantly diurnal, exhibited activity beyond daylight hours throughout the study. Specifically, their activity at night and during twilight periods suggests a complex interplay of behavioral adaptations, among others, to living in a temperate environment where day length and food resources fluctuate substantially across seasons. We contend that, under prevailing ecological conditions, so-called strictly diurnal primates may adjust their activity schedule opportunistically in order to increase energy intake. We also discuss the advantages of using camera traps in primate studies, and how the standardized use of meridian-based time by researchers would benefit comparisons of diel activity patterns among primates.
The pattern of home-range use by seven groups of tufted capuchin monkeys Cebus apella nigritus is described in the Iguazú National Park, Argentina, during 1991–94. The seasonal changes in home-range use by one of these groups between August 1997 and December 1998, are correlated with changes in food distribution and availability. Fruit availability was estimated with fruit traps, and the abundance and distribution of food was experimentally changed within the home range of one group by using feeding platforms filled with bananas. Average home-range size is 161 ± 77 ha (range = 81–293 ha, n= 7). There is a positive relationship between the number of females per group and home-range size. Neighbouring groups have partially overlapping home ranges and aggressive relationships. Fruit abundance is scarce during the winter and peaks during the spring and early summer. The pattern of home-range use by the main study group of capuchins was consistent with the hypothesis that fruit distribution and availability is the most important factor affecting the spatial use of their range. This is evidenced by the changes in range size and in range use as the distribution and abundance of their main fruit sources change seasonally. Range use shifted dramatically during the experimental phase of this study; the capuchins reduced their range and most frequently visited the areas where the feeding platforms were located. For most populations of frugivorous monkeys, fruit distribution and availability are the main factors that determine the pattern of home-range use. However, in some populations the availability of water sources and sleeping sites can have some effect on range use. For capuchin monkeys in particular, within-species variation in home-range size, degree of range overlap and interactions between neighbouring groups are large and do not serve to characterize any species of Cebus monkeys.
A long-term study of two groups of white-faced capuchins (Cebus capucinus) in Santa Rosa National Park in Costa Rica provides evidence of unusually high levels of vertebrate predation compared to those reported in other field studies of Cebus. The hunting techniques for different prey types are described, and several questions concerning vertebrate predation in primates are addressed. Why is there variation between individuals and between groups in the rate of predation? Why do males hunt more than females? Previous hypotheses to explain hunting in Old World primates are applied to this Neotropical example. Finally, I argue that successful vertebrate predation can readily arise in species like Cebus, which are characterized by opportunistic foraging patterns, manipulative and cognitive skills and well-developed techniques for locating and subduing invertebrate prey.
Wild capuchin monkeys inhabiting dry forest were found to customarily use tools as part of their extractive foraging techniques. Tools consisted of twigs and sticks, often modified, which were used to probe for insects and, most frequently, of stones of a variety of sizes and shapes used for cracking and digging. The use of tools for digging has been thought to be restricted to humans. These monkeys, living in a harsh dry habitat, survive food limitation and foraging time constraints through their extensive tool use.
Among primates, only chimpanzees and orang-utans are credited with customary tool use in nature. Among monkeys, capuchins stand out with respect to the number of accounts of tool use. However, the majority of capuchin tool use observations reported in nature is anecdotal or idiosyncratic. In this report, we documented the stone pounding of dry fruits (Hymenea courbaril and Acrocomia aculeata) in two wild free-ranging groups of Cebus libidinosus in the Brasilia National Park, a preserved area representative of the Cerradobiome of Central Brazil. In 2004, we noted 2 episodes at which 4 monkeys used stones to crack open nuts. In 2005, we recorded 5 pounding episodes involving 2 different monkeys. Observations of tool use over the course of 2 consecutive years by some individuals, as well as other indirect evidence, indicate that this behaviour could be habitual in the studied groups. We propose that the probability of the emergence of the use of pounding stones as tools may be dependent on the ecological variables that influence the degree of terrestriality and extractive foraging and the complex interaction of these factors.
This study demonstrates that ocelots (Leopardus pardalis) extensively use primates as a food resource at the Caratinga Biological Station (CBS) in Southeast Brazil. Analysis of 60 fecal samples collected over 4 years revealed predation upon the brown howler monkey (Alouatta guariba), the muriqui (Brachyteles hypoxanthus), and the brown capuchin monkey (Cebus apella). The most frequent items found in the fecal samples analyzed were Calomys (n=16) and non-identified Aves (n=15), followed by A. guariba (n=12). Although Rodentia was the most common group consumed (n=52) Primates were found in 27% of total fecal samples and were the third most consumed group in relation to the total items. Particularly, predation of A. guariba by ocelots (20% of the total fecal samples) was not an isolated event; our results showed that this species was preyed on across several months. Predation on primates was far higher at CBS than at other sites where comparable studies have been carried out.
Dry forests are common, although highly threatened in the Neotropics. Their ecological processes are mostly influenced by rainfall pattern, hence their cycles exhibit contrasting phases. We studied the phenology of canopy trees in a primary dry forest in Western Brazil in the foothills of the Urucum mountain chain, in order to improve our knowledge on the functioning of these poorly-known forests. Leaf shedding started in the early dry season and was massive in the latter part of this period. Most leaf loss occurred in dry hills, while wet valleys remained evergreen. Anemochorich and autochorich species predominated in dry hills, presumably due to their tolerance to dry conditions and enhanced exposition to winds, which favour diaspores removal and dispersal. Conversely, zoochorich species dominated the wet valleys. Flowering was intense in the late dry season, the driest period of the year, while fruiting was massive just after the onset of rains, as well as flushing. Therefore, most flowering was unrelated to wet conditions, although such an abiotic factor, potentially, triggered the major fruiting episode, widely comprised by zoochorich species. Anemochorich and autochorich species flowered and fruited in the course of the long dry season. The contrasting environmental conditions present in the hills and valleys determine the arrangement of a mosaic in which patches of zoochorich and evergreen trees alternate with patches of non zoochorich and highly deciduous species. Consequently, species with such syndromes exhibited marked flowering and fruiting patterns, accordingly to the pronounced seasonality.
The distributional data of mammalian fauna are important to reach a comprehensive overview of biogeographic patterns and to highlight regional conservation status, especially in a poorly known region such as the Chiquitano dry forest in western Brazil. Our aims were to survey the mammal species occurring in the Urucum Mountains, located in the southeast end of the Chiquitano forest, compare its species composition to areas elsewhere in different ecoregions, and discuss their conservation statuses. Small mammals were sampled using pitfall and live traps, and medium and large mammals were sampled by direct observation, indirect evidence (e.g. faeces and tracks), and camera traps. Patterns of species composition were compared to other surrounding areas of different ecoregions in South America using multivariate analyses. The results indicated that both faunas have similar biogeographical influences. The Urucum Mountains have an influence on the faunas from the Cerrado, Chaco and Pantanal ecoregions, and only secondarily from forested ecoregions (e.g. Amazon forest). The Urucum harbours a rich non-volant mammalian fauna with species that are widely and restrictedly distributed. The conservation of Urucum Mountains is important because these mountains harbour threatened plant, invertebrate, and vertebrate (mammals) species, which could be suffering due to the mining activity carried out in the region. We stress that the Chiquitano dry forest is unique to western Brazil, situated in a complex biogeographical region, and harbouring a rich and diversified mammal fauna.
Habituation presents major challenges for the study of wild primates, particularly in areas where threats such as hunting pressure and increasing forest fragmentation exist. This study describes the use of ground camera trapping to investigate nonhabituated blonde capuchins. Capuchins are arboreal animals, but often use the ground when foraging. Thus, we hypothesized that a ground-baited camera trapping station would be an efficient method to document the presence of capuchins, and to collect information about aspects of their social behavior and ecology. We conducted 92 systematic trapping days over 15 months (from December 2010 to February 2011 and from August 2011 to July 2012). The capuchins visited the trapping stations 43 times. All visits occurred between 05:13h and 17:32h, and lasted 3 min-2:03 h. Sixty-five percent of the photographs included our target species. Groups contained up to 46 individuals and were multimale-multifemale. We recorded no monkeys at the trapping stations during August and November (2011) and January (2012). Infants were more likely to be carried than not. Infants were carried by both sexes; however, 96% of photographs showed females as carriers. Adult males always arrived first at the camera trapping stations, suggesting that males led the group’s movements. The ground-baited camera trapping stations proved effective for confirming the presence of the blonde capuchins in the study site and for documenting aspects of their social behavior. The technique could potentially be used to provide comparative data among populations of this and other primate species in areas where habituation is difficult or risky to the primates
Early organization of activity states was studied in 17 tufted capuchin (Cebus apella) infants from birth to 11 weeks of age. Development of exploration and interactions with mothers and other group members were studied in 14 of these infants up to the age of 1 year. Activity profiles changed from 3 to 8 weeks as infants began to move off mothers and explore their environments. From 2 to 6 months time with mothers decreased; time alone increased correspondingly. Time spent with other group members did not vary significantly over the first year. By 7–9 months capuchin infants spent more time alone or with other group members than with mothers, although weaning was still not completed by the end of the first year. Simple environmental exploration began in the 2nd month and reached stable levels by 4 months. Complex manipulation of food and objects first began at 3–4 months and increased to stable levels in the second half of the first year. Some preliminary differences were evident between infants living in indoor cages and those living in indoor/ outdoor runs. Infants in cages spent less time in dorsal contact with mothers, and less time in social play and proximity to other animals than those in runs. Instead, infants in cages spent more time alone and engaged in more manipulation of food. Some measures of social and exploratory behavior showed a high degree of variability which may be useful in exploring individual differences in infant temperament or reactivity. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
Even though the great majority of the biomass and diversity of mammals in tropical forests inhabit the canopy (Eisenberg & Thorington 1973), most knowledge of this group is based on forest-floor samples (Lowman & Moffett 1993). Studies that include trapping efforts in the canopy are becoming increasingly common (Grelle 2003, Lambert et al . 2005, Malcolm 1995, Patton et al . 2000, Vieira & Monteiro-Filho 2003, Voss et al . 2001), but aspects on the ecology of arboreal small mammals still remain poorly understood. Many species of non-flying mammals co-occur in the canopy and, thus, are expected to use niche dimensions differently to permit coexistence (Cameron et al . 1979). Despite the difficulties of access to and in understanding the three-dimensional use of the arboreal strata by the different species (Emmons 1995), some studies have demonstrated that the differential use of the habitat (Cunha & Vieira 2002, Gentile & Fernandez 1999), of food items (Cáceres et al . 2002, Santori et al . 1995) or both (Leite et al . 1996, Mauffrey & Catzeflis 2003), include strategies involved in the division of resources.
ABSTRACT We present data on the spread of terrestrial activities in one group of wild northern muriqui monkeys (Brachyteles hypoxanthus). Both males and females consumed fruit, drank, rested, traveled, and socialized terrestrially, but proportionately more males spent significantly more of their time on the ground than females, and females were more likely to engage in terrestrial activities when accompanied by males than when by themselves. Terrestrial activities occurred in both open and closed habitats where arboreal substrates were available and utilized by other individuals engaged in similar activities. Ecological and demographic factors may have stimulated the muriquis’ vertical niche expansion, but increases in the frequency and diversity of terrestrial activities, the high proportion of group members that engage in terrestriality, and its diffusion along male-biased social bonds are consistent with the development of a local terrestrial tradition similar to other types of traditions described in other primates. [Key words: terrestriality, ecology, predation, tradition]
The characteristics and availability of the sleeping sites used by a group of 27 tufted capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella nigritus) were studied during 17 months at the Iguazu National Park, Argentina. We tested different hypotheses regarding possible ultimate causes of sleeping-site selection. Most sleeping sites were located in areas of tall, mature forest. Of the 34 sleeping sites the monkeys used during 203 nights, five were more frequently used than the others (more than 20 times each, constituting 67% of the nights). Four species of tree (Peltophorum dubium, Parapiptadenia rigida, Copaifera langsdorfii and Cordia trichotoma) were the most frequently used. They constituted 82% of all the trees used, though they represent only 12% of the trees within the monkeys' home range which had a diameter at breast height (DBH) > 48.16 cm (1 SD below the mean DBH of sleeping trees). The sleeping trees share a set of characteristics not found in other trees: they are tall emergent (mean height ± SD = 31.1 ± 5.2 m) with large DBH (78.5 ± 30.3 cm), they have large crown diameter (14 ± 5.5 m), and they have many horizontal branches and forks. Adult females usually slept with their kin and infants, while peripheral adult males sometimes slept alone in nearby trees. We reject parasite avoidance as an adaptive explanation for the pattern of sleeping site use. Our results and those from other studies suggest that predation avoidance is a predominant factor driving sleeping site preferences. The patterns of aggregation at night and the preference for trees with low probability of shedding branches suggest that social preferences and safety from falling during windy nights may also affect sleeping tree selection. The importance of other factors, such as seeking comfort and maintaining group cohesion, was not supported by our results. Other capuchin populations show different sleeping habits which can be explained by differences in forest structure and by demographic differences.
The author undertook a field survey of the capuchin (Cebus apella) lasting 60 days from December 1976 to January 1977, and determined the basic daily activity of its groups and spacing of
group members in the day time. Furthermore, based on studies of various types of interactions between individuals of the groups,
he was able to show that (1) decisive rank orders exist both among adults and among sub-adults of both sexes; (2) grooming
at the resting time is peculiar to adult males; (3) with quite mild agonistic interactions being maintained, a high tolerance
exists between the group members; (4) alpha males represent individuals which can be called leaders of groups; and (5) a strong
psychological or spiritual bond exists among the adult males, which can be termed a “male-bond.” Furthermore, according to
comparative studies on some adjoining groups, it was found that the group structure is strongly influenced by the individuality
or character of the adult males of each group. The present findings are generally in agreement with those forC. apella studied by the author and other researchers in other localities. It can be safely said therefore that these findings are
probably common to this species of monkey. Based on a comparison with findings for three other species ofCebus, the author attempts to clarify the points of difference betweenC. apella and these three other species ofCebus from the viewpoint of behavioral science and sociology.
I studied brown capuchins (Cebus apella)in primary forest in French Guiana. They displayed different feeding and ranging patterns in response to changes in fruit
availability and distribution. When fruit was scarce and patchily distributed, foliage/stem feeding and invertebrate foraging
was high, and capuchins limited their daily movement to <2 km, focusing on large fruit patches. When fruit was in average
supply and scattered throughout the forest, the proportions of foliage/stems and invertebrates in the diet decreased, and
the day range length increased to 2.8 km. When fruit was abundant and widespread, foliage/stems were rarely eaten, while invertebrate
foraging increased, and. the daily locomotor distance was reduced to 2 km.
Lion tamarins (Callitrichidae: Leontopithecus) are small frugi-faunivores that defend large home ranges. We describe results from the first long-term investigation of wild golden-headed lion tamarins (L. chrysomelas; GHLTs). We present data about activity budgets, daily activity cycles, diet, daily path length, home range size, home range overlap, and territorial encounters for three groups of GHLTs that were studied for 1.5-2.5 years in Una Biological Reserve, Bahia State, Brazil, an area characterized by aseasonal rainfall. We compare our results to those from other studies of lion tamarins to identify factors that may influence foraging and ranging patterns in this genus. Ripe fruit, nectar, insects, and small vertebrates were the primary components of the GHLT diet, and gums were rarely eaten. Fruit comprised the majority of plant feeding bouts, and the GHLTs ate at least 79 different species of plants from 32 families. The most common foraging sites for animal prey were epiphytic bromeliads. The GHLTs defended large home ranges averaging 123 ha, but showed strong affinities for core areas, spending 50% of their time in approximately 11% of their home range. Encounters with neighboring groups averaged two encounters every 9 days, and they were always aggressive. Data about time budgets and daily activity cycles reveal that the GHLTs spent most of their time foraging for resources or traveling between foraging sites distributed throughout their home ranges. The GHLTs spent much less time consuming exudates compared to lion tamarins in more seasonal environments. Additionally, the GHLTs had much larger home ranges than golden lion tamarins (L. rosalia), and did not engage in territorial encounters as frequently as L. rosalia. GHLT ranging patterns appear to be strongly influenced by resource acquisition and, to a lesser extent, by resource defense.
O desafio da reprodução socioeconômica nos (Re) assentamentos rurais: velhos problemas e novos conflitos
- P O Cardoso
Cardoso PO (2013). O desafio da reprodução socioeconômica nos (Re) assentamentos rurais: velhos problemas e novos conflitos. Viçosa, Universidade Federal de Viçosa.
Vegetação e uso da terra
- A Pott
- Jsv Silva
- Z M Salis
- V J Pott
- M P Silva
Pott A, Silva JSV, Salis ZM, Pott VJ, Silva MP (2000). Vegetação e uso da terra. In Zoneamento ambiental
da borda oeste do Pantanal: Maciço do Urucum e adjacências (Silva JSV, ed.), pp 111-131. Brasília,
Embrapa Informação e Tecnologia.
Uso de varredura (scan sampling) no estudo de primatas
- G Silveira
- N R Reis
Silveira G, Reis NR (2010). Uso de varredura (scan sampling) no estudo de primatas. In Técnicas de estudos aplicadas aos mamíferos silvestres brasileiros (Reis NR, Peracchi AL, Rossaneis BK, Fregonezi
MN, eds.), pp 37-41. Rio de Janeiro, Technical Books.